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{{Short description|Film genre}}
[[Image:Day the Earth Stood Still poster.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Poster for ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'', an archetypal science fiction film]]
{{About|the genre specific to films|the fiction genre in general|Science fiction|other uses|Science fiction (disambiguation)}}
[[Science fiction]] as a genre of [[film]] making has been an element of the [[cinema]] experience since the earliest days of the [[motion picture industry]]. These films have explored a great range of unique topics, including many that can not be readily presented in other [[genre]]. Science fiction films have been used to explore sensitive social and political issues, while often providing an entertaining story for the more casual viewer. Today, science fiction films are in the forefront of new [[special effects]] [[technology]], and the audience has become accustomed to displays of realistic [[alien]]s, space battles, [[energy weapon]]s, [[FTL|faster than light travel]], and distant [[world]]s.
[[File:Discovery One from trailer of 2001 A Space Odyssey (1968).png|thumb|upright=1.4|''[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', the landmark 1968 collaboration between filmmaker [[Stanley Kubrick]] and classic science-fiction author [[Arthur C. Clarke]], featured groundbreaking special effects, such as the realization of the spaceship USSC ''[[Discovery One]]'' (pictured here).]]
{{Scififilmlist}}
 
'''Science fiction''' (or '''sci-fi''') is a [[film genre]] that uses [[Speculative fiction|speculative]], [[science]]-based depictions of phenomena that are not fully accepted by mainstream science, such as [[Extraterrestrial life in fiction|extraterrestrial lifeforms]], [[List of fictional spacecraft|spacecraft]], [[robot]]s, [[cyborg]]s, [[Mutants in fiction|mutants]], [[interstellar travel]], [[time travel]], or other technologies. [[Science fiction]] films have often been used to focus on [[politics|political]] or [[social issue]]s, and to explore philosophical issues like the [[human condition]].
This genre has produced many memorable films, as well as a number that can be considered mediocre or even among the worst examples of film production. It took many decades, and the efforts of talented teams of [[film producer]]s, for the science fiction film [[genre]] to be taken seriously as an art form by many [[critic]]s.
 
The genre has existed since the early years of [[silent cinema]], when [[Georges Méliès]]' ''[[A Trip to the Moon]]'' (1902) employed [[Special effect|trick photography]] effects. The next major example (first in feature-length in the genre) was the film ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (1927). From the 1930s to the 1950s, the genre consisted mainly of low-budget [[B movies]]. After [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s landmark ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (1968), the science fiction film genre was taken more seriously. In the late 1970s, big-budget science fiction films filled with special effects became popular with audiences after the success of ''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' (1977) and paved the way for the [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] hits of subsequent decades.<ref>Dean, Joan F. "Between 2001 and Star Wars." Journal of Popular Film and Television 7.1 (1978): 32-41.</ref><ref>Lev, Peter. "Whose future? Star wars, alien, and blade runner." Literature/Film Quarterly 26.1 (1998): 30.</ref>
==History==
Science fiction films began to make their appearance very early in the history of movie production, during the silent film era. The initial attempts were short films of typically 1 to 2 minutes in duration, and shot in the black and white, silent-film technology of the period. These usually had some type of technological theme and were often intended to be humorous.
 
Screenwriter and scholar [[Eric R. Williams]] identifies science fiction films as one of eleven super-genres in his [[Screenwriters Taxonomy|screenwriters’ taxonomy]], stating that all feature-length narrative films can be classified by these super-genres.  The other ten super-genres are [[Action film|action]], [[Crime film|crime]], [[Fantasy film|fantasy]], [[Horror film|horror]], [[Romance film|romance]], [[slice of life]], [[Sports film|sports]], [[Thriller film|thriller]], [[War film|war]], and [[Western (genre)|western]].<ref>Williams, Eric R. (2017). ''The screenwriters taxonomy : a roadmap to collaborative storytelling''. New York, NY: Routledge Studies in Media Theory and Practice. {{ISBN|978-1-315-10864-3}}. {{OCLC|993983488}}. P. 21</ref>
===Before [[1930]]===
In [[1902]], [[Georges Méliès]] released ''[[A Trip to the Moon|Le Voyage dans La Lune]]'', the first major film of the science fiction genre. Inspired by the novels of [[Jules Verne]] and [[H.G. Wells]], it portrayed a journey to the [[Moon]] in a spacecraft launched by a powerful gun. This movie's space travel plot, formalist visuals, and innovative special effects, influenced future sci-fi films.
 
==Characteristics of the genre==
In [[1910]], [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Shelley's]] novel ''[[Frankenstein]]'' was brought to the [[film]] medium, one of the early mergers of sci-fi and horror. Although only 16 minutes in length, this film succeeding in producing a suitably dark mood and would be remade several times in the future. Another such horror movie, ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1913 movie)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'', was released in [[1913]].
According to [[Vivian Sobchack]], a British cinema and media theorist and cultural critic:
 
<blockquote>Science fiction film is a film genre which emphasizes actual, extrapolative, or 2.0 speculative [[science]] and the [[empirical methods|empirical method]], interacting in a social context with the lesser emphasized, but still present, [[transcendentalism]] of [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[religion]], in an attempt to reconcile man with the unknown.
An early epic film that introduced underwater filming was the production of the ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'' in [[1916]], based on the novels of [[Jules Verne]].
:— Vivian Carol Sobchack, p. 63
</blockquote>
 
This definition suggests a continuum between (real-world) [[empiricism]] and ([[supernatural]]) [[transcendentalism]], with science fiction films on the side of empiricism, and [[happy film]]s and [[sad film]]s on the side of transcendentalism. However, there are numerous well-known examples of science fiction horror films, epitomized by such pictures as ''[[Frankenstein (1931)|Frankenstein]]'' and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]''.
The [[1920s]] saw distinctly different forms of science fiction films being produced in [[United States|America]] and [[Europe]]. European film-makers employed the imaginative elements and the predictive aspects of science fiction, with films such as ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]'' ([[1926]]) and ''[[Frau im Mond|Die Frau im Mond]]'' ([[1929]]) &mdash; both from [[Germany]]. By contrast, [[Hollywood]] embraced action, melodramatic plots, and techno-gadgetry. These would blossom into the serials of the [[1930s]], and echoes of this trend can still be seen today in films such as the various [[James Bond]] movies.
 
The visual style of science fiction film is characterized by a clash between alien and familiar images. This clash is implemented when alien images become familiar, as in ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'', when the repetitions of the Korova Milkbar make the alien decor seem more familiar.<ref>{{cite book | first=Vivian Carol | last=Sobchack | year=1997 | title=Screening Space: The American Science Fiction Film | publisher=[[Rutgers University Press]] | page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780813524924/page/106 106] |isbn=0-8135-2492-X | url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780813524924/page/106 }}</ref> As well, familiar images become alien, as in the films ''[[Repo Man (film)|Repo Man]]'' and ''[[Liquid Sky]]''.<ref>{{cite book
===[[1930s in film|1930s]]===
| first=Toni A. | last=Perrine | year=2003
Movies during the 1930s provided an escape from the poverty of the [[Great Depression]], and it was during this era that film-making experienced a golden age. Movies now possessed a sound-track, and the extreme physical expression of the silent era was replaced by dialogue. The films were focused on the actors, rather than the still-primitive special effects. An exception was the [[1993 in film|1933]] release of [[King Kong]], including scenes of the giant ape battling biplanes atop the [[Empire State Building]]. Most sci-fi films focused on human [[drama]], instead of aliens, space travel, or disasters.
| title=Film and the Nuclear Age: Representing Cultural Anxiety | pages=31–32 | publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]
|isbn=0-8153-2932-6 }}</ref> For example, in ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'', the distortion of the humans make the familiar images seem more alien.<ref>Sobchack (1997:170–174).</ref> Finally, alien images are juxtaposed with the familiar, as in ''[[The Deadly Mantis]]'', when a giant [[mantis|praying mantis]] is shown climbing the [[Washington Monument]].
 
Cultural theorist [[Scott Bukatman]] has proposed that science fiction film allows contemporary culture to witness an expression of the [[Sublime (philosophy)|sublime]], be it through exaggerated scale, apocalypse or transcendence.
Influenced by ''Metropolis'' the [[1930]] release ''[[Just Imagine]]'' was the first feature length science fiction film by a US studio but the film was an expensive flop and no studio would produce a feature length science fiction film until the 1950s. The British made ''[[Things to Come]]'' of [[1936]] along with ''Metropolis'' was one of the most influential films of the early period in using special effects to evoke 'spectacle' but it too was a failure at the box office.
 
==History==
This decade also saw the rise of the serial movies, most notably in the form of the various ''[[Flash Gordon Serial|Flash Gordon]]'' films, as well as the quasi-sci-fi ''[[Dick Tracy (movie)|Dick Tracy]]'' and others. These were generally somewhat mediocre efforts employing soon-to-be-stock ideas such as the mad scientist, various super-tech gadgets, and plots for world domination. The decade also saw the release of ''[[The Invisible Man]]'' ([[1933]]), and new versions of ''[[Frankenstein]]'' and ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931 movie)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]''.
{{main|History of science fiction films}}
[[File:Maria from metropolis.JPG|thumb|''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (1927) by [[Fritz Lang]] was one of the first feature-length science fiction films. It was produced at [[Studio Babelsberg]], Germany. (Photo shows the statue depicting the {{lang|de|Maschinenmensch}} before it is given Maria's soul, at Filmpark Babelsberg).]]
 
===[[1940s in film|1940s]]1900–1920s===
{{See also|List of science fiction films before 1920|List of science fiction films of the 1920s}}
With [[World War II]] dominating events during the 1940s, few science fiction films were released and several of those were mere vehicles for war [[propaganda]]. Among the few notable examples was ''[[Dr Cyclops]]'' ([[1940]]), an early colour film, and [[Fleischer Studio]]'s animated [[Superman (1940s cartoons)|''Superman'' short subjects]], which often incorporated science-fiction themes.
[[File:L'uomo meccanico (1921).webm|thumb|thumbtime=1238|upright=1.5|''[[The Mechanical Man|L'uomo meccanico]]'' (1921)]]
 
Science fiction films appeared early in the [[silent film]] era, typically as short films shot in black and white, sometimes with colour tinting. They usually had a technological theme and were often intended to be humorous. In [[1902 in film|1902]], [[Georges Méliès]] released ''[[A Trip to the Moon|Le Voyage dans la Lune]]'', generally considered the first science fiction film,<ref>{{cite book|last=Creed|first=Barbara|title=Darwin's Screens: Evolutionary Aesthetics, Time and Sexual Display in the Cinema|year=2009|publisher=[[Melbourne University Publishing]]|___location=Carlton, Victoria|page=58|isbn=978-0-522-85258-5}}</ref> and a film that used early trick photography to depict a spacecraft's journey to the Moon. Several early films merged the science fiction and [[horror film|horror]] genres. Examples of this are ''[[Frankenstein (1910 film)|Frankenstein]]'' ([[1910 in film|1910]]), a film adaptation of [[Mary Shelley]]'s novel, and ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1920 Paramount film)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' (1920), based on the psychological tale by [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]. Taking a more adventurous tack, ''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1916 film)|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]'' ([[1916 in film|1916]]) is a film based on [[Jules Verne]]’s famous novel of a wondrous submarine and its vengeful captain. In the 1920s, European filmmakers tended to use science fiction for prediction and social commentary, as can be seen in German films such as ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' ([[1927 in film|1927]]) and ''[[Frau im Mond]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]). Other notable science fiction films of the silent era include ''[[The Impossible Voyage]]'' (1904), ''The Motorist'' (1906), ''[[The Conquest of the Pole]]'' (1912), ''[[Himmelskibet (film)|Himmelskibet]]'' (1918; which with its runtime of 97 minutes generally is considered the first feature-length science fiction film in history),<ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q4993450|id=tt0008100|title=A Trip to Mars (1918)}}</ref> ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' (1920), ''[[The Mechanical Man]]'' (1921), ''[[Paris Qui Dort]]'' (1923), ''[[Aelita]]'' (1924), ''[[Luch Smerti]]'' (1925), and ''[[The Lost World (1925 film)|The Lost World]]'' (1925).
===[[1950s in film|1950s]]===
[[Image:When Worlds Collide DVD.jpg|thumb|right|When Worlds Collide [[DVD]] cover: [[Apocalyptic]] themes were popular in science fiction films during the [[Cold War]] era]]
The 1950s witnessed the emergence of the monster movie trend, driven by the anxieties and paranoia of the emerging [[cold war]], beginning with [[Howard Hawks]]'s ''[[The Thing]]'' and the success of ''[[The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms]]''. Several important movies, now considered classics, were released during this period, including ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'', ''[[The Thing From Another World|The Thing]]'', ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 movie)|War of the Worlds]]'', ''[[Them! (1954 movie)|Them!]]'', ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'', ''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'' and ''[[On the Beach]]''.
 
===1930s–1950s===
A notable producer of this period was [[George Pal]] who was responsible for ''War of the Worlds'', ''[[When Worlds Collide]]'' and the pseudo-documentaries of manned space exploration ''[[Destination Moon]]'' and ''[[Conquest of Space]]''. When ''Conquest of Space'' flopped at the box office the US studios again turned their backs on 'straight' science fiction.
{{See also|List of science fiction films of the 1930s|List of science fiction films of the 1940s|List of science fiction films of the 1950s}}
 
In the 1930s, there were several big budget science fiction films, notably ''[[Just Imagine (film)|Just Imagine]]'' (1930), ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933) and ''[[Things to Come]]'' (1936). Starting in 1936, a number of science fiction [[comic strip]]s were adapted as [[Serial film|serials]], notably ''[[Flash Gordon (serial)|Flash Gordon]]'' and ''[[Buck Rogers (serial)|Buck Rogers]]'', both starring [[Buster Crabbe]]. These serials, and the comic strips they were based on, were very popular with the general public. Other notable science fiction films of the 1930s include ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931), ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935), ''[[Doctor X (film)|Doctor X]]'' (1932), ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931 film)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' (1931), ''[[F.P.1]]'' (1932), ''[[Island of Lost Souls (1932 film)|Island of Lost Souls]]'' (1932), ''[[Deluge (film)|Deluge]]'' (1933), ''[[The Invisible Man (1933 film)|The Invisible Man]]'' (1933), ''[[Master of the World (1934 film)|Master of the World]]'' (1934), ''[[Mad Love (1935 film)|Mad Love]]'' (1935), ''[[The Tunnel (1935 film)|Trans-Atlantic Tunnel]]'' (1935), ''[[The Devil-Doll]]'' (1936), ''[[The Invisible Ray (1936 film)|The Invisible Ray]]'' (1936), ''[[The Man Who Changed His Mind]]'' (1936), ''[[The Walking Dead (1936 film)|The Walking Dead]]'' (1936), ''[[Non-Stop New York]]'' (1937), and ''[[The Return of Doctor X]]'' (1939). The 1940s brought us ''[[Before I Hang]]'' (1940), ''[[Black Friday (1940 film)|Black Friday]]'' (1940), ''[[Dr. Cyclops]]'' (1940), ''[[The Devil Commands]]'' (1941), ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1941 film)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' (1941), ''[[Man Made Monster]]'' (1941), ''[[It Happened Tomorrow]]'' (1944), ''[[It Happens Every Spring]]'' (1949), and ''[[The Perfect Woman (1949 film)|The Perfect Woman]]'' (1949). The release of ''[[Destination Moon (film)|Destination Moon]]'' (1950) and ''[[Rocketship X-M]]'' (1950) brought us to what many people consider "the golden age of the science fiction film".
The 1950s were also the dawn of the space age as humans began to venture into outer space, and a number of films from this period reflected a fear of the consequences. Among these were ''[[The Angry Red Planet ]]'' ([[1959 in film|1959]]), ''[[First Man Into Space]]'' (1959), and ''[[It The Terror from Beyond Space|It! The Terror from Beyond Space]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]]). (This last film is also considered a precursor to the film ''[[Alien]]''.) Another popular theme from this period was movies about [[flying saucer]]s, reflecting the prevalence of UFO sightings. One of the best known of these was ''[[Earth vs the Flying Saucers]]'' (1956), with special effects by [[Ray Harryhausen]].
 
In the 1950s, public interest in space travel and new technologies was great. While many 1950s science fiction films were low-budget [[B movie]]s, there were several successful films with larger budgets and impressive special effects. These include ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'' (1951), ''[[The Thing from Another World]]'' (1951), ''[[When Worlds Collide (1951 film)|When Worlds Collide]]'' (1951), ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 film)|The War of the Worlds]]'' (1953), ''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]'' (1954), ''[[This Island Earth]]'' (1955), ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'' (1956), ''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'' (1956), ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein]]'' (1957), ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth (1959 film)|Journey to the Center of the Earth]]'' (1959) and ''[[On the Beach (1959 film)|On the Beach]]'' (1959). There is often a close connection between films in the science fiction genre and the so-called "[[monster movie]]". Examples of this are ''[[Them!]]'' (1954), ''[[The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms]]'' (1953) and ''[[The Blob]]'' (1958). During the 1950s, [[Ray Harryhausen]], protege of master King Kong animator Willis O'Brien, used [[stop motion|stop-motion animation]] to create special effects for the following notable science fiction films: ''[[It Came from Beneath the Sea]]'' (1955), ''[[Earth vs. the Flying Saucers]]'' (1956) and ''[[20 Million Miles to Earth]]'' (1957).
===[[1960s in film|1960s]]===
Once of the most significant movies of the 1960s was ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', produced by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. This movie was groundbreaking in the quality of its visual effects, its realistic portrayal of space travel, and the epic and transcendent scope of its story. Science fiction movies that followed this film would also enjoy increasing larger budgets and ever improving special effects.
 
[[File:Gojira 1954 Japanese poster.jpg|thumb|upright|Poster for the 1954 Japanese monster film ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]'']]
===[[1970s in film|1970s]]===
The early 1970s saw the continued themes of paranoia with humanity under threat from ecological or technological adversaries of its own creation. Notable films of this period included ''[[Silent Running]]'' (ecology), the sequels to ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'' (man vs. evolution), ''[[Westworld]]'' (man vs. robot) and ''[[THX1138]]'' (man vs. surveillance).
 
The most successful monster movies were Japanese film studio [[Toho]]'s ''[[kaiju]]'' films directed by [[Ishirō Honda]] and featuring special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.roberthood.net/obsesses/godzilla.htm | title = A Potted History of Godzilla | first = Robert | last = Hood | access-date = 2008-02-09 | archive-date = 2012-11-18 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121118074252/http://www.roberthood.net/obsesses/godzilla.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.kensforce.com/Gojira_aka_Godzilla_1954.html | title = Gojira / Godzilla (1954) Synopsis | access-date = 2008-02-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071224140420/http://www.kensforce.com/Gojira_aka_Godzilla_1954.html | archive-date = 2007-12-24 |url-status = dead}}</ref> The 1954 film ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]'', with the title monster attacking Tokyo, gained immense popularity, spawned multiple sequels, led to other kaiju films like ''[[Rodan (film)|Rodan]]'', and created one of the most recognizable monsters in cinema history. [[Japanese science fiction]] films, particularly the [[tokusatsu]] and kaiju genres, were known for their extensive use of [[special effect]]s, and gained worldwide popularity in the 1950s. Kaiju and tokusatsu films, notably ''[[Warning from Space]]'' (1956), sparked [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s interest in science fiction films and influenced ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (1968). According to his biographer [[John Baxter (author)|John Baxter]], despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets."<ref>{{cite book|last=Baxter|first=John|date=1997|title=Stanley Kubrick: A Biography|page=[https://archive.org/details/stanleykubrickbi00baxt/page/200 200]|___location=New York|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=0-7867-0485-3|url=https://archive.org/details/stanleykubrickbi00baxt/page/200}}</ref>
''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'', both released in [[1977 in film|1977]], contained a type of mystical element that had first appeared in ''2001: A Space Odessey''. The space discoveries of the 1970s created a growing sense of marvel about the universe that was reflected in these films.
 
===1960s–present===
The slow-paced ''[[Solaris (movie) |Solaris]]'' made by [[Andrei Tarkovsky]] and released in [[1972 in film|1972]] (and remade as a much shorter film by [[Steven Soderbergh]] in [[2002 in film|2002]]) matches and in some assessments exceeds ''2001'' in its visuals and philosophic scope.
{{See also|List of science fiction films of the 1960s}}
 
With the [[Space Race]] between the USSR and the US going on, documentaries and illustrations of actual events, pioneers and technology were plenty. Any movie featuring realistic space travel was at risk of being obsolete at its time of release, rather fossil than fiction. There were relatively few science fiction films in the 1960s, but some of the films transformed science fiction cinema. [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]) brought new realism to the genre, with its groundbreaking visual effects and realistic portrayal of space travel and influenced the genre with its epic story and transcendent philosophical scope. Other 1960s films included ''[[Planet of the Vampires]]'' (1965) by Italian filmmaker [[Mario Bava]], that is regarded as one of the best movies of the period, ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 film)|Planet of the Apes]]'' (1968) and ''[[Fahrenheit 451 (1966 film)|Fahrenheit 451]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), which provided social commentary, and the campy ''[[Barbarella (film)|Barbarella]]'' (1968), which explored the comical side of earlier science fiction. [[Jean-Luc Godard]]'s French "new wave" film ''[[Alphaville (film)|Alphaville]]'' (1965) posited a futuristic Paris commanded by an artificial intelligence which has outlawed all emotion.
===[[1980s in film|1980s]]===
The 1980s and later saw the growth of [[animation]] as a medium for science fiction films. This was particularly successful in [[Japan]] where the [[anime]] industry saw the production of such films as ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]) and ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]). Serious animation has not yet proven commercially successful in the [[United States|U.S.]] and Western-made animated science fiction films such as ''[[Light Years (movie)|Light Years]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]), ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) and ''[[Titan A.E.]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) did not draw a significant viewing audience. However, anime has gradually gained a cult following and from mid-[[1990s]] its popularity has been steadily expanding worldwide.
 
{{See also|List of science fiction films of the 1970s|List of science fiction films of the 1980s}}
Following the huge success of ''Star Wars'' science fiction became bankable and each major studio rushed into production their available projects. As a direct result ''[[Star Trek]]'' was reborn as a movie franchise that continued through the [[1980s in film|1980s]] and [[1990s in film|1990s]]. [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Alien]]'' was hugely significant in establishing a visual styling of the future that became dominate in science fiction film through its sequels and Scott's ''[[Blade Runner]]''.
 
The era of crewed trips to the Moon in 1969 and the 1970s saw a resurgence of interest in the science fiction film. [[Andrei Tarkovsky]]'s ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]]) and ''[[Stalker (1979 film)|Stalker]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]]) are two widely acclaimed examples of the renewed interest of [[Auteur theory|film ''auteurs'']] in science fiction.<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Russian and Soviet Cinema|author=Peter Rollberg|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2016|place=US|isbn=978-1-4422-6842-5|pages=650–654}}</ref> Science fiction films from the early 1970s explored the theme of paranoia, in which humanity is depicted as under threat from sociological, ecological or technological adversaries of its own creation, such as [[George Lucas]]'s directional debut ''[[THX 1138]]'' ([[1971 in film|1971]]), ''[[The Andromeda Strain (film)|The Andromeda Strain]]'' ([[1971 in film|1971]]), ''[[Silent Running]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]]), ''[[Soylent Green]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]), ''[[Westworld (film)|Westworld]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]) and its sequel ''[[Futureworld]]'' ([[1976 in film|1976]]), and ''[[Logan's Run (film)|Logan's Run]]'' ([[1976 in film|1976]]). The science fiction comedies of the 1970s included [[Woody Allen]]'s ''[[Sleeper (1973 film)|Sleeper]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]), and [[John Carpenter]]'s ''[[Dark Star (film)|Dark Star]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]). The sports science fiction genre can be seen in films such as [[Rollerball (1975 film)|Rollerball]] (1975).
Thanks to the ''Star Wars'' and ''Star Trek'' [[franchise]]s escapism became the dominant form of science fiction film through the 1980s. The big budget adaptations of [[Frank Herbert]]'s ''[[Dune (movie)|Dune]]'' and [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s sequel to ''2001'', ''[[2010]]'', were box office duds that disuaded producers from investing in science fiction literary properties. The strongest contributors to the genre during the second half of the decade were [[James Cameron]] and [[Paul Verhoeven]] with the ''[[Terminator]]'' and ''[[Robocop]]'' entries.
 
''[[Star Wars (film)|Star Wars]]'' ([[1977 in film|1977]]) and ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' ([[1977 in film|1977]]) were box-office hits that brought about a huge increase in science fiction films. In [[1979 in film|1979]], ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' brought the television series to the big screen for the first time. It was also in this period that the Walt Disney Company released many science fiction films for family audiences such as ''[[The Black Hole (1979 film)|The Black Hole]]'', ''[[Flight of the Navigator]]'', and ''[[Honey, I Shrunk the Kids]]''. The sequels to ''Star Wars'', ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]) and ''[[Return of the Jedi]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]]), also saw worldwide box office success. [[Ridley Scott]]'s films, such as ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]]) and ''[[Blade Runner]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]), along with [[James Cameron]]'s ''[[The Terminator]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]), presented the future as dark, dirty and chaotic, and depicted aliens and androids as hostile and dangerous. In contrast, [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]), one of the most successful films of the 1980s, presented aliens as benign and friendly, a theme already present in Spielberg's own ''Close Encounters of the Third Kind''. James Bond also entered the science fiction genre in 1979 with ''[[Moonraker (film)|Moonraker]]''.
===[[1990s in film|1990s]]===
The emergence of the [[world wide web]] and the [[cyberpunk]] genre during the 1990s spawned several internet-themed movies. Both ''[[The Lawnmower Man]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) and ''[[Virtuosity]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) dealt with threats to the network from a human-computer interface. ''[[Johnny Mnemonic (movie)|Johnny Mnemonic]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) and ''[[Total Recall]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]]) had the memories of their main actors modified by a similar interface, and ''[[The Matrix]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) created a machine-run virtual prison for humanity. The internet also provided a ready medium for movie [[fandom]], who could more directly support (or criticize) such media franchise film series as [[Star Trek]] and [[Star Wars]].
 
The big budget adaptations of [[Frank Herbert]]'s ''[[Dune (1984 film)|Dune]]'' and [[Alex Raymond]]'s ''[[Flash Gordon (film)|Flash Gordon]]'', as well as [[Peter Hyams]]'s sequel to ''2001'', ''[[2010: The Year We Make Contact]]'' (based on ''2001'' author [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s sequel novel ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''), were box office failures that dissuaded producers from investing in science fiction literary properties. Disney's ''[[Tron]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]) turned out to be a moderate success. The strongest contributors to the genre during the second half of the 1980s were James Cameron and Paul Verhoeven with ''[[The Terminator]]'' and ''[[RoboCop]]'' entries. [[Robert Zemeckis]]' film ''[[Back to the Future]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]) and its [[Back to the Future (franchise)|sequels]] were critically praised and became box office successes, not to mention international phenomena. James Cameron's sequel to ''Alien'', ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' ([[1986 in film|1986]]), was very different from the original film, falling more into the action/science fiction genre, it was both a critical and commercial success and [[Sigourney Weaver]] was nominated for [[Best Actress in a Leading Role]] at the [[Academy Award]]s. The [[Japanese cyberpunk]] [[anime]] film ''[[Akira (1988 film)|Akira]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]) also had a big influence outside Japan when released.
Disaster movies remained popular, with themes updated to reflect recent influences. Both ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) and ''[[Deep Impact]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) used the threat of a massive impact with the earth. ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' ([[1996 in film]]) recycled the 1950s monster movie, with rapacious, all-consuming aliens. Advances in genetic science were also featured in the dark-themed movies ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]) and the slow-paced ''[[Gattaca]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]).
 
{{See also|List of science fiction films of the 1990s|List of science fiction films of the 2000s}}
As the decade progressed, computers played an increasingly important role in both the addition of special effects and the production of films. Large [[render farm]]s made of many [[Computer cluster|computers in a cluster]] were used to detail the images based on three-dimensional models. As the [[software]] developed in sophistication it was used to produce more complicated effects such as wave movement, explosions, and even fur-covered aliens. The improvements in special effects allowed the original Star Wars trilogy to be [[List of changes in Star Wars re-releases|re-released]] in [[1997 in film|1997]] with many enhancements.
 
In the 1990s, the emergence of the [[World Wide Web]] and the [[cyberpunk]] genre spawned several movies on the theme of the computer-human interface, such as ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]]), ''[[Total Recall (1990 film)|Total Recall]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]]), ''[[The Lawnmower Man (film)|The Lawnmower Man]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]), and ''[[The Matrix]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]). Other themes included disaster films (e.g., ''[[Armageddon (1998 film)|Armageddon]]'' and ''[[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]]'', both [[1998 in film|1998]]), alien invasion (e.g., ''[[Independence Day (1996 film)|Independence Day]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])) and genetic experimentation (e.g., ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]) and ''[[Gattaca]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])). Also, the ''Star Wars'' prequel trilogy began with the release of ''[[Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace]]'', which eventually grossed over one billion dollars.
==Definition==
Defining precisely which movies belongs to the science fiction genre can be as difficult with films as it is with literature.
 
As the decade progressed, computers played an increasingly important role in both the addition of [[special effects]] (thanks to ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'') and the production of films. As software developed in sophistication it was used to produce more complicated effects. It also enabled filmmakers to enhance the visual quality of animation, resulting in films such as ''[[Ghost in the Shell (1995 film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' (1995) from Japan, and ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' (1999) from the United States.
:'''[[Science fiction]] [[film]]''' is "a [[film genres|film genre]] which emphasizes actual, extrapolative, or speculative [[science]] and the [[empirical methods|empirical method]], interacting in a social context with the lesser emphasized, but still present, [[transcendentalism]] of [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] and [[religion]], in an attempt to reconcile man with the unknown" (Sobchack 63).
 
During the first decade of the 2000s, [[superhero film]]s abounded, as did earthbound science fiction such as the ''Matrix'' trilogy. In [[2005 in film|2005]], the ''Star Wars'' saga was completed (although it was later continued, but at the time it was not intended to be) with the darkly themed ''[[Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith]]''. Science-fiction also returned as a tool for political commentary in films such as ''[[A.I. Artificial Intelligence]]'', ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'', ''[[Sunshine (2007 film)|Sunshine]]'', ''[[District 9]]'', ''[[Children of Men]]'', ''[[Serenity (2005 film)|Serenity]]'', ''[[Sleep Dealer]]'', and ''[[Pandorum]]''. The 2000s also saw the release of ''[[Transformers (film)|Transformers]]'' (2007) and ''[[Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen]]'' (2009), both of which resulted in worldwide box office success. In 2009, [[James Cameron]]'s ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'' garnered worldwide box office success, and would later become the highest-grossing movie of all time. This movie was also an example of political commentary. It depicted humans destroying the environment on another planet by mining for a special metal called unobtainium. That same year, ''[[Terminator Salvation]]'' was released and garnered only moderate success.
This definition assumes that a continuum exists between (real-world) empiricism and ([[supernatural]]) transcendentalism, with science fiction film on the side of empiricism and [[horror film]] and [[fantasy film]] on the side of transcendentalism. However, there are numerous well-known examples of science fiction horror films, epitomized by ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' and ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]''.
 
{{Further |List of science fiction films of the 2010s}}
The visual style of science fiction film can be characterized by a clash between alien and familiar images. This clash is implemented in the following ways:
 
The 2010s saw new entries in several classic science fiction franchises, including ''[[Predators (film)|Predators]]'' ([[2010 in film|2010]]), ''[[Tron: Legacy]]'' (2010), a resurgence of the ''[[Star Wars]]'' series, and entries into the ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'' and ''[[Godzilla]]'' franchises. Several more cross-genre films have also been produced, including comedies such as ''[[Hot Tub Time Machine]]'' (2010), ''[[Seeking a Friend for the End of the World]]'' ([[2012 in film|2012]]), ''[[Safety Not Guaranteed]]'' ([[2013 in film|2013]]), and ''[[Pixels (2015 film)|Pixels]]'' (2015), romance films such as ''[[Her (2013 film)|Her]]'' (2013), ''[[Monsters (2010 film)|Monsters]]'' (2010), and ''[[Ex Machina (film)|Ex Machina]]'' (2015), heist films including ''[[Inception]]'' (2010) and action films including ''[[Real Steel]]'' (2011), ''[[Total Recall (2012 film)|Total Recall]]'' (2012), ''[[Edge of Tomorrow]]'' ([[2014 in film|2014]]), ''[[Pacific Rim (film)|Pacific Rim]]'' (2013), ''[[Chappie (film)|Chappie]]'' (2015), ''[[Tomorrowland (film)|Tomorrowland]]'' (2015), and ''[[Ghost in the Shell (2017 film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' (2017). The [[superhero film]] boom has also continued, into films such as ''[[Iron Man 2]]'' (2010) and ''[[Iron Man 3]]'' (2013), several entries into the [[X-Men (film series)|X-Men film series]], and ''[[The Avengers (2012 film)|The Avengers]]'' (2012), which became the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time. New franchises such as ''[[Deadpool (film)|Deadpool]]'' and ''[[Guardians of the Galaxy (film)|Guardians of the Galaxy]]'' also began in this decade.
# Alien images become familiar
#* In ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', the repetitions of the Korova Milkbar make the alien decor seem more familiar.
# Familiar images become alien
#* In ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'', the distortion of the humans make the familiar images seem more alien.
# Alien and familiar images are juxtaposed
#* In ''[[The Deadly Mantis]]'', the giant [[praying mantis]] is shown climbing the [[Washington Monument]].
 
Further into the decade, more realistic science fiction [[epic film]]s also become prevalent, including ''[[Battleship (film)|Battleship]]'' (2012), ''[[Gravity (2013 film)|Gravity]]'' (2013), ''[[Elysium (film)|Elysium]]'' (2013), ''[[Interstellar (film)|Interstellar]]'' ([[2014 in film|2014]]), ''[[Mad Max: Fury Road]]'' ([[2015 in film|2015]]), ''[[The Martian (film)|The Martian]]'' ([[2015 in film|2015]]), ''[[Arrival (film)|Arrival]]'' ([[2016 in film|2016]]), ''[[Passengers (2016 film)|Passengers]]'' (2016), and ''[[Blade Runner 2049]]'' ([[2017 in film|2017]]). Many of these films have gained widespread accolades, including several [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] wins and nominations. These films have addressed recent matters of scientific interest, including space travel, climate change, and artificial intelligence.
Cultural theorist [[Scott Bukatman]] has proposed that science fiction film is the main area in which it is possible in contemporary culture to witness an expression of the [[sublime]] be it through exaggerated scale (the [[Death Star]] in ''Star Wars''), apocalypse (''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'') or transcendence (''[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]'').
 
Alongside these original films, many adaptations were produced, especially within the [[young adult fiction|young adult]] [[dystopian fiction]] subgenre, popular in the early part of the decade. These include the [[The Hunger Games (film series)|''Hunger Games'' film series]], based on the [[The Hunger Games|trilogy of novels]] by [[Suzanne Collins]], ''[[The Divergent Series]]'' based on [[Veronica Roth]]'s [[Divergent trilogy]], and the [[Maze Runner (film series)|''Maze Runner'' series]], based on [[James Dashner]]'s [[The Maze Runner (series)|''The Maze Runner'' novels]]. Several adult adaptations have also been produced, including ''[[The Martian (film)|The Martian]]'' (2015), based on [[Andy Weir]]'s [[The Martian (Weir novel)|2011 novel]], ''[[Cloud Atlas (film)|Cloud Atlas]]'' (2012), based on [[David Mitchell (author)|David Mitchell]]'s [[Cloud Atlas (novel)|2004 novel]], ''[[World War Z (film)|World War Z]]'', based on [[Max Brooks]]' [[World War Z|2006 novel]], and ''[[Ready Player One (film)|Ready Player One]]'' (2018), based on [[Ernest Cline]]'s [[Ready Player One|2011 novel]].
==Themes==
[[Image:Independence_day_movieposter.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]] movie poster: The movie represents a popular theme of the modern era for science fiction: a lot of action and special effects]]
A science fiction film will be speculative in nature, and often includes key supporting elements of science and technology. However, as often as not the "science" in a [[Hollywood]] sci-fi movie can be considered pseudo-science, relying primarily on atmosphere and quasi-scientific artistic fancy than facts and conventional scientific theory. The definition can also vary depending on the viewpoint of the observer. What may seem a science fiction film to one viewer can be considered fantasy to another.
 
Independent productions also increased in the 2010s, with the rise of [[digital cinematography|digital filmmaking]] making it easier for filmmakers to produce movies on a smaller budget. These films include ''[[Attack the Block]]'' (2011), ''[[Source Code (film)|Source Code]]'' (2011), ''[[Looper (film)|Looper]]'' (2012), ''[[Upstream Color]]'' (2013), ''[[Ex Machina (film)|Ex Machina]]'' (2015), and ''[[Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets]]'' (2017). In 2016, ''Ex Machina'' won the Academy Award for [[Academy Award for Best Visual Effects|Visual Effects]] in a surprising upset over the much higher-budget ''[[Star Wars: The Force Awakens]]'' (2015).
Many science fiction films include elements of mysticism, [[occult]], [[magic]], or the [[supernatural]], considered by some to be more properly elements of fantasy or the occult (or religious) film. This transform the movie genre into a science fantasy with
a religious or quasi-religious philosophy serving as the driving
motivation. The movie ''Forbidden Planet'' employs many common
science fiction elements, but the nemesis is a powerful creature
with a resemblance to an occult demonic spirit. The ''Star Wars''
series employed a magic-like philosophy and ability known as the
"Force". ''[[The Chronicles of Riddick|Chronicles of Riddick]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]) included quasi-magical elements resembling [[necromancy]] and [[elemental]]ism.
 
==Themes, imagery, and visual elements==
Some films blur the line between the genres, such as movies where the protagonist gains the extraordinary powers of the [[superhero]]. These films usually employ a quasi-plausible reason for the hero gaining these powers. Yet in many respects the film more closely resembles fantasy than sci-fi.
Science fiction films are often speculative in nature, and often include key supporting elements of science and technology. However, as often as not the "science" in a [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] science fiction movie can be considered pseudo-science, relying primarily on atmosphere and quasi-scientific artistic fancy than facts and conventional scientific theory. The definition can also vary depending on the viewpoint of the observer.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}
 
Many science fiction films include elements of mysticism, [[occult]], magic, or the [[supernatural]], considered by some to be more properly elements of fantasy or the occult (or religious) film.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} This transforms the movie genre into a science fantasy with a religious or quasi-religious philosophy serving as the driving motivation. The movie ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'' employs many common science fiction elements, but the film carries a profound message - that the evolution of a species toward technological perfection (in this case exemplified by the disappeared alien civilization called the "Krell") does not ensure the loss of primitive and dangerous urges.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} In the film, this part of the primitive mind manifests itself as monstrous destructive force emanating from the Freudian subconscious, or "Id".
Not all [[science fiction themes]] are equally suitable for movies. In addition to science fiction horror, [[space opera]] is most common. Often enough, these films could just as well pass as [[western]]s or [[World War II|WWII]] movies if the science fiction props were removed. Common themes also include voyages and expeditions to other planets, and [[dystopia]]s, while [[utopia]]s are rare.
 
Some films blur the line between the genres, such as films where the protagonist gains the extraordinary powers of the [[superhero]]. These films usually employ quasi-plausible reason for the hero gaining these powers.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}
Special effects in science fiction movies range from laughable to ground-breaking. Milestones in this respect include [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[2001 (movie)|2001]]'', ''[[Star Wars]]'' and, more recently, ''[[The Matrix]]''.
 
Not all [[List of science fiction themes|science fiction themes]] are equally suitable for movies. Science fiction horror is most common. Often enough, these films could just as well pass as [[Western (genre)|Westerns]] or [[World War II]] films if the science fiction props were removed.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Common motifs also include voyages and expeditions to other planets, and [[dystopia]]s, while [[utopia]]s are rare.
 
===Imagery===
Film theorist [[Vivian Sobchack]] argues that science fiction films differ from fantasy films in that while science fiction film seeks to achieve our belief in the images we are viewing, fantasy film instead attempts to suspend our disbelief. The science fiction film displays the unfamiliar and alien in the context of the familiar. Despite the alien nature of the scenes and science fictional elements of the setting, the imagery of the film is related back to humankind and how we relate to our surroundings. While the science fiction film strives to push the boundaries of the human experience, they remain bound to the conditions and understanding of the audience and thereby contain prosaic aspects, rather than being completely alien or abstract.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}
 
Genre films such as westerns or war movies are bound to a particular area or time period. This is not true of the science fiction film. However, there are several common visual elements that are evocative of the genre. These include the spacecraft or space station, alien worlds or creatures, robots, and futuristic gadgets. Examples include movies like ''[[Lost in Space (film)|Lost in Space]]'', ''[[Serenity (2005 film)|Serenity]]'', ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'', ''[[Prometheus (2012 film)|Prometheus]]'', ''[[Tomorrowland (film)|Tomorrowland]]'', ''[[Passengers (2016 film)|Passengers]]'', and ''[[Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets]]''. More subtle visual clues can appear with changes of the human form through modifications in appearance, size, or behavior, or by means a known environment turned eerily alien, such as an empty city ''[[The Omega Man]]'' (1971).
 
===Scientific elements===
[[File:Dr. Strangelove.png|thumb|[[Peter Sellers]] as the titular character from ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'' (1964)]]
While [[science]] is a major element of this genre, many movie studios take significant liberties with what is considered conventional scientific knowledge. Such liberties can be most readily observed in films that show spacecraft maneuvering in outer space. The [[vacuum]] should preclude the transmission of [[sound]] or maneuvers employing wings, yet the sound track is filled with inappropriate flying noises and changes in flight path resembling an aircraft banking. The film makers assume that the audience will be unfamiliar with the specifics of space travel, and focus is instead placed on providing acoustical [[atmosphere]] and the more familiar maneuvers of the aircraft.
 
While science is a major element of this genre, many movie studios take significant liberties with scientific knowledge. Such liberties can be most readily observed in films that show [[spacecraft]] maneuvering in [[outer space]]. The [[vacuum]] should preclude the transmission of [[sound]] or maneuvers employing wings, yet the soundtrack is filled with inappropriate flying noises and changes in flight path resembling an aircraft banking. The filmmakers, unfamiliar with the specifics of [[Spaceflight|space travel]], focus instead on providing acoustical atmosphere and the more familiar maneuvers of the aircraft.
Similar instances of ignoring science in favor of art can be seen when movies present environmental effects. Entire planets are destroyed in titanic explosions requiring mere seconds, whereas an actual event of this nature would likely take many hours. A star rises over the horizon of a [[comet]] or a [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]-like world and the [[temperature]] suddenly soars many hundreds of degrees, causing the entire surface to turn into a furnace. In reality the [[energy]] is initially reaching the ground at a very oblique angle, and the temperature is likely to rise more gradually.
 
Similar instances of ignoring science in favor of art can be seen when movies present environmental effects as portrayed in ''[[Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Star Trek (film series)|Star Trek]]''. Entire [[planet]]s are destroyed in titanic explosions requiring mere seconds, whereas an actual event of this nature takes many hours.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}
The role of the [[scientist]] has varied considerably in the science fiction film genre, depending on the public perception of science and advanced technology. Starting with Dr. [[Frankenstein]], the [[mad scientist]] became a [[stock character]] who posed a dire threat to society
 
and perhaps even civilization. In the monster movies of the [[1950s]], the scientist often played a heroic role as the only person who could provide a technological fix for some impending doom. Reflecting the distrust of [[government]] that began in the [[1960s]] in the [[US]], the brilliant but rebellious scientist became a common theme, often serving a [[Cassandra]]-like role during an impending disaster.
The role of the scientist has varied considerably in the science fiction film genre, depending on the public perception of science and advanced technology.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} Starting with [[Victor Frankenstein|Dr. Frankenstein]], the [[mad scientist]] became a [[stock character]] who posed a dire threat to society and perhaps even civilization. Certain portrayals of the "mad scientist", such as [[Peter Sellers]]'s performance in ''Dr. Strangelove'', have become iconic to the genre.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} In the monster films of the 1950s, the scientist often played a heroic role as the only person who could provide a [[technological fix]] for some impending doom. Reflecting the distrust of government that began in the 1960s in the United States, the brilliant but rebellious scientist became a common theme, often serving a [[Cassandra]]-like role during an impending disaster.
 
[[Biotechnology]] (e.g., [[cloning]]) is a popular scientific element in films as depicted in ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'' (cloning of extinct species), ''[[The Island (2005 film)|The Island]]'' (cloning of humans), and ([[genetic modification]]) in some superhero movies and in the ''[[Alien (franchise)|Alien]]'' series. [[Cybernetics]] and [[holography|holographic projections]] as depicted in ''[[RoboCop]]'' and ''[[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]'' are also popularized. [[Interstellar travel]] and [[teleportation]] is a popular theme in the ''[[Star Trek (film series)|Star Trek]]'' series that is achieved through [[warp drive]]s and [[Transporter (Star Trek)|transporters]] while [[intergalactic travel]] is popular in films such as ''[[Stargate (film)|Stargate]]'' and ''[[Star Wars]]'' that is achieved through [[hyperspace (science fiction)|hyperspace]] or [[wormhole]]s. [[Nanotechnology]] is also featured in the ''Star Trek'' series in the form of [[Replicator (Star Trek)|replicators]] (utopia), in ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008 film)|The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'' in the form of [[grey goo]] (dystopia), and in ''[[Iron Man 3]]'' in the form of [[extremis#extremis|extremis (nanotubes)]]. [[Force shield|Force fields]] is a popular theme in ''Independence Day'' while [[invisibility]] is also popular in ''Star Trek''. Arc reactor technology, featured in ''[[Iron Man (2008 film)|Iron Man]]'', is similar to a [[cold fusion]] device.<ref>{{cite web|last=Biever|first=Celeste|title=Iron Man 2: How science cures Tony Stark's heartache|url=https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/04/iron-man-2-science-cures-tony-starks-heartache.html|publisher=New Scientist|access-date=2017-09-11|archive-date=2017-07-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711065948/https://www.newscientist.com/blogs/culturelab/2010/04/iron-man-2-science-cures-tony-starks-heartache.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Miniaturization technology where people are shrunk to microscopic sizes is featured in films like ''[[Fantastic Voyage]]'' (1966), ''[[Honey, I Shrunk the Kids]]'' (1989), and Marvel's ''[[Ant-Man (film)|Ant-Man]]'' (2015).
 
The late [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s [[Clarke's three laws|third law]] states that "any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic". Past science fiction films have depicted "fictional" ("magical") technologies that became present reality. For example, the Personal Access Display Device from ''Star Trek'' was a precursor of [[smartphone]]s and [[tablet computer]]s. [[Gesture recognition]] in the movie ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'' is part of current [[motion controller|game consoles]]. [[Artificial general intelligence|Human-level artificial intelligence]] is also fast approaching with the advent of [[Intelligent personal assistant|smartphone A.I.]] while a [[cloaking device|working cloaking device / material]] is the main goal of [[stealth technology]]. [[Autonomous car]]s (e.g. [[KITT]] from the ''[[Knight Rider (2008 film)|Knight Rider]]'' series) and [[quantum computer]]s, like in the movie ''[[Stealth (film)|Stealth]]'' and ''[[Transcendence (2014 film)|Transcendence]]'', also will be available eventually. Furthermore, although Clarke's laws do not classify [[disruptive innovation|"sufficiently advanced" technologies]], the [[Kardashev scale]] measures a civilization's level of technological advancement into types. Due to its exponential nature, sci-fi civilizations usually only attain Type I (harnessing all the energy attainable from a single planet), and strictly speaking often not even that.
 
===Alien lifeforms===
{{main|Extraterrestrials in fiction}}
 
The concept of life, particularly intelligent life, having an extraterrestrial origin is a popular staple of science fiction films. Early films often used alien life forms as a threat or peril to the human race, where the invaders were frequently fictional representations of actual military or political threats on Earth as observed in films such as ''[[Mars Attacks!]]'', ''[[Starship Troopers (film)|Starship Troopers]]'', the ''[[Alien (franchise)|Alien]]'' series, the ''[[Predator (franchise)|Predator]]'' series, and ''[[The Chronicles of Riddick (franchise)|The Chronicles of Riddick]]'' series. Some aliens were represented as benign and even beneficial in nature in such films as ''[[Escape to Witch Mountain (1975 film)|Escape to Witch Mountain]]'', ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'', ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'', ''[[The Fifth Element]]'', ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'', ''[[Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets]]'', and the ''[[Men in Black (film series)|Men in Black]]'' series.
 
In order to provide subject matter to which audiences can relate, the large majority of intelligent alien races presented in films have an [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] nature, possessing human emotions and motivations. In films like ''[[Cocoon (film)|Cocoon]]'', ''[[My Stepmother Is an Alien]]'', ''[[Species (film)|Species]]'', ''[[Contact (1997 American film)|Contact]]'', ''[[The Box (2009 film)|The Box]]'', ''[[Knowing (film)|Knowing]]'', ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'', and ''[[The Watch (2012 film)|The Watch]]'', the aliens were nearly human in physical appearance, and communicated in a common earth language. However, the aliens in ''[[Stargate (film)|Stargate]]'' and ''[[Prometheus (2012 film)|Prometheus]]'' were human in physical appearance but communicated in an alien language. A few films have tried to represent intelligent aliens as something utterly different from the usual humanoid shape (e.g. An intelligent life form surrounding an entire planet in ''[[Solaris (1972 film)|Solaris]]'', the ball shaped creature in ''[[Dark Star (film)|Dark Star]]'', microbial-like creatures in ''[[The Invasion (film)|The Invasion]]'', shape-shifting creatures in ''[[Evolution (2001 film)|Evolution]]''). Recent trends in films involve [[Kaiju|building-size alien creatures]] like in the movie ''[[Pacific Rim (film)|Pacific Rim]]'' where the [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] has tremendously improved over the previous decades as compared in previous films such as ''[[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]]''.
 
===Disaster films===
{{Main|Disaster film}}
A frequent theme among sci-fi films is that of impending or actual disaster on an epic scale. These often address a particular concern of the writer by serving as a vehicle of warning against a type of activity, including technological research. In the case of alien invasion films, the creatures can provide as a stand-in for a feared foreign power.
 
A frequent theme among science fiction films is that of impending or actual disaster on an epic scale. These often address a particular concern of the writer by serving as a vehicle of warning against a type of activity, including technological research. In the case of alien invasion films, the creatures can provide as a stand-in for a feared foreign power.
Disaster films typically fall into the following general categories:
 
Films that fit into the Disaster film typically also fall into the following general categories:{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}
*Alien invasion &mdash; hostile [[extraterrestrial]]s arrive and seek to supplant humanity. They are either overwhelmingly powerful or very insidious.
*Environmental disaster &mdash; such a major climate change, or an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] strike.
*Man supplanted by technology &mdash; typically in the form of an all-powerful [[computer]], advanced [[robot]]s or [[cyborg]]s, or else genetically-modified humans or animals.
*Nuclear war &mdash; usually in the form of a [[dystopia|dystopic]], post-[[holocaust]] tale of grim survival.
*Pandemic &mdash; a highly lethal [[disease]], often one created by man, wipes out most of humanity in a massive [[plague]].
 
* '''Alien invasion''': Hostile [[Extraterrestrial life in popular culture|extraterrestrials]] arrive and seek to supplant humanity. They are either overwhelmingly powerful or very insidious. Typical examples include ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 film)|The War of the Worlds]]'' (1953), ''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'' (1956), ''[[Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.]]'' (1966), ''[[Independence Day (1996 film)|Independence Day]]'' (1996), ''[[War of the Worlds (2005 film)|War of the Worlds]]'' (2005), ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still (2008 film)|The Day the Earth Stood Still]]'' (2008), ''[[Skyline (2010 film)|Skyline]]'' (2010), ''[[The Darkest Hour (film)|The Darkest Hour]]'' (2011), ''[[Battle: Los Angeles]]'' (2011), ''[[Battleship (film)|Battleship]]'' (2012), ''[[The Avengers (2012 film)|The Avengers]]'' (2012), ''[[Man of Steel (film)|Man of Steel]]'' (2013), ''[[Pacific Rim (film)|Pacific Rim]]'' (2013), ''[[Ender's Game (film)|Ender's Game]]'' (2013), ''[[Pixels (2015 film)|Pixels]]'' (2015), ''[[Independence Day: Resurgence]]'' (2016), and ''[[Justice League (film)|Justice League]]'' (2017). ''[[Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace]]'' (1999) takes an alternative look at the subject, involving an extraterrestrial political entity invading planet Naboo for commercial reasons.
Time travel movies can also exploit the potential for disaster as a motivation for the plot, or they can be the root cause of a disaster by wiping out recorded history and creating a new future.
* '''Environmental disaster''': such as major climate change, or an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] strike. Movies that have employed this theme include ''[[Soylent Green]]'' (1973), ''[[Waterworld]]'' (1995), ''[[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]]'' (1998), ''[[Armageddon (1998 film)|Armageddon]]'' (1998), ''[[The Core]]'' (2003), ''[[The Day After Tomorrow]]'' (2004), ''[[2012 (film)|2012]]'' (2009), ''[[Snowpiercer]]'' (2013) and ''[[Geostorm]]'' (2017).
* '''Man supplanted by technology''': Typically in the form of an all-powerful [[computer]], advanced [[robot]]s or [[cyborg]]s, or else genetically modified humans or animals. Among the films in this category are the ''[[Terminator (franchise)|Terminator]]'' series, ''[[The Matrix (franchise)|The Matrix]]'' trilogy, ''[[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]'' (2004), and the ''[[Transformers (film series)|Transformers]]'' series.
* '''Nuclear war''': Usually in the form of a [[dystopia|dystopic]], post-[[nuclear holocaust|holocaust]] tale of grim survival. Examples of such a storyline can be found in the movies ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'' (1964), ''[[Dr. Who and the Daleks]]'' (1965), ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 film)|Planet of the Apes]]'' (1968; [[Planet of the Apes (2001 film)|remade in 2001]]), ''[[A Boy and His Dog (1975 film)|A Boy and His Dog]]'' (1975), ''[[Mad Max (film)|Mad Max]]'' (1979), ''[[City of Ember]]'' (2008), ''[[The Book of Eli]]'' (2010), ''[[Oblivion (2013 film)|Oblivion]]'' (2013), ''[[Mad Max: Fury Road]]'' (2015), and ''[[Friend of the World]]'' (2020).
* '''Pandemic''': A highly lethal [[disease]], often one created by man, threatens or wipes out most of humanity in a massive [[Pandemic|plague]]. This topic has been treated in such films as ''[[The Andromeda Strain (film)|The Andromeda Strain]]'' (1971), ''[[The Omega Man]]'' (1971), ''[[12 Monkeys (film)|12 Monkeys]]'' (1995), ''[[28 Weeks Later]]'' (2007), ''[[I Am Legend (film)|I Am Legend]]'' (2007), and the ''[[Resident Evil (film series)|Resident Evil]]'' series. This version of the genre sometimes mixes with [[zombie film]]s or other [[monster movie]]s.
 
===TimeMonster Travelfilms===
{{Main|Monster movie}}
The concept of [[time travel]], or travelling backwards and forwards through time, has always been a popular staple of science fiction film, as well as in various sci-fi television series. This usually involves the use of some type of advanced technology, such as H. G. Wells' classic ''[[The Time Machine]]'', or the ''[[Back to the Future]]'' trilogy. Other movies have employed [[Special Relativity]] to explain travel far into the future, including the ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'' series.
 
While monster films do not usually depict danger on a global or epic scale, science fiction film also has a long tradition of movies featuring monster attacks. These differ from similar films in the horror or fantasy genres because science fiction films typically rely on a scientific (or at least pseudo-scientific) rationale for the monster's existence, rather than a supernatural or magical reason. Often, the science fiction film monster is created, awakened, or "evolves" because of the machinations of a mad scientist, a nuclear accident, or a scientific experiment gone awry. Typical examples include ''[[The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms]]'' (1953), ''[[Jurassic Park (franchise)|Jurassic Park]]'' films, ''[[Cloverfield]]'', ''[[Pacific Rim (film)|Pacific Rim]]'', the ''[[King Kong (franchise)|King Kong]]'' films, and the ''[[Godzilla (franchise)|Godzilla]]'' franchise or the many films involving [[Frankenstein's monster]].
More conventional time travel movies use technology to bring the past to life in the present (or a present that lies in our future). The movie ''[[Iceman]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) dealt with the reanimation of a frozen [[Neanderthal]], a concept later spoofed in the [[comedy]] ''[[Encino Man]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]). The ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' series portrayed cloned life forms grown from [[DNA]] ingested by insects that were frozen in [[amber]]. The movie ''[[Freejack]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) has victims of horrible deaths being pulled forward in time just a split-second before their demise, and then used for spare body parts.
 
