Third Dynasty of Ur: Difference between revisions

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{{short description|Royal dynasty in Mesopotamia}}

The '''third dynasty of [[Ur]]''' was also known as the '''[[Sumerian]] Renaissance''', coming after several centuries of [[Akkadian]] and [[Gutