Colonization of the Moon: Difference between revisions

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Latest revision as of 07:33, 19 August 2025

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{{Short description|Settlement on the Moon}}

[[Image:Lunar Base-1.jpg|thumb|right|350px|An artist's rendering of a lunar base. (NASA)]]

{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2024}}

Permanent human habitation on a planetary body other than the [[Earth]] is a central theme in [[science fiction]]. As technology has improved and concerns about the future of humanity on Earth increase, some argue that [[space colonization]] is an achievable and worthwhile goal. Because of its proximity to Earth and the early telescopic observation of familiar land forms, such as mountains and plains, the [[Moon]] has long been seen as a candidate for a possible human colony in space. However, the [[Apollo program]], while demonstrating the feasibility of travel to the Moon (albeit at a high cost), dampened enthusiasm for such a lunar colony because rock and dirt samples brought back by astronauts proved extremely low in the lighter elements required as a condition for life.

{{Use American English|date=February 2019}}

[[File:Lunar base concept drawing s99 04195.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[NASA]] concept art of an envisioned [[Lunar resources#Mining|lunar mining facility]]]]

The '''colonization of the Moon''' is a process<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.4324/9780203992586|date=1997|author=[[Marc Ferro]]|title=Colonization|page=1|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780203992586}}"Colonization is associated with the occupation of a foreign land, with its being brought under cultivation, with the settlement of colonists. If this definition of the term “colony” is used, the phenomenon dates from the [[Greek colonisation|Greek period]]. Likewise we speak of Athenian, then Roman 'imperialism'."</ref> or concept employed by some proposals for [[robotic spaceflight|robotic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/1653562/japan-robots-moon-base-robonaut-nasa-jaxa-lunar-rockets-constellation|title=Japan vs. NASA in the Next Space Race: Lunar Robonauts|work=Fast Company|date=May 28, 2010|access-date=June 12, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sservi.nasa.gov/articles/japan-plans-2-billion-robot-moon-base-by-2020/|title=SOLAR SYSTEM EXPLORATION RESEARCH|access-date=August 11, 2017}}</ref> or human [[Exploitation of natural resources|exploitation]] and settlement endeavours on the [[Moon]]. Often used as a synonym for its more specific element of settling the Moon (the establishing and expanding of [[lunar habitation]]), lunar or [[space colonization]] as a whole has become contested for perpetuating [[colonialism]] and [[Space colonization#Colonialism|its exploitive logic in space]].<ref name="Wall 2019">{{cite web | last=Wall | first=Mike | title=Bill Nye: It's Space Settlement, Not Colonization | website=Space.com | date=October 25, 2019 | url=https://www.space.com/bill-nye-space-settlement-not-colonization.html | access-date=June 14, 2023}}</ref>

Many space colonization advocates have since turned their attention to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], which has a more Earth-like environment, but others continue to believe that the Moon is a logical first step. The possibility of clean [[fusion power]] from [[Helium 3]] fuel mined on the Moon is cited by some as a potential economic justification for a lunar base. [[NASA]]'s long range [[Vision for Space Exploration]] plan includes a return to the Moon.

Laying claim to the Moon has been declared illegal through international [[space law]] and no state has made such claims,<ref name="Rothwell Saunders 2019">{{cite web |last1=Rothwell |first1=Donald R. |last2=Saunders |first2=Imogen |date=July 25, 2019 |title=Does a US flag on the Moon amount to a claim of sovereignty under law? |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/does-us-flag-moon-amount-claim-sovereignty |access-date=November 9, 2021 |website=Lowy Institute}}</ref> despite having a range of probes and artificial remains on the Moon.

== History ==

The notion of siting a colony on the Moon originated before the space age; [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], among others, suggested such a step. From the [[1950s]] onwards, a number of concepts and designs have been suggested by scientists, engineers and others.

While a range of proposals for missions of lunar colonization, exploitation or permanent exploration have been raised, current projects for establishing permanent crewed presence on the Moon are not for colonizing the Moon, but rather focus on building [[moonbase]]s for exploration and to a lesser extent for exploitation of [[lunar resources]].

Noted science author [[Arthur C. Clarke]] proposed a lunar base of inflatable modules covered in lunar dust for insulation in [[1954]]. A spaceship, assembled in low Earth orbit, would be launched towards the Moon. It would land on [[Mare Imbrium]], near [[Mons Piton]], and astronauts would set up the [[igloo]]-like modules and an inflatable [[radio]] mast. Subsequent steps would include the establishment of a larger, permanent dome; an [[algae]]-based [[air purifier]]; a [[nuclear reactor]] for the provision of power; and [[electromagnetism|electronmagnetic]] cannons to launch [[cargo]] and [[fuel]] to interplanetary vessels in space.[http://www.marsinstitute.info/rd/faculty/dportree/rtr/ft01.html]

The commercialization of the Moon is a contentious issue for national and international lunar regulation and laws (such as the [[Moon treaty]]).<ref name='Davies'>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/feb/06/asteroid-mining-space-minerals-legal-issues |title=Asteroid mining could be space's new frontier: the problem is doing it legally |newspaper=The Guardian|first=Rob |last=Davies |date=February 6, 2016}}</ref>

In [[1959]], [[John S. Rinehart]] suggested that the safest design would be a structure that could "[float] in a stationary ocean of dust," since there was, at the time this concept was outlined, theories that there could be mile-deep dust oceans on the Moon. The design proposed consisted of a half-cylinder with half-domes at both ends. A micrometeoroid shield is then placed above the base. [http://www.marsinstitute.info/rd/faculty/dportree/rtr/ft04.html]

==History==

The ''Project Horizon'' was a [[1959]] study regarding the [[U.S. Army]]'s plan to establish a fort on the Moon by [[1967]]. H. H. Koelle, a German rocket engineer of the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] (ABMA) was leading the Project Horizon study. The first landing would be carried out by two "soldier-astronauts" in [[1965]] and more construction workers would soon follow. Through numerous launches (61 Saturn I and 88 Saturn V), 245 tons of cargo would be transported to the outpost by [[1966]]. [http://www.marsinstitute.info/rd/faculty/dportree/rtr/ft05.html]

{{Further|Exploration of the Moon|Moon#Human presence|Space colonization}}

Colonization of the Moon has been imagined as early as the first half of the 17th century by [[John Wilkins]] in ''A Discourse Concerning a New Planet''.<ref name="language">{{cite web |author=Haskins |first=Caroline |date=August 14, 2018 |title=THE RACIST LANGUAGE OF SPACE EXPLORATION |url=https://theoutline.com/post/5809/the-racist-language-of-space-exploration?zd=3&zi=v4x73sgl |access-date=November 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Johnson |first1=S. W. |title=Lunar Bases and Space Activities of the 21st Century |last2=Leonard |first2=R. S. |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute |year=1985 |___location=Houston, Texas |page=48 |language=en-us |chapter=Evolution of Concepts for Lunar Bases |bibcode=1985lbsa.conf...47J}}</ref>

[[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|In the early [[Space Age]] the [[USSR]] and the [[US]] engaged in dropping pennants<ref name="Capelotti 2014 p. 44">{{cite book | last=Capelotti | first=P.J. | title=The Human Archaeology of Space: Lunar, Planetary and Interstellar Relics of Exploration | publisher=McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-7864-5994-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=98qFL5AYIjQC&pg=PA44 | access-date=October 15, 2022 | page=44}}</ref> and raising flags on the Moon, like this [[Lunar Flag Assembly]] of 1969, but agreed internationally in 1967 with the [[Outer Space Treaty]] to not lay any claims over the Moon or any other celestial bodies.]]

===Exploration phase===

Exploration of the lunar surface by spacecraft began in [[1959]] when the [[Soviet_Union|Soviet]] [[Luna 2]] mission crash-landed into the surface. The same year the [[Luna 3]] mission radioed [[photograph]]s to Earth of the Moon's hitherto unseen [[Far side (Moon)|far side]], marking the beginning of a decade-long series of unmanned lunar explorations.

Colonization of the Moon as a material process has been taking place since the first artificial objects reached the Moon after 1959. ''[[Luna program|Luna]]'' landers scattered pennants of the [[Soviet Union]] on the Moon, and [[Lunar Flag Assembly|U.S. flags]] were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the [[List of Apollo astronauts|Apollo astronauts]], but no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface.<ref name="unoosa_q6">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |title=Can any State claim a part of outer space as its own? |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q6 |archive-date=April 21, 2010 }}

Responding to the aggressive russian program of space exploration, [[USA|US]] President [[John F. Kennedy]] in [[1961]] told the [[U.S. Congress]] on [[May 25]]: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal before this decade is out of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the Earth." The same year the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leadership made some of its first public pronouncements about landing a man on the moon and establishing a lunar base.

</ref> Russia, China, India, and the U.S. are party to the 1967 [[Outer Space Treaty]],<ref name="unoosa_q4">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |title=How many States have signed and ratified the five international treaties governing outer space? |date=January 1, 2006 |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q4 |archive-date=April 21, 2010 }}</ref> which defines the Moon and all outer space as the "[[common heritage of mankind|province of all mankind]]",<ref name="unoosa_q6" /> restricting the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes and explicitly banning military installations and [[weapons of mass destruction]] from the Moon.<ref name="unoosa_q5">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q5 |title=Do the five international treaties regulate military activities in outer space? |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421232450/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/FAQ/splawfaq.html#Q5 |archive-date=April 21, 2010}}</ref>

The landing of U.S. astronauts was seen as a precedent for the superiority of the [[free-market]] [[Socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] model of the U.S., and in this case as the successful model for [[space flight]], [[space exploration|exploration]] and ultimately [[humanity in space|human presence]] in the form of colonization. In the 1970s the word and goal of colonization was discouraged by [[NASA]] and funds as well as focus shifted away from the Moon and particularly to [[Mars]]. But the U.S. eventually nevertheless opposed the 1979 [[Moon Treaty|Moon Agreement]] which aimed to restrict the exploitation of the Moon and [[Lunar resources|its resources]]. Subsequently, the treaty has been signed and ratified by only 18 nations, as of January 2020,<ref name="unoosa_moon">{{cite web |url=http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |title=Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies |publisher=[[United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs]] |access-date=March 28, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100809072447/http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/moon.html |archive-date=August 9, 2010}}</ref> none of which engage in self-launched [[Human spaceflight|human space exploration]].

In [[1962]], [[John DeNike]] and [[Stanley Zahn]] published their idea of a sub-surface base located at the [[Sea of Tranquility]]. This base would house a crew of 21, in modules placed 4 meters below the surface, which was believed to provide [[radiation]] shielding as well as the Earth's atmosphere does. They favoured [[nuclear reactor]]s for energy production, because they are more efficient than [[solar panel]]s, and it would also overcome the problems with the long lunar nights. For life support system, an algae-based gas exchanger could be useful. [http://www.marsinstitute.info/rd/faculty/dportree/rtr/ft07.html]

After U.S. missions in the 1990s suggested the presence of [[lunar water]] ice, its actual discovery in the soil at the [[Lunar south pole|lunar poles]] by [[Chandrayaan-1]] ([[ISRO]]) in 2008–2009 renewed interest in the Moon.<ref name="Alvarez 2020 p.">{{cite thesis | last=Alvarez | first=Tamara | title=The Eighth Continent: An Ethnography of Twenty-First Century Euro-American Plans to Settle the Moon | date=January 1, 2020 | url=https://www.academia.edu/43890727 | access-date=November 1, 2021 | page=59 | archive-date=February 5, 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220205171101/https://www.academia.edu/43890727 | url-status=dead }}</ref> A range of [[moonbase]]s have been proposed by states and public actors. Currently the U.S.-led international [[Artemis program]] seeks to establish with private contractors a state run orbital lunar way-station in the late 2020s, and China proposed with Russia the so-called [[International Lunar Research Station]] to be established in the 2030s and aim for an ''Earth-Moon Space Economic Zone'' to develop by 2050.<ref name="Pillow 2020">{{cite web | last=Pillow | first=Liz | title=From a farside first to cislunar dominance? China appears to want to establish 'space economic zone' worth trillions | website=SpaceNews | date=February 16, 2020 | url=https://spacenews.com/from-a-farside-first-to-cislunar-dominance-china-appears-to-want-to-establish-space-economic-zone-worth-trillions/ | access-date=October 23, 2022}}</ref>

Manned exploration of lunar surface began in [[1968]] when the [[Apollo 8]] [[Apollo spacecraft|spacecraft]] orbited the Moon with three astronauts on board. This was humankind's first direct view of the far side. The following year, the [[Apollo 11]] [[lunar module]] landed two astronauts on the Moon, proving the ability of humans to travel to the Moon, perform scientific [[research]] work and bring back [[sample]] materials.