===Mind and identity===
A common theme in time travel movies is dealing with the paradoxical nature of travelling to the past. The movie ''[[12 Monkeys]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) has a self-fulfilling quality as the main character as a child witnesses the death of his future self. In ''[[Slaughterhouse-Five]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]]) the main character jumps backwards and forwards across his life, and ultimately accepts the inevitability of his final fate.
The core [[mind|mental aspects]] of what makes us human has been a staple of science fiction films, particularly since the 1980s. [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (1982), an adaptation of [[Philip K. Dick]]'s novel ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', examined what made an organic-creation a human, while the ''[[RoboCop (franchise)|RoboCop]]'' series saw an [[android (robot)|android]] mechanism fitted with the brain and reprogrammed mind of a human to create a [[cyborg]]. The idea of brain transfer was not entirely new to science fiction film, as the concept of the "[[mad scientist]]" transferring the human mind to another body is as old as ''[[Frankenstein]]'' while the idea of corporations behind mind transfer technologies is observed in later films such as ''[[Gamer (2009 film)|Gamer]]'', ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'', and ''[[Surrogates (film)|Surrogates]]''.
 
Films such as ''[[Total Recall (1990 film)|Total Recall]]'' have popularized a thread of films that explore the concept of reprogramming the human mind. The theme of [[brainwashing]] in several films of the sixties and seventies including ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' and ''[[The Manchurian Candidate (1962 film)|The Manchurian Candidate]]'' coincided with secret real-life government experimentation during [[Project MKULTRA]]. Voluntary erasure of memory is further explored as themes of the films ''[[Paycheck (film)|Paycheck]]'' and ''[[Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind]]''. Some films like ''[[Limitless (film)|Limitless]]'' explore the concept of mind enhancement. The anime series ''[[Serial Experiments Lain]]'' also explores the idea of reprogrammable reality and memory.
The ''[[Back to the Future]]'' series goes one step further and explores the result of altering the past, while in ''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]) the crew must rescue the Earth from having its past altered by time-travelling aliens. ''[[The Terminator]]'' series employs self-aware machines instead of aliens, which travel to the past in order to gain victory in a future war.
 
The idea that a human could be entirely represented as a program in a computer was a core element of the film ''[[Tron]]''. This would be further explored in the film version of ''[[The Lawnmower Man (film)|The Lawnmower Man]]'', ''[[Transcendence (2014 film)|Transcendence]]'', and ''[[Ready Player One (film)|Ready Player One]]'' and the idea reversed in ''[[Virtuosity]]'' as computer programs sought to become real persons. In ''[[The Matrix (franchise)|The Matrix]]'' series, the [[virtual reality]] world became a real-world prison for humanity, managed by intelligent machines. In movies such as ''[[eXistenZ]]'', ''[[The Thirteenth Floor]]'', and ''[[Inception]]'', the nature of reality and virtual reality become intermixed with no clear distinguishing boundary.
==Film versus literature==
When compared to [[Literature|literary]] works, such films are an
expression of the genre that often rely less on the human imagination and more upon the visual uniqueness and fanciful imagery provided through [[special effects]] and the creativity of artists. The special effect has long been a staple of science fiction films, and, especially since the [[1960s in film|1960s]] and [[1970s in film|1970s]], the audience has come to expect a high standard of visual rendition in the product. A substantial portion of the budget allocated to a sci-fi film can be spent on special effects, and not a few rely almost exclusively on these effects to draw an audience to the theater (rather than employing a substantial plot and engaging drama).
 
''[[Psychokinesis|Telekinesis]]'' and ''[[telepathy]]'' are featured in movies like ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[The Last Mimzy]]'', ''[[Race to Witch Mountain]]'', ''[[Chronicle (film)|Chronicle]]'', and ''[[Lucy (2014 film)|Lucy]]'' while [[precognition]] is featured in ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'' as well as in ''The Matrix'' saga (in which precognition is achieved by knowing the artificial world).
Science fiction literature often relies upon story development, reader knowledge, and the portrayal of elements that are not readily displayed in the film medium. In contrast, science fiction films usually must depend on action and suspense to entertain the audience, thus favoring battle scenes and threatening creatures over the more subtle plot elements of a drama, for example. There are, of course, exceptions to this trend, and some of the most critically-acclaimed sci-fi movies have relied primarily on a well-developed story and unusual ideas, instead of physical conflict and peril. Nevertheless, few science fiction books have been made into movies, and even fewer successfully.
 
===Robots===
==Science fiction as social commentary==
[[File:Transformers costume characters at Universal Studios Hollywood.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Transformers (film series)|Transformers]]'' characters at [[Universal Studios Hollywood]]]]
This film genre has long served as a vehicle for thinly-disguised and often thoughtful social commentary. Presentation of issues that are difficult or disturbing for an audience can be made more acceptable when they are explored in a future setting or on a different, earth-like world. The altered context can allow for deeper examination and reflection of the ideas presented, with the perspective of a viewer watching remote events.
 
[[Robot]]s have been a part of science fiction since the Czech playwright [[Karel Čapek]] coined the word in 1921. In early films, robots were usually played by a human actor in a boxy metal suit, as in ''[[The Phantom Empire]]'', although the female robot in ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' is an exception. The first depiction of a sophisticated robot in a United States film was [[Gort (The Day the Earth Stood Still)|Gort]] in ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]''.
[[Image:aclockworkorangeCover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Clockwork Orange]] DVD: This movie, while violent and grotesque in nature, is a social commentary type of film written by [[Stanley Kubrick]]]]
The type of commentary presented in a science fiction film often an illustrated the particular concerns of the period in which they were produced. Early sci-fi films expressed fears about automation replacing workers and the dehumanization of society through science and technology. Later films explored the fears of environmental catastrophe
or technology-created disasters, and how they would impact society and individuals.
 
Robots in films are often sentient and sometimes sentimental, and they have filled a range of roles in science fiction films. Robots have been supporting characters, such as [[Robby the Robot]] in ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'', Huey, Dewey and Louie in ''[[Silent Running]]'', [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]] in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', sidekicks (e.g., [[C-3PO]] and [[R2-D2]] from ''[[Star Wars]]'', JARVIS from ''[[Iron Man (2008 film)|Iron Man]]''), and extras, visible in the background to create a futuristic setting (e.g., ''[[Back to the Future Part II]]'' (1989), ''[[Total Recall (2012 film)|Total Recall]]'' (2012), ''[[RoboCop (2014 film)|RoboCop]]'' (2014)). As well, robots have been formidable movie villains or monsters (e.g., the robot Box in the film ''[[Logan's Run (1976 film)|Logan's Run]]'' (1976), [[HAL 9000]] in ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', ARIIA in ''[[Eagle Eye]]'', robot [[Sentinel (comics)|Sentinels]] in ''[[X-Men: Days of Future Past]]'', the [[battle droid]]s in the [[Star Wars prequel trilogy|''Star Wars'' prequel trilogy]], or the huge robot probes seen in ''[[Monsters vs. Aliens]]''). In some cases, robots have even been the leading characters in science fiction films; in the film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (1982), many of the characters are [[biological engineering|bioengineered]] [[Android (robot)|android]] "[[replicant]]s". This is also present in the animated films ''[[WALL-E]]'' (2008), ''[[Astro Boy (2009 film)|Astro Boy]]'' (2009), ''[[Big Hero 6 (film)|Big Hero 6]]'' (2014), ''[[Ghost in the Shell (2017 film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' (2017) and in ''[[Next Gen (film)|Next Gen]]'' (2018).
The monster movies of the [[1950s]] served as stand-ins for fears of [[nuclear war]], [[communism]] and views on the [[cold war]]. In the [[1970s]], science fiction films also became an effective way of satirizing contemporary social mores with ''[[Silent Running]]'' and ''[[Dark Star (motion picture)|Dark Star]]'' presenting hippies in space as a reposte to the militaristic types that had dominated earlier films, ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' presenting a horrific vision of youth culture, ''[[Logan's Run]]'' depicting a futuristic [[swingers]] society and ''[[The Stepford Wives]]'' anticipating a reaction to the [[women's liberation movement]].
 
Films like ''[[Bicentennial Man (film)|Bicentennial Man]]'', ''[[A.I. Artificial Intelligence]]'', ''[[Chappie (film)|Chappie]]'', and ''[[Ex Machina (film)|Ex Machina]]'' depicted the emotional fallouts of robots that are self-aware. Other films like ''[[The Second Renaissance|The Animatrix (The Second Renaissance)]]'' present the consequences of mass-producing self-aware androids as humanity succumbs to their robot overlords.
''[[Enemy Mine]]'' demonstrated that the foes we have come to hate are often just like us, even if they appear alien. Movies like ''2001'', ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', ''[[Blade Runner]]'', and ''[[Tron (movie)|Tron]]'' examined the dangers of advanced technology, while ''[[Robocop]]'', ''[[1984]]'', and even ''[[Star Wars]]'' illustrate the dangers of extreme political control. Both ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'' and ''Stepford Wives'' commented on the politics and culture of contemporary society.
 
One popular theme in science fiction film is whether robots will someday replace humans, a question raised in the film adaptation of [[Isaac Asimov]]'s ''[[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]'' (in jobs) and in the film ''[[Real Steel]]'' (in sports), or whether intelligent robots could develop a conscience and a motivation to protect, take over, or destroy the human race (as depicted in ''[[Terminator (franchise)|The Terminator]]'', ''[[Transformers (film series)|Transformers]]'', and in ''[[Avengers: Age of Ultron]]''). Another theme is remote [[telepresence]] via [[android (robot)|androids]] as depicted in ''[[Surrogates (film)|Surrogates]]'' and ''[[Iron Man 3]]''. As artificial intelligence becomes smarter due to [[Moore's law|increasing computer power]], some sci-fi dreams have already been realized. For example, the computer [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]] beat the world chess champion in 1997 and a documentary film, ''[[Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine]]'', was released in 2003. Another famous computer called [[Watson (computer)|Watson]] defeated the two best human ''Jeopardy'' (game show) players in 2011 and a NOVA documentary film, ''[[List_of_Nova_episodes#Season_38:_2010–2011|Smartest Machine on Earth]]'', was released in the same year.
==Influence of classic sci-fi authors==
[[Jules Verne]] was the first major science fiction author to be adapted for the screen with Melies ''Voyage Dans La Lune'' of [[1902 in film|1902]] and ''20,000 Leagues Under the Sea'' of [[1907 in film|1907]] but these only use Verne's basic scenarios as a framework for fantastic visuals. By the time Verne's work fell out of [[copyright]] in [[1950 in film|1950]] the adaptations were treated as period pieces. [[H. G. Wells]] has had better success with ''The Invisible Man'', ''Things to Come'' and ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' all being adapted during his lifetime with good results while ''War of the Worlds'' was updated in [[1953 in film|1953]] and another update will be released in [[2005 in film|2005]]. ''The Time Machine'' has had two film versions ([[1961 in film|1961]] and [[2002 in film|2002]]) while ''[[Sleeper]]'' in part is a pastiche of Wells' 'The Sleeper Awakes'.
 