Current proposals mainly have the goal of exploration, but such proposals and projects have increasingly aimed for enabling exploitation or commercialization of the Moon. This move to exploitation has been criticized as [[colonialism|colonialist]] and contrasted by proposals for conservation (e.g. by the organization ''For All Moonkind''),<ref name="For All Moonkind">{{cite web | title=Moonkind – Human Heritage in Outer Space | website=For All Moonkind | url=https://www.forallmoonkind.org/moonkind-mission/human-heritage-in-outer-space/ | access-date=November 1, 2021 | archive-date=November 1, 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101214336/https://www.forallmoonkind.org/moonkind-mission/human-heritage-in-outer-space/ | url-status=live }}</ref> collaborative [[stewardship]] (e.g. by the organization ''Open Lunar Foundation'', chaired by [[Chris Hadfield]])<ref name="Open Lunar Foundation 2023">{{cite web | title=What we do on the Moon can transform how we live on Earth. It starts with community. | website=Open Lunar Foundation | date=May 8, 2023 | url=https://www.openlunar.org/library/it-starts-with-community | access-date=June 14, 2023}}</ref> and the ''Declaration of the Rights of the Moon'',<ref>{{cite web | title=Declaration of the Rights of the Moon | date=February 11, 2021 | publisher=Australian Earth Laws Alliance | url=https://www.earthlaws.org.au/moon-declaration/ | access-date=May 10, 2021 }}</ref> drawing on the concept of the [[Rights of Nature]] for a legal personality of non-human entities in space.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tepper|first1=Eytan|last2=Whitehead|first2=Christopher|date=December 1, 2018|title=Moon, Inc.: The New Zealand Model of Granting Legal Personality to Natural Resources Applied to Space|url=https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/space.2018.0025|journal=New Space|volume=6|issue=4|pages=288–298|doi=10.1089/space.2018.0025|bibcode=2018NewSp...6..288T|s2cid=158616075|issn=2168-0256|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Additional missions to the moon continued this exploration phase. The [[Apollo 12]] mission landed next to [[Surveyor 3]] spacecraft, demonstrating precision landing capability. Following the near-disaster of the [[Apollo 13]], the [[Apollo 14]] was last mission on which astronauts were [[quarantine]]d on their return from the Moon. The use of a manned vehicle was demonstrated with the [[Lunar Rover]] during [[Apollo 15]]. The [[Apollo 16]] made first landing among the rugged lunar highlands.

==Missions==

However, interest in further exploration of the Moon was beginning to wane among the American public. The [[Apollo 17]] was the final Apollo lunar mission, and further planned missions were scrapped at the directive of President [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]]. Instead focus was turned to the [[Space Shuttle]] and manned missions in near Earth orbit. Responding to this new direction, the Soviet government also decided to direct their energies toward building a matching shuttle system, though in the [[1970s]] they did land two robotic rovers on the Moon in the [[Lunokhod program]] and returned three lunar soil samples as part of the [[Luna program]]. Apparently [[1974]] saw the scuppering of the [[Soviet Moonshot]], two years after last American manned landing.

{{Further|Moonbase|Space advocacy}}

[[File:Inflatable habitat s89 20084.jpg|thumb|Inflatable module for lunar base.]]

The colonization of the Moon has been pursued and advocated for by a range of civil actors and [[space advocacy]] groups since the advent of spaceflight, mainly to establish a permanent [[humanity in space|human presence]] and settlement on the Moon.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}}

States have explicitly refrained from calling for lunar colonization and particularly from laying any claims of territory on the Moon, in accordance with international bans on any such claims.<ref name="Smith 2019">{{cite web | last=Smith | first=Kiona N. | title=How Apollo 11 Raised The Flag on the Moon, And What It Means Today | website=Forbes | date=Jul 20, 2019 | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kionasmith/2019/07/20/how-apollo-11-raised-the-flag-on-the-moon-and-what-it-means-today/ | access-date=Dec 28, 2024}}</ref>

In the decades following, interest in exploring the Moon faded considerably, and only a few dedicated enthusiasts supported a return. However the discovery of [[Hydrogen]] at the lunar poles rekindled some discussion, as did the potential growth of a [[China|Chinese]] space program that contemplated its own mission to the Moon.

States though have been pursuing the establishment of [[moonbase]]s, the first being the temporary [[Tranquility Base]] of Apollo 11 in 1969, the first crewed mission on the Moon.

Spurred by the prospect of a Chinese lunar base, in [[2004]], [[US]] [[President]] [[George W. Bush]] called for a plan to return manned missions to the Moon by [[2020]]. Propelled by this new initiative, NASA issued a new long-range plan that includes building a base on the Moon as a staging point to Mars.

Those and contemporary concepts and plans for moonbases have had the purpose to advance [[spaceflight]] and [[space exploration]].

Contemporary plans for moonbases, such as the leading [[Artemis program]] and [[International Lunar Research Station]] projects, have supported [[in-situ resource utilization]] and therefore prospecting for lunar resources.<ref name="ilrs-guide">{{cite web |url=http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6812150/content.html |title=International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) Guide for Partnership |work=[[CNSA]] |date=June 16, 2021 |access-date=June 16, 2021}}</ref> To complement the Artemis program private commercial space enterprise and services have been enabled and contracted.<ref name="s238">{{cite web | last=FoustMonday | first=Jeff | title=The Space Review: The search for a commercial lunar economy | website=The Space Review | date=2024-11-25 | url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4898/1 | access-date=2024-12-28}}</ref>

==Advantages and disadvantages ==

Putting aside the general questions of whether a human colony beyond the [[Earth]] is feasible or desirable (''see:'' [[space colonization]] for a discussion of this question), proponents of space colonization point out that the Moon offers both advantages and disadvantages as a site for such a colony.

===Advantages=Law==

{{Excerpt|Moon#Legal status}}

Placing a colony on a natural body would provide an ample source of material for [[construction]] and other uses, including shielding from [[radiation]]. The energy required to send objects from the Moon to space is much less than from Earth to space. This could allow the Moon to serve as a construction site or fueling station for spacecraft. Some proposals include using electric acceleration devices to propel objects off the Moon without building rockets. Nonetheless, the Moon does have some [[gravity]], which, experience to date indicates, may be vital for long-term human [[health]]. Whether the Moon's gravity (roughly 1/6th of Earth's) is adaquate for this purpose remains to be seen.

==Economic prospecting and development==

In addition, the Moon is the closest large body in the [[solar system]] to Earth. While some [[Earth-crosser asteroid]]s occasionally pass closer, the Moon's distance is consistently within a small range of 384,400 [[km]]. This proximity has several benefits:

{{anchor|Lunar mining}}

* The energy (or [[delta V]]) required to send objects from Earth to the Moon is lower than for most other bodies.

{{Main|Lunar habitation|Lunar resources|Space-based economy|Commercial use of space}}

* Transit time is short. The Apollo astronauts made the trip in three days. Earth-crossing asteroids require somewhat less energy, but the months of travel required would necessitate a safe habitat for humans whose weight could more than offset any delta-V savings.

For long-term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self-sufficient. [[Mining]] and [[refining]] the Moon's materials on-site – for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the Solar System – could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth, as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that large amounts of cargo would need to be launched into space for interplanetary exploration in the 21st century, and the lower cost of providing goods from the Moon might be attractive.<ref name="iht">Tung Dju (T. D.) Lin, cited via {{cite news |title=On Moon, Concrete Digs? |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/02/13/moon.php |first=Barry |last=James |newspaper=International Herald Tribune |date=February 13, 1992 |access-date=December 24, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061124100043/http://www.iht.com/articles/1992/02/13/moon.php <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = November 24, 2006}}</ref>

* The short transit time would also allow [[emergency]] supplies to quickly reach a Moon colony from Earth. This could be an important consideration when establishing the first human colony.

* The round trip [[communication]] delay to Earth is only a few seconds, allowing normal voice and [[video]] conversation. The delay for other solar system bodies is minutes or hours. This again would be of particular value in an early colony, where life-threatening problems requiring Earth's assistance would be expected to occur. (''See, for example:'' [[Apollo 13]])

* On the lunar near side, the Earth appears large and is nearly always visible, whereas when Earth is visible at all on Mars, it is seen merely as a star-like object, much as the planets appear from Earth. As a result, a Lunar colony might feel less remote to humans living there.

===Space-based materials processing===

===Disadvantages===

In the long term, the Moon will likely play an important role in supplying space-based construction facilities with raw materials.<ref name ="rsw">{{Cite web| url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/lunar_base.html| title=Lunar base| publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com| access-date=December 24, 2006}}</ref> Microgravity in space allows for the processing of materials in ways impossible or difficult on Earth, such as [[Metal foam|"foaming" metals]], where a gas is injected into a molten metal, and then the metal is [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]] slowly. On Earth, gas bubbles may rise or fall due to their relative density to air, but in a [[Weightlessness|zero gravity]] environment this does not happen. The [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] process requires large amounts of energy, as a material is kept very hot for an extended period of time (allowing the molecular structure to realign), and this too may be more efficient in space, as the vacuum drastically reduces all heat transfer except through [[Thermal radiation|radiative heat loss]].

There are several disadvantages to the Moon as a colony site:

===Exporting material to Earth===

* The long lunar night would impede reliance on [[solar power]] (except, perhaps, at the polar regions) and require a colony to be designed that could withstand large [[temperature]] excursions. The sole exception to this restriction are the so-called "[[Peak of Eternal Light|peaks of eternal light]]" located at the lunar poles.

Exporting material to Earth in trade from the Moon is problematic due to the cost of transportation, which would vary greatly if the Moon is industrially developed. One suggested trade commodity is [[helium-3]] (³He) which is carried by the [[solar wind]] and accumulated on the Moon's surface over billions of years, but occurs only rarely on Earth.<ref name="MIT">Mark Williams Pontin, [https://www.technologyreview.com/s/408558/mining-the-moon/ Mining the Moon]. ''MIT Technology Review''. August 23, 2007.</ref> Helium-3 might be present in the [[Lunar soil|lunar regolith]] in quantities of 0.01 ppm to 0.05 ppm (depending on soil). In 2006 it had a market price of about $1,500 per gram ($1.5M per kilogram), more than 120 times the value per unit weight of [[gold]] and over eight times the value of [[rhodium]].

* The Moon lacks the light elements (volatiles) that are needed for life, though there is some evidence of [[hydrogen]] near the north and south poles. Volatiles would need to be imported, perhaps eventually from the outer planets, but from Earth initially. This would limit the colony's rate of growth and keep it dependent on Earth. However, the cost of volatiles could be reduced by constructing the upper stage of supply ships using materials high in volatiles, such as [[Graphite-reinforced_plastic|carbon fiber]] and other [[plastic]]s.

* There is continuing uncertainty over whether the low ''1/6 g'' gravity on the Moon is strong enough to prevent detremental effects to human health in the long term. Exposure to [[weightlessness]] over month-long periods has been demonstrated to cause deterioration of physiological systems, such as loss of [[bone]] and [[muscle]] mass. Similar effects could occur in a low gravity environment.

* The lack of a substantial [[atmosphere]] for insulation, which also results in temperature extremes, and makes the Moon's surface conditions somewhat like a deep space [[vacuum]].

In the future ³He harvested from the Moon may have a role as a fuel in [[thermonuclear]] [[fusion reactor]]s.<ref name=MIT/><ref>{{cite web| url=http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/research/he3| title=FTI Research| access-date=September 30, 2014| archive-date=June 9, 2010| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609234057/http://fti.neep.wisc.edu/research/he3| url-status=dead}}</ref> It should require about {{convert|100|MT|lb}} of helium-3 to produce the electricity that Earth uses in a year and there should be enough on the Moon to provide that much for 10,000 years.<ref>{{cite web |author=Kazmi |first=Shameem |title=Moon Mining: Myth or reality? |url=http://www.earthtimes.org/energy/moon-mining-myth-reality/2201/ |access-date=June 12, 2015 |work=earthtimes.org}}</ref>

== Locations ==

[[Russia]]n [[astronomer]] [[Vladislav Vladimirovich Shevchenko|Vladislav V. Shevchenko]] proposed in [[1988]] three criteria that a lunar outpost should meet:

* good conditions for [[transport]] operations;

* a great number of different types of natural objects and features on the Moon of scientific interest; and

* natural resources, such as [[oxygen]].

In 2024, an American startup called [[Interlune]] announced plans to mine Helium on the Moon for export to Earth. The first mission plans to use NASA's [[Commercial Lunar Payload Services]] program to arrive on the moon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eaton |first=Kit |date=March 14, 2024 |title=Space Startup Interlune Emerges From Stealth Mode to Start Moon Mining Effort |work=Inc |url=https://www.inc.com/kit-eaton/space-startup-interlune-emerges-from-stealth-mode-to-start-moon-mining-effort.html}}</ref>

While a colony might be located anywhere, potential locations for a lunar colony fall into three broad categories.