[[Super Robot|Building-size robots]] are also becoming a popular theme in movies as featured in ''[[Pacific Rim (film)|Pacific Rim]]''. Future live action films may include an adaptation of popular television series like ''[[Voltron]]'' and ''[[Robotech]]''. The [[computer-generated imagery|CGI]] robots of ''Pacific Rim'' and the ''[[Power Rangers (film)|Power Rangers]]'' (2017) reboot was greatly improved as compared to the original ''[[Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie]]'' (1995). While "size does matter", a famous tagline of the movie ''Godzilla'', incredibly small robots, called [[nanorobotics|nanobots]], do matter as well (e.g. Borg [[Borg assimilation|nanoprobes]] in ''Star Trek'' and nanites in ''I, Robot'').
With the drop off in interest in science fiction films in [[1940s in film|1940s]] and [[1950s in film|1950s]] few of the 'golden age' sci-fi authors made it to the screen. A [[novella]] by [[John W. Campbell]] provided the basis for ''[[The Thing From Another World]]''. [[Robert Heinlein]] contributed to the [[screenplay]] for ''[[Destination Moon]]'', but it was not until ''[[Starship Troopers]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) that one of his major works was adapted and [[L. Ron Hubbard]] had to wait to [[2000 in film|2000]] for the disastrous flop ''[[Battlefield Earth]]''. [[Isaac Asimov]] can rightly be cited as an influence on the ''Star Wars'' and ''Star Trek'' films but it was not until [[2004 in film|2004]] that a version of ''[[I, Robot]]'' made it to film.
 
===Time travel===
The most successful adaptation of a sci-fi author was [[Arthur C. Clarke]] with ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey|2001]]'' and its sequel. Reflecting the times, two earlier science fiction works by [[Ray Bradbury]] were adapted for cinema in the [[1960s in film|1960s]] with ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]'' and the ''[[The Illustrated Man|Illustrated Man]]''. [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s ''[[Slaughterhouse-Five|Slaughter-house 5]]'' was filmed in [[1971 in film|1971]] and ''[[Breakfast of Champions]]'' was filmed in [[1998 in film|1998]].
{{main|Time travel in fiction}}
 
The concept of [[time travel]]—travelling backwards and forwards through time—has always been a popular staple of science fiction film and science fiction television series. Time travel usually involves the use of some type of advanced technology, such as H. G. Wells' classic ''[[The Time Machine]]'', the commercially successful 1980s-era ''[[Back to the Future (franchise)|Back to the Future]]'' trilogy, the ''[[Bill & Ted]]'' trilogy, the ''[[Terminator (franchise)|Terminator]]'' series, ''[[Déjà Vu (2006 film)|Déjà Vu]]'' (2006), ''[[Source Code]]'' (2011), ''[[Edge of Tomorrow (film)|Edge of Tomorrow]]'' (2014), and ''[[Predestination (film)|Predestination]]'' (2014). Other movies, such as the ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 film)|Planet of the Apes]]'' series, ''[[Timeline (2003 film)|Timeline]]'' (2003) and ''[[The Last Mimzy]]'' (2007), explained their depictions of time travel by drawing on physics concepts such as the [[special relativity]] phenomenon of time dilation (which could occur if a spaceship was travelling near the speed of light) and [[wormhole]]s. Some films show time travel not being attained from advanced technology, but rather from an inner source or personal power, such as the 2000s-era films ''[[Donnie Darko]]'', ''[[Mr. Nobody (film)|Mr. Nobody]]'', ''[[The Butterfly Effect (film)|The Butterfly Effect]]'', and ''[[X-Men: Days of Future Past]]''.
More recently [[Phillip K. Dick]] has become the most influential of sci-fi authors on science fiction film. Dick's work manages to evoke the paranoia that has been a central feature of science fiction film without invoking alien influences. Films based on PKD's works include ''[[Blade Runner]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]), ''[[Total Recall]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]]), ''[[Minority Report]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]), and ''[[Paycheck]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]). These film versions are often only loose adaptations of the original story, being converted into an action-adventure film in the process.
 
More conventional time travel movies use technology to bring the past to life in the present, or in a present that lies in our future. The film ''[[Iceman (1984 film)|Iceman]]'' (1984) told the story of the reanimation of a frozen [[Neanderthal]]. The film ''[[Freejack]]'' (1992) shows time travel used to pull victims of horrible deaths forward in time a split-second before their demise, and then use their bodies for spare parts.
==Awards==
 
* ''[[Destination Moon]]'', [[Academy Award|Oscar]] for special effects.
A common theme in time travel film is the paradoxical nature of travelling through time. In the [[French New Wave]] film ''[[La jetée]]'' (1962), director [[Chris Marker]] depicts the self-fulfilling aspect of a person being able to see their future by showing a child who witnesses the death of his future self. ''La Jetée'' was the inspiration for ''[[12 Monkeys (film)|12 Monkeys]]'', (1995) director [[Terry Gilliam]]'s film about time travel, memory and madness. The ''[[Back to the Future (franchise)|Back to the Future]]'' trilogy and ''[[The Time Machine (2002 film)|The Time Machine]]'' go one step further and explore the result of altering the past, while in ''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]'' (1996) and ''[[Star Trek (2009 film)|Star Trek]]'' (2009) the crew must rescue the Earth from having its past altered by time-travelling [[cyborg]]s and alien races.
* ''[[When Worlds Collide]]'', Oscar for special effects.
 
* ''[[War of the Worlds]]'', Oscar for special effects.
==Genre as commentary on social issues==
* ''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]'', Oscars for art/set direction and special effects
The science fiction film genre has long served as useful means of discussing sensitive topical issues without arousing controversy, and it often provides thoughtful social commentary on potential unforeseen future issues. The fictional setting allows for a deeper examination and reflection of the ideas presented, with the perspective of a viewer watching remote events. Most controversial issues in science fiction films tend to fall into two general storylines, [[Utopia]]n or [[dystopia]]n. Either a society will become better or worse in the future. Because of controversy, most science fiction films will fall into the [[List of dystopian films|dystopian film]] category rather than the Utopian category.
* ''[[The Time Machine]]'', Oscar for special effects.
 
* ''[[The Incredible Shrinking Man]]'' Hugo 1958.
The types of commentary and controversy presented in science fiction films often illustrate the particular concerns of the periods in which they were produced. Early science fiction films expressed fears about automation replacing workers and the dehumanization of society through science and technology. For example, ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'' (1951) used a science fiction concept as a means to satirize postwar British "establishment" conservatism, industrial capitalists, and trade unions. Another example is ''[[HAL 9000]]'' from ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (1968). He controls the shuttle, and later harms its crew. "Kubrick's vision reveals technology as a competitive force that must be defeated in order for humans to evolve."<ref>{{cite book |last=Dinello |first=Daniel |date= 26 August 2013|title=Technophobia!: Science Fiction Visions of Posthuman Technology |publisher=University of Texas Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndyGAAAAQBAJ&q=Kubrick%27s+vision+reveals+technology+as+a+competitive+force+that+must+be+defeated+in+order+for+humans+to+evolve.&pg=PA99 |isbn=978-0-292-75846-9}}</ref> Later films explored the fears of environmental catastrophe, technology-created disasters, or overpopulation, and how they would impact society and individuals (e.g. ''[[Soylent Green]]'', ''[[Elysium (film)|Elysium]]'').
* ''[[Fantastic Voyage]]'', Oscars for special visual effects and art/set direction.
 
*''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'' Hugo 1965.
The monster movies of the 1950s—like ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]'' (1954)—served as stand-ins for fears of [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]], [[communism]] and views on the [[Cold War]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} In the 1970s, science fiction films also became an effective way of satirizing contemporary social mores with ''[[Silent Running]]'' and ''[[Dark Star (film)|Dark Star]]'' presenting hippies in space as a riposte to the militaristic types that had dominated earlier films.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' presented a horrific vision of youth culture, portraying a youth gang engaged in [[rape]] and [[murder]], along with disturbing scenes of forced [[Classical conditioning|psychological conditioning]] serving to comment on societal responses to [[crime]].
* ''[[Charly]]'', Oscar for best actor, [[Cliff Robertson]].
 
* ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', Oscar for special visual effects.
''[[Logan's Run (1976 film)|Logan's Run]]'' depicted a futuristic [[Swinging (sexual practice)|swingers]]' utopia that practiced euthanasia as a form of population control and ''[[The Stepford Wives (1975 film)|The Stepford Wives]]'' anticipated a reaction to the [[women's liberation movement]]. ''[[Enemy Mine (film)|Enemy Mine]]'' demonstrated that the foes we have come to hate are often just like us, even if they appear alien.
* ''[[Marooned]]'', Oscar for special visual effects; Hugo 1969.
 
*''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' Hugo 1972.
Contemporary science fiction films continue to explore social and political issues. One recent example is ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'' (2002), debuting in the months after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and focused on the issues of police powers, privacy and civil liberties in a near-future United States. Some movies like ''[[The Island (2005 film)|The Island]]'' (2005) and ''[[Never Let Me Go (2010 film)|Never Let Me Go]]'' (2010) explore the issues surrounding cloning.
*''[[Slaughterhouse Five]]'' Hugo 1973.
 
* ''[[Sleeper]]'' Hugo 1974.
More recently, the headlines surrounding events such as the [[Iraq War]], [[international terrorism]], the [[avian influenza]] scare, and United States [[opposition to immigration|anti-immigration laws]] have found their way into the consciousness of contemporary filmmakers. The film ''[[V for Vendetta (film)|V for Vendetta]]'' (2006) drew inspiration from controversial issues such as the [[Patriot Act]] and the [[War on Terror]],{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} while science fiction thrillers such as ''[[Children of Men]]'' (also 2006), ''[[District 9]]'' (2009), and ''[[Elysium (film)|Elysium]]'' (2013) commented on diverse social issues such as [[xenophobia]], [[propaganda]], and [[cognitive dissonance]]. ''[[Avatar (2009 film)|Avatar]]'' (2009) had remarkable resemblance to colonialism of native land, mining by multinational-corporations and the Iraq War.
* ''[[Young Frankenstein]]'' Hugo 1975.
 
* ''[[A Boy and His Dog]]'' Hugo 1976.
===Future noir===
* ''[[Logan's Run]]'', Oscar for visual effects.
[[Lancaster University]] professor Jamaluddin Bin Aziz argues that as science fiction has evolved and expanded, it has fused with other film genres such as [[Gothic fiction|gothic]] [[Thriller film|thrillers]] and [[film noir]]. When science fiction integrates film noir elements, Bin Aziz calls the resulting hybrid form "future noir", a form which "... encapsulates a [[postmodern]] encounter with generic persistence, creating a mixture of irony, pessimism, prediction, extrapolation, bleakness and nostalgia." Future noir films such as ''[[Brazil (1985 film)|Brazil]]'', ''[[Blade Runner]]'', ''[[12 Monkeys (film)|12 Monkeys]]'', ''[[Dark City (1998 film)|Dark City]]'', and ''[[Children of Men]]'' use a [[protagonist]] who is "...increasingly dubious, alienated and fragmented", at once "dark and playful like the characters in Gibson's ''[[Neuromancer]]'', yet still with the "... shadow of [[Philip Marlowe]]..."
* ''[[Star Wars]]'', 1978 Oscars for art/set, direction, film editing, visual effects, costume design, sound, best original score, and a special achievement award for sound effect creations; Hugo 1978.
 
* ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'', 1978 Oscars for cinematography and a special achievement award for sound effects editing.
Future noir films that are set in a [[post-apocalyptic]] world "...restructure and re-represent society in a parody of the atmospheric world usually found in noir's construction of a city—dark, bleak and beguiled." Future noir films often intermingle elements of the gothic thriller genre, such as ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'', which makes references to [[occult]] practices, and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'', with its tagline "In space, no one can hear you scream", and a space vessel, Nostromo, "that hark[s] back to images of the haunted house in the gothic horror tradition". Bin Aziz states that films such as [[James Cameron]]’s ''[[The Terminator]]'' are a subgenre of "techno noir" that create "...an atmospheric feast of noir darkness and a double-edged world that is not what it seems."<ref>{{cite web | last = Bin Aziz | first = Jamaluddin | title = Future Noir | work = Summer Special: Postmodern and Future Noir | publisher = Crimeculture.com | date = Summer 2005 | url = http://www.crimeculture.com/Contents/Articles-Summer05/JemAziz1.html | access-date = 17 November 2008 |url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202113605/http://www.crimeculture.com/Contents/Articles-Summer05/JemAziz1.html | archive-date = 2 December 2008 }}</ref>
* ''[[Superman (movie)|Superman - The Movie]]'', Oscar special achievement award for visual effects.
 
* ''[[Superman]]'' Hugo 1979.
==Film versus literature==
* ''[[Alien]]'', 1980 Oscar for visual effects; Hugo 1980.
When compared to science-fiction [[literature]], science-fiction films often rely less on the human imagination and more upon action scenes and [[special effects|special effect]]-created alien creatures and exotic backgrounds. Since the 1970s, film audiences have come to expect a high standard for special effects in science-fiction films.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Williams|first=Eric R.|title=How to View and Appreciate Great Movies (episode 13: Special Effects in the 20th Century)|url=https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/how-to-view-and-appreciate-great-movies.html|access-date=2020-06-07|website=English|language=en|archive-date=2020-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925194225/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/how-to-view-and-appreciate-great-movies.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In some cases, science fiction-themed films superimpose an exotic, futuristic setting onto what would not otherwise be a science-fiction tale. Nevertheless, some critically acclaimed science-fiction movies have followed in the path of science-fiction literature, using story development to explore abstract concepts.
* ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'', 1981 Oscars for sound and a special achievement award for visual effects; Hugo 1981.
 
* ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' Hugo 1982.
===Influence of science fiction authors===
* ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'', 1983 Oscars for best visual effects, best sound, best sound effects editing, and best music (original score).
[[Jules Verne]] (1828–1905) became the first major science-fiction author whose works film-makers adapted for the screen - with [[Georges Méliès|Méliès]]' ''[[A Trip to the Moon|Le Voyage dans la Lune]]'' (1902) and ''[[Under the Seas|20,000 lieues sous les mers]]'' (1907), which used Verne's scenarios as a framework for fantastic visuals. By the time Verne's work fell out of copyright in 1950, the adaptations were generally adapted as [[costume drama]]s with a [[Victorian era|Victorian]] aesthetic. Verne's works have been adapted a number of times since then, including ''[[20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954 film)|20,000 Leagues Under the Sea]]'' (1954), ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (film)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' (1958), and two film versions of ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth]]'' in 1959 and 2008.
* ''[[Blade Runner]]'' Hugo 1983.
 
* ''[[Return of the Jedi]]'' Hugo 1984.
[[H. G. Wells]]'s novels ''[[The Invisible Man (1933 film)|The Invisible Man]]'', ''[[Things to Come]]'' and ''[[The Island of Doctor Moreau]]'' were all adapted into films during his lifetime (1866–1946), while [[The War of the Worlds (novel)|''The War of the Worlds'']], updated in 1953 and again in 2005, was adapted to film at least four times altogether. ''[[The Time Machine]]'' has had two film versions (1960 and 2002) while ''[[Sleeper (1973 film)|Sleeper]]'' in part is a pastiche of Wells's 1910 novel ''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]''.
*''[[2010]]'' Hugo 1985.
 
* ''[[Cocoon (movie)|Cocoon]]'', 1986 Oscars for best actor in a supporting role, visual effects.
With the drop-off in interest in science-fiction films during the 1940s, few of the "golden age" science-fiction authors made it to the screen. A novella by [[John W. Campbell]] provided the basis for ''[[The Thing from Another World]]'' (1951). [[Robert A. Heinlein]] contributed to the screenplay for ''[[Destination Moon (film)|Destination Moon]]'' (1950), but none of his major works were adapted for the screen until the 1990s: ''[[The Puppet Masters (film)|The Puppet Masters]]'' (1994) and ''[[Starship Troopers (film)|Starship Troopers]]'' (1997). The fiction of [[Isaac Asimov]] (1920–1992) influenced the ''Star Wars'' and ''Star Trek'' films, but it was not until 1988 that a film version of one of his short stories ([[Nightfall (Asimov)|''Nightfall'']]) was produced. The first major motion-picture adaptation of a full-length Asimov work was [[Bicentennial Man (film)|''Bicentennial Man'']] (1999) (based on the short stories ''Bicentennial Man'' (1976) and ''The Positronic Man'' (1992), the latter co-written with Robert Silverberg), although [[I, Robot (film)|''I, Robot'']] (2004), a film loosely based on [[I, Robot|Asimov's book of short stories]] by the same name, drew more attention.
* ''[[Back to the Future]]'', 1986 Oscars for best sound effects editing; Hugo 1986.
 
* ''[[Aliens (1986 movie)|Aliens]]'', 1987 Oscars for best sound effects editing and best visual effects; Hugo 1987.
The 1968 film adaptation of some of the stories of science-fiction author [[Arthur C. Clarke]] as [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|''2001: A Space Odyssey'']] won the [[Academy Award for Visual Effects]] and offered thematic complexity not typically associated with the science-fiction genre at the time. Its sequel, ''[[2010: The Year We Make Contact]]'' (inspired to Clarke's ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''), was commercially successful but less highly regarded by critics. Reflecting the times, two earlier science-fiction works by [[Ray Bradbury]] were adapted for cinema in the 1960s: [[Fahrenheit 451 (1966 film)|''Fahrenheit 451'']] (1966) and ''[[The Illustrated Man (film)|The Illustrated Man]]'' (1969). [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s ''[[Slaughterhouse-Five (film)|Slaughterhouse-Five]]'' was filmed in 1971 and ''[[Breakfast of Champions]]'' in 1998.
* ''[[The Fly (1986)|The Fly]]'', 1987 Oscar for best makeup.
 
* ''[[Innerspace]]'', 1988 Oscar for best visual effects.
[[Philip K. Dick]]'s fiction has been used in a number of science-fiction films, in part because it evokes the paranoia{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} that has been a central feature of the genre. Films based on Dick's works include ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (1982), [[Total Recall (1990 film)|''Total Recall'']] (1990), [[Impostor (2002 film)|''Impostor'']] (2001), [[Minority Report (film)|''Minority Report'']] (2002), [[Paycheck (film)|''Paycheck'']] (2003), [[A Scanner Darkly (film)|''A Scanner Darkly'']] (2006), and ''[[The Adjustment Bureau]]'' (2011). These films represent loose adaptations of the original stories, with the exception of ''A Scanner Darkly'', which is more inclined to Dick's novel.
* ''[[The Princess Bride]]'' Hugo 1988.
 
* ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'' Hugo 1989.
== Market share ==
* ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'', 1992 Oscars for best sound, best sound effects editing, and best makeup.
The estimated North American [[box-office]] market-share of science fiction {{as of | 2019 | lc = on}} comprised 4.77%.<ref>{{cite web
* ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', 1994 Oscars for best sound, best sound effects editing, and best visual effects.
|url= https://www.the-numbers.com/market/creative-type/Science-Fiction
* ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'', 1997 Oscar for best visual effects.
|title= Box Office History for Science Fiction
* ''[[Men in Black (movie)|Men in Black]]'', 1998 Oscar for best makeup.
|year= 2019
* ''[[The Matrix]]'', 2000 Oscars for best sound, best editing, best sound effects, and best visual effects.
|publisher= Nash Information Services, LLC
|access-date= 23 August 2019
|archive-date= 18 July 2019
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190718153259/https://www.the-numbers.com/market/creative-type/Science-Fiction
|url-status= live
}}</ref>
 
==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=35em}}
*[[Arthur C. Clarke's list of the best science fiction films]]
* [[Genres, subcategories and related topics to science fiction]]
*[[History of anime]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation]]
*[[List of science fiction films]]
* [[List of dystopian films]]
*[[Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film]]
* [[List of films set in the future]]
*[[Science fiction on television]]
* [[Saturn Award for Best Science Fiction Film]]
{{div col end}}
 
== Citations ==
{{Reflist|2}}
 
== General and cited references ==
* Luca Bandirali, Enrico Terrone, ''Nell'occhio, nel cielo. Teoria e storia del cinema di fantascienza'', Turin: Lindau, 2008, {{ISBN|978-88-7180-716-4}}.
* Welch Everman, ''Cult Science Fiction Films'', Citadel Press, [[1995 in literature|1995]], {{ISBN|0-8065-1602-X}}.
* Peter Guttmacher, ''Legendary Sci-Fi Movies'', [[1997 in literature|1997]], {{ISBN|1-56799-490-3}}.
* [[Phil Hardy (journalist)|Phil Hardy]], ''[[The Aurum Film Encyclopedia#Volume Two|The Overlook Film Encyclopedia, Science Fiction]]''. William Morrow and Company, New York, [[1995 in literature|1995]], {{ISBN|0-87951-626-7}}.
* Richard S. Myers, ''S-F 2: A pictorial history of science fiction from 1975 to the present'', [[1984 in literature|1984]], Citadel Press, {{ISBN|0-8065-0875-2}}.
* Gregg Rickman, ''The Science Fiction Film Reader'', [[2004 in literature|2004]], {{ISBN|0-87910-994-7}}.
* Matthias Schwartz, Archeologies of a Past Future. Science Fiction Films from Communist Eastern Europe, in: Rainer Rother, Annika Schaefer (eds.): ''Future Imperfect. Science – Fiction – Film'', Berlin 2007, pp.&nbsp;96–117. {{ISBN|978-3-86505-249-0}}.
* Dave Saunders, ''Arnold: Schwarzenegger and the Movies'', [[2009 in literature|2009]], London, [[I. B. Tauris]]
* Errol Vieth, ''Screening Science: Context, Text and Science in Fifties Science Fiction Film'', Lanham, MD and London: Scarecrow Press, 2001. {{ISBN|0-8108-4023-5}}.
 
==ReferencesFurther reading==
* ''Simultaneous Worlds: Global Science Fiction Cinema'' edited by Jennifer L. Feeley and Sarah Ann Wells, 2015, University of Minnesota Press
* Welch Everman, ''Cult Science Fiction Films'', Citadel Press, [[1995 in literature|1995]], ISBN 0-8065-1602-X.
* Peter Guttmacher, ''Legendary Sci-Fi Movies'', [[1997 in literature|1997]], ISBN 1-56799-490-3.
* Phil Hardy, ''The Overlook Film Encyclopedia, Science Fiction''. William Morrow and Company, New York, [[1995 in literature|1995]], ISBN 0879516267.
* Gregg Rickman, ''The Science Fiction Film Reader'', [[2004 in literature|2004]], ISBN 0879109947.
* Vivian Sobchack, ''Screening Space: The American Science Fiction Film''. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, [[1998 in literature|1998]], ISBN 081352492X.
 
==External links==
* [http://www.eofftv.com/ The Encyclopedia of Fantastic Film and Television] — horror, science fiction, fantasy and animation
* [http://www.filmsite.org/sci-fifilms.html The Greatest Films: Science Fiction Films]
* [https://www.lifescifi.com/ LIFE Sci-Fi | Tech News, Movies, Reviews]
* [https://www.wonderscifibuthold.com/ LIFE in a word]
 
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