===Exporting propellant obtained from lunar water===

=== Polar regions ===

To reduce the cost of transport, the Moon could store [[ISRU|propellants produced from lunar water]] at one or several [[propellant depot|depots]] between the Earth and the Moon, to resupply rockets or satellites in Earth orbit.<ref>

There are two reasons why the lunar poles might be attractive as locations for a human colony. First, there is evidence that water is present in some continuously shaded areas near the poles. Second, because the Moon's [[axis of rotation]] is almost perfectly perpendicular to the [[ecliptic plane]], it may be possible to power polar colonies exclusively with solar energy. Power collection stations can be located so that at least one is in sunlight at all times, yet all are close enough to each other to be connected in an [[Electric power transmission|electrical grid]]. Some sites have nearly continuous sunlight. For example, [[Malapert Mountain|Malapert mountain]], located near the [[Shackleton (crater)|Shackleton crater]] at the lunar south pole, offers several advantages as a site:

{{cite journal |last1=Spudis |first1=Paul D. |last2=Lavoie |first2=Anthony R. |date=September 29, 2011 |title=Using the resources of the Moon to create a permanent, cislunar space faring system |url=http://www.spudislunarresources.com/Bibliography/p/102.pdf |journal=AIAA Space 2011 Conference & Exposition |volume=1646 |page=80 |bibcode=2011LPICo1646...80S}}</ref>

====Lunar water ice====

* It is exposed to the sun most of the time; two closely spaced arrays of [[solar panel]]s would receive continuous power.

{{Main| Lunar water}}

* Its proximity to Shackleton Crater (116 km) means that it could provide power and communications to the crater. This crater is potentially valuable for [[astronomy|astronomical]] observation. An [[infrared]] instrument would benefit from the very cold temperatures. A [[radio telescope]] would benefit from being shielded from Earth's broad spectrum radio interference.

* The nearby [[Shoemaker (Lunar crater)|Shoemaker]] and other craters are in constant deep shadow, and contain valuable concentrations of [[hydrogen]]. These volatiles could provide liquid [[water]], [[oxygen]], and [[rocket fuel]], among many other things.

* At around 5,000 metres elevation, it offers [[line of sight]] communications over a large area, as well as to [[Earth]].

* The [[South Pole-Aitken basin]] is located at the south lunar pole. This is the largest known impact basin in the solar system, and should provide geologists access to deeper layers of the Moon's crust.

[[File:LRO Peers into Permanent Shadows.ogg|thumb|300px|Video of the lunar south pole, showing areas of permanent shadow over several months (several [[lunar day]]s)]]

At the north pole, the rim of [[Peary (crater)|Peary crater]] has been proposed as a favorable ___location for a base. Examination of images from the Clementine mission appear to show that parts of the crater rim are permanently illuminated by sunlight (except during lunar eclipses). As a result the temperature conditions are expected to remain very stable at this ___location, averaging -50&deg; C (-58&deg; F). This is comparable to coastal winter conditions in [[Antarctica]]. The Peary crater interior may also harbor hydrogen deposits.

Lunar scientists had discussed the possibility of water repositories for decades. They are now increasingly "confident that the decades-long debate is over" a report says. "The Moon, in fact, has water in all sorts of places; not just locked up in [[minerals]], but scattered throughout the broken-up [[planetary surface|surface]], and, potentially, in blocks or sheets of ice at depth." The results from the ''[[Chandrayaan]]'' mission are also "offering a wide array of watery signals."<ref>{{cite news | url =https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2009-09-23-moon-water_N.htm | title =It's not lunacy, probes find water in Moon dirt | date =September 23, 2009 | access-date =September 26, 2009 | newspaper =USA Today}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.hindu.com/2009/09/23/stories/2009092357770100.htm | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20090926073133/http://www.hindu.com/2009/09/23/stories/2009092357770100.htm | url-status =dead | archive-date =September 26, 2009 | title =Water discovered on Moon?: "A lot of it actually" | date =September 23, 2009 | newspaper =[[The Hindu]] | access-date =September 26, 2009 }}</ref>

Although hydrogen appears to be concentrated at the poles, the presence of water ice has not yet been confirmed. Data from the [[Clementine]] mission suggested the presence of water ice around the south pole. [http://www.cmf.nrl.navy.mil/clementine/clementine.html] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/274/5292/1495] This would have been detected in the large [[Shackleton (crater)|Shackleton crater]] near the [[Moon]]'s South pole. [http://www.spacedaily.com/news/lunar-03s.html] The [[Lunar Prospector]] spacecraft detected possible water ice not only at the south pole, but also at the north pole &mdash; actually more so. [http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/results/ice/eureka.htm] On the other hand, Cornell News reported the results of a radar experiment (using the [[Arecibo Observatory|Arecibo radio telescope]]) that did not show any hints of water on the Moon. [http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Nov03/radar.Moonpoles.deb.html]

It is estimated there is at least 600&nbsp;million tons of ice at the north pole in sheets of relatively pure ice at least a couple of meters thick.<ref>Bill Keeter: [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature_ice_like_deposits.html NASA Radar Finds Ice Deposits at Moon's North Pole&nbsp;– Additional evidence of water activity on moon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921013327/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/Mini-RF/multimedia/feature_ice_like_deposits.html |date=September 21, 2015 }}. [[NASA|''National Aeronautics and Space Administration'']], March 2, 2010, retrieved June 27, 2011</ref>

===Equatorial regions===

The lunar equatorial regions are likely to have higher concentrations of [[Helium-3]] because the solar wind has a higher angle of incidence. They also enjoy an advantage in launching material from the Moon, but the advantage is slight due to the Moon's slow rotation.

===Solar power satellites===

One site mentioned by Shevchenko as meeting his criteria is [[Oceanus Procellarum]]. Several probes have landed in that area. There are many areas and features that should be subject to long-term study, such as the [[Reiner Gamma]] anomaly and the dark-floored [[Grimaldi (crater)|Grimaldi crater]]. Furthermore, measurements from ground-based telescopes as well as from the [[Zond 6]] spacecraft, reveal the presence of oxygen-bearing minerals in the area.

[[Gerard K. O'Neill]], noting the problem of high launch costs in the early 1970s, proposed building [[Solar Power Satellite]]s in orbit with materials from the Moon.<ref>{{cite book |author=O'Neill, Gerard K. |author-link=Gerard K. O'Neill |title=The High Frontier, Human Colonies in Space |isbn=978-0-688-03133-6 |page=57 |year=1977 |publisher=Apogee Books }}</ref> Launch costs from the Moon would vary significantly if the Moon is industrially developed. This proposal was based on the contemporary estimates of future launch costs of the Space Shuttle.

On April 30, 1979, the Final Report "Lunar Resources Utilization for Space Construction" by General Dynamics Convair Division under NASA contract, NAS9-15560 concluded that the use of lunar resources would be cheaper than terrestrial materials for a system comprising as few as thirty Solar Power Satellites of 10 GW capacity each.<ref>{{Cite book| url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19830077470_1983077470.pdf| title=Lunar Resources Utilization for Space Construction| year=1979| author=General Dynamics Convair Division| id=GDC-ASP79-001}}</ref>

===Far side===

The [[Far side (Moon)|lunar far side]] lacks direct communication with Earth, though a [[communication satellite]] at the L2 [[Lagrangian point]] would cover the far side. It might be a good ___location for a large radio telescope because it is well shielded from the Earth. Its topography differs from the near side and there had been no ground exploration of the far side to date.

In 1980, when NASA's launch cost estimates for the Space Shuttle were grossly optimistic, O'Neill et al. published another route to manufacturing using lunar materials with much lower startup costs.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=O'Neill, Gerard K. |author-link1=Gerard K. O'Neill |author2=Driggers, G. |author3=O'Leary, B. |author-link3=Brian O'Leary |title=New Routes to Manufacturing in Space |journal=Astronautics and Aeronautics |volume=18 |pages=46–51 |date=October 1980 |bibcode = 1980AsAer..18...46G }}</ref> This 1980s SPS concept relied less on human presence in space and more on partially self-replicating systems on the lunar surface under [[telepresence]] control of workers stationed on Earth.

Scientists have estimated that the highest concentrations of He-3 will be found on the ''marias'' on the far side, as well as near side areas containing concentrations of the [[titanium]]-based [[mineral]] [[ilmenite]]. On the near side the Earth partially shields the surface from the solar wind during each orbit. But the far side is fully exposed, and thus should receive a greater proportion of the ion stream.

==See Structure also==

{{Portal|Spaceflight|Solar System}}

{{div col|colwidth=22em}}

* [[Aurora programme]]

* [[Colonization of Mars]]

* [[Human outpost]]

* [[In situ resource utilization]]

* [[Lunar Explorers Society]]

* [[Lunar Gateway]]

* [[Lunarcrete]]

* ''[[Lunarcy!]]''

* [[Moon in fiction]]

* [[Moon landing]]

* [[Moon Society]]

* [[National Space Society]]

* [[NewSpace]]

* [[Planetary defense]]

* [[Planetary habitability]]

* [[Space architecture]]

* [[Space Frontier Foundation]]

* [[NASA lunar outpost concepts]]

* [[DARPA lunar programs]]

*[[Coordinated Lunar Time]]

{{div col end}}

=== Habitat =References==

'''Notes'''

[[image:Inflatable habitat s89 20084.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A lunar base with an inflatable module. Conceptual drawing. (&copy; NASA)]]

{{Reflist|30em}}

There have been numerous proposals regarding the habitat modules. The designs have evolved throughout the years as humankind's knowledge about the Moon has grown, and as the technological possibilities have changed. The proposed habitats range from the actual spacecraft landers or the used fuel tanks, to inflatable modules of various shapes. Early on, some hazards of the lunar environment such as sharp temperature shifts, lack of atmosphere or magnetic field (which means higher levels of radiation and micrometeoroids) and long nights, were recognized and taken into consideration.

'''General references'''

* {{Cite book | last = Peter Eckart | title = The Lunar Base Handbook, 2nd edition |year = 2006 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | pages = 820 | isbn = 978-0-07-329444-5}}

* {{Cite book |editor = Wendell Mendell |url=http://ads.harvard.edu/books/lbsa/ |title=Lunar bases and space activities of the 21st century |year = 1986 | publisher = Lunar and Planetary Institute | pages = 865 | isbn = 978-0-942862-02-7}}

* {{Cite web | url = http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Dec04/spaceResources.html |title = Cosmochemistry and Human Exploration | last = G. Jeffrey Taylor | publisher = Planetary Science Research Discoveries | date = December 23, 2004}}

* {{Cite web |url = http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/Nov00/mining.html | last = G. Jeffrey Taylor | title = Mining the Moon, Mars, and Asteroids | publisher = Planetary Science Research Discoveries | date = November 21, 2000}}

== Further reading ==

Some suggest building the lunar colony underground, which would give protection from radiation and micrometeoroids. The construction of such a base would probably be more complex; one of the first machines from Earth might be a remote controlled boring machine to excavate living quarters. Once created, some sort of hardening would be necessary to avoid collapse, possibly a spray-on [[concrete]]-like substance made from available materials. A more porous insulating material also made in situ could then be applied. Inflatable self-sealing fabric habitats might then be put in place to retain air. As an alternative to excavating, it is possible that large underground extinct [[Lava tube]]s might exist on the Moon. [[As of 2004]], existence of lava tubes on the Moon has not been confirmed.

* [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:BoCLnaClDwIJ:www.spacegeneration.org/files/images/MMWFILES/ISRU_presentation.pdf+human+outpost&hl=en&gl=ca&sig=AHIEtbR531BikZhNPCsx08s2KFYV1WbArg Resource Utilization Concepts for MoonMars]; ByIris Fleischer, Olivia Haider, Morten W. Hansen, Robert Peckyno, Daniel Rosenberg and Robert E. Guinness; September 30, 2003; IAC Bremen, 2003 (Sept 29&nbsp;– October 3, 2003) and MoonMars Workshop (Sep 26–28, 2003, Bremen). Accessed on January 18, 2010.

* {{cite book |first=Erik |last=Seedhouse |title=Lunar Outpost: The Challenges of Establishing Human Settlements on the Moon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJm_i3GS4r4C |year=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-09746-6}} [https://www.springer.com/astronomy/space+exploration/book/978-0-387-09746-6 Publisher's book page.]

A possibly easier solution is to build the lunar base on the surface, and cover the modules with lunar soil. Others have put forward the idea that the lunar base could be built on the surface and protected by other means, such as improved radiation and micrometeoroid shielding. Artificial magnetic fields have been proposed as a means to provide radiation shielding for long range deep space manned missions, and it might be possible to use similar technology on a lunar colony.

* {{cite book |first1=Madhu |last1=Thangavelu |author2=Schrunk, David G. |first3=Burton |last3=Sharpe |first4=Bonnie L. |last4=Cooper |title=The Moon: resources, future development, and settlement |publisher=Springer |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-387-36055-3 |edition=2nd }}

=== Energy ===

A lunar base would need power for its operations, from fuel production and communications to life support systems and scientific research.

==== Nuclear power ====

A nuclear [[fission reactor]] could possibly be able to fill most of the need for power. The advantage it has against a [[fusion reactor]] is that it is an already existing technology. One advantage of using a fusion reactor is that [[Helium-3]] which is required for a type of fusion reactions is abundant on the Moon. However, it's possible that reliable, efficient fusion reactors will not be available at the time of lunar colonization.

[[Radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s could be used as backup and emergency power sources for solar powered colonies.

==== Solar energy ====

Solar energy is a strong candidate. It could prove to be a relatively cheap source of power for a lunar base, especially since many of the raw materials needed for solar panel production can be extracted in situ. However, the long lunar night (14 Earth days) is a drawback for solar power on the Moon. This might be solved by building several power plants, so that at least one of them is always in daylight. Another possibility could be to build such a power plant where there is constant or near-constant sunlight, such as at the Malapert mountain near the lunar south pole, or on the rim of [[Peary (crater)|Peary creater]] near the north pole. See [[Peak of Eternal Light]].

The solar energy converters need not be [[silicon]] [[solar panel]]s. It may be more feasible to use the larger temperature difference between sun and shade to run [[heat engine]] generators. Concentrated sunlight could also be relayed via mirrors and used directly for lighting, agriculture and process heat. The focused heat can also be employed in materials processing to extract various elements from lunar surface materials.

== Transport ==

=== On the surface ===

[[image:Lunar rover concept drawing s94 27631.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A lunar rover being unloaded from a cargo spacecraft. Conceptual drawing. (&copy; NASA)]]

Lunar colonists will want the ability to move over long distances, to transport cargo and people to and from modules and spacecraft, and to be able to carry out scientific study of a larger area of the lunar surface for long periods of time. Proposed concepts include a variety of vehicle designs, from small open rovers to large pressurised modules with lab equipment, and also a few flying or hopping vehicles.

Rovers could be useful if the terrain is not too steep or hilly. The only rovers that operated on the surface of the Moon as of 2004 were the Apollo [[Lunar Roving Vehicle]] (LRV), developed by [[Boeing]] and the unmanned Soviet [[Lunokhod]]. The LRV was an open rover for a crew of two, and a range of 92 km during one lunar day. One [[NASA]] study resulted in the [[Mobile Lunar Laboratory]] concept, a manned pressurised rover for a crew of two, range would be 396 km. The Soviet Union developed different rover concepts in the Lunokhod series (DLB Lunokhod 1-3/LEK) and the L5 for possible use on future manned missions to the Moon or Mars. These rover designs were all pressurised for longer missions.

Once multiple bases have been established on the lunar surface, they can be linked together by permanent railway systems. Both conventional and [[magnetic levitation]] (Mag-Lev) systems have been proposed for the transport lines. Mag-Lev systems are particularly attractive as there is no atmosphere on the surface to slow down the [[train]], so the vehicles could achieve velocities comparable to [[aircraft]] on the Earth. One significant difference with lunar trains, however, is that the cars will need to be individually sealed and possess their own life support systems. The trains will also need to be highly resistant to derailment, as a punctured car can lead to rapid loss of life.

For difficult areas, it could be a good idea to use a flying vehicle. [[Bell Aerosystems]] proposed their design for the [[Lunar Flying Vehicle]] as part of a study for NASA. Bell also developed the [[Manned Flying System]], a similar concept.

=== Surface to space ===

[[image:Lunar base concept drawing s78 23252.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A lunar base with a mass driver (the long structure that goes towards the horizon.) Conceptual drawing. (&copy; NASA)]]

A lunar base will need efficient ways to transport people and goods of various kinds between the Earth and the Moon and, later, to and from various locations in interplanetary space. One advantage of the Moon is its relatively weak gravity field, making it easier to launch goods from the Moon than from the Earth. The lack of a lunar atmosphere is both an advantage and a disadvantage; while it's easier to launch from the Moon because there is no drag, [[aerobraking]] is not possible, which makes it necessary to bring extra fuel in order to land. An alternative, which may work for supplies, is to surround the payload with impact-absorbing materials, something that was tried in the [[Ranger program]]. This can be efficient if the impact protection is made of needed lighter elements that are absent from the Moon (Ranger used [[balsa wood]]).

One way to get materials and products from the Moon to an interplanetary waystation might be with a [[mass driver]], a magnetically accelerated rail. Cargo would be picked up from orbit or an Earth-Moon [[Lagrangian point]] by a shuttle craft using [[ion propulsion]], [[solar sail]]s or other means and delivered to Earth orbit or other destinations such as near-Earth asteroids, [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] or other planets. If a [[lunar space elevator]] ever proves practical, it could transport people, raw materials and products to an orbital station at Lagrangian points L1 or L2. A "Pop Gun" concept has also been proposed, using heated gas to launch packets of material to orbit.

== Economic development ==

For long term sustainability, a space colony should be close to self sufficient. In situ [[mining]] and [[refining]] of the Moon's materials could provide an advantage over deliveries from Earth &ndash; for use both on the Moon and elsewhere in the solar system &ndash; as they can be launched into space at a much lower energy cost than from Earth. It is possible that vast sums of money will be spent in interplanetary [[exploration]] in the [[21st century]], and the cost of providing goods from the Moon could be attractive.

Exporting material to Earth in trade is more problematic due to the high cost of transportation. One suggested candidate is [[Helium-3]] from the [[solar wind]], which may have accumulated on the Moon's surface over billions of years, which may prove to be a desirable fuel in [[fusion reactor]]s, and which is rare on Earth. Neither the abundance of Helium-3 on the lunar surface nor the feasibility of its use in fusion power plants have been established, however.

Other economic possibilities include the [[tourism]] industry; manufacturing that requires a sterile, low-gravity environment in a vacuum; research and processing of potentially dangerous life forms or [[nanotechnology]], and long-term storage of [[radioactive]] materials. The low gravity may find health uses such allowing the physically enfeebled to continue to enjoy an active lifestyle. Large, pressurized domes or caverns would permit human-powered flight, which may result in new sports activities.

== Moon colonies in fiction and film ==

Moon colonies are found in many [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s, [[short story|short stories]] and [[film]]s. Not all have the Moon colony itself as central to the plot. Here are some notable examples:

'''Books'''

* ''[[The Moon is a Harsh Mistress]]'', a classic science fiction novel by [[Robert A. Heinlein]], tells the story of a lunar rebellion against control by Earth-based governments.

* The short story ''[[People Came From Earth]]'' by [[Stephen Baxter]]. It can be found in ''The Year's Best Fantasy and Horror: Thirteenth Annual Collection''.

* In the novel ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' by Arthur C. Clarke, a meeting is held at a lunar colony to decide how to deal with the Rama object.

* The [[1993 in literature|1993]] book ''Assemblers of Infinity'' by Kevin Anderson and Doug Beason featured a lunar base and a mysterious structure being assembled on the far side by tiny machines. ISBN 0-553-29921-2.

* ''Transmigration of Souls'' by William Barton, published in [[1996 in literature|1996]], had an expedition from a moon base discovering an alien base with technology that allowed teleportation and time travel. ISBN 0-446-60167-5.

* The ''Moonrise'' and ''Moonwar'' books by [[Ben Bova]] tell the story of a lunar base built by an [[United States|American]] corporation, which eventually rebels against Earth control. The books form part of the "Grand Tour" series.

* ''Moonfall'' by Jack McDevitt features a [[comet]] heading for a collision with the Moon just as the first base is being opened. ISBN 0061050369.

* In [[1993 in literature|1993]], the fictional [[Holland|Dutch]] travel guide ''De Maan'' was written by Carl Koppeschaar, and later translated into English as ''Moon Handbook: A 21st-Century Travel Guide''. ISBN 1-56691-066-8.

'''Television'''

* The [[Britain|British]] [[television]] show [[Space: 1999]] featured the ''Moonbase Alpha'' on a Moon that had been blasted out of its orbit at phenomenal velocity.

* Moonbase 3 was another British science fiction television show about a lunar base that aired briefly in 1973 for 6 episodes.

* [[Planetes]] is a [[2003]] [[japan]]ese [[anime]] TV series set at a time when travel to the Moon has become an everyday occurance.

* The [[Doctor Who]] episode ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'' features a penal colony on the Moon. The episode is set in the year 200,100

*Throughout most of the [[Mobile Suit Gundam]] anime saga, the Moon has been extensively colonised, with underground cities built inside of the larger craters.

'''Film'''

* ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' by Arthur C. Clarke included a scene at a lunar administrative base in [[Clavius (crater)|Clavius crater]].

== See also ==

* [[Apollo program]]

* [[:Category:Lunar spacecraft]]

* [[Colonization of Mars]]

* [[Colonization of the outer solar system]]

* [[List of craters on the Moon]]

* [[List of mountains on the Moon]]

* [[List of valleys on the Moon]]

* [[Lunar Government]]

* [[Lunar space elevator]]

* [[Moon Society]]

* [[Soviet Moonshot]]

== ReferencesExternal links ==

{{Wikiversity|Lunar Boom Town}}

* Mars Institute [http://www.marsinstitute.info/rd/faculty/dportree/rtr/rtr-ft.html Footholds: Outposts, Bases, and Settlements]. Retrieved December 17, 2004.

{{Commons category|Colonization of the Moon}}

* Department of the Navy [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=2004-030A Clementine]. Retrieved December 18, 2004.

* {{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.274.5292.1495 |vauthors=Nozette S, Lichtenberg CL, Spudis P, Bonner R, Ort W, Malaret E, Robinson M, Shoemaker EM |title=The Clementine bistatic radar experiment |journal=Science |volume=274 |issue=5292 |pages=1495–8 |date=November 1996 |pmid=8929403 |bibcode=1996Sci...274.1495N |display-authors=1|doi-access=free |hdl=2060/19970023672 |hdl-access=free }}

* Science Magazine [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/short/274/5292/1495 The Clementine Bistatic Radar Experiment]. Retrieved December 18, 2004.

* SpaceNASA DailyAmes Research Center [httphttps://wwwweb.spacedailyarchive.comorg/web/20061209110937/http:/news/lunar-03s.htmlarc.nasa.gov/results/ice/eureka.htm Lunar PolarEureka! Ice Notfound Foundat With AreciboLunar RadarPoles]. Retrieved December 18, 2004.

* NASACornell Ames Research CenterNews [httphttps://lunarwww.arcnews.nasacornell.govedu/resultsreleases/iceNov03/eurekaradar.htmMoonpoles.deb.html EUREKA!Arecibo ICEradar FOUNDshows ATno LUNARevidence POLESof thick ice at lunar poles (...)]. Retrieved December 18, 2004.

* NASA Johnson Space Centre [https://web.archive.org/web/20030928144705/http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/8/1.cfm Liftoff! Moon Base Alpha]. Last checked January 20, 2005.

* Cornell News [http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Nov03/radar.Moonpoles.deb.html Arecibo radar shows no evidence of thick ice at lunar poles (...)]. Retrieved December 18, 2004.

* Encyclopedia Astronautica [https://web.archive.org/web/20050206205953/http://astronautix.com/craft/mancraft.htm Subcategory:&nbsp;– Manned&nbsp;– Lunar rover]. Retrieved December 20, 2004.

* NASA Johnson Space Centre [http://aerospacescholars.jsc.nasa.gov/HAS/cirr/em/8/1.cfm Liftoff! Moon Base Alpha]. Last checked January 20, 2005.

* [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/main/index.html The vision for space exploration] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211220500/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/main/index.html |date=February 11, 2021 }}, NASA.

* Encyclopedia Astronautica [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/mancraft.htm Subcategory: - Manned - Lunar rover - ]. Retrieved December 20, 2004.

* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/what-if-moon-colony.htm How Stuff Works&nbsp;– What if we lived on the moon?] Retrieved March 15, 2007.

* Wiki devoted to the return to the Moon – [http://www.lunarpedia.org Lunarpedia].

* OpenLuna Foundation [http://openluna.org OpenLuna.org].

* Elements of a south polar lunar settlement [http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/elements_for_a_sustainable_lunar_colony_in_the_south_polar_region.shtml].

*[http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Technology/Building_a_lunar_base_with_3D_printing Building a lunar base with 3D printing] (ESA).

* Moon Storage: One Small Space For Man, One Giant Space For Mankind [http://www.selfstorage.com/tips/storage-on-the-moon-infographic/ Moon Storage Infographic]. Retrieved September 1, 2014.

*[https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-07107-4 Researchers are ramping up plans for living on the Moon].

{{Moon colonization}}

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{{The Moon}}

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{{Moon spacecraft}}

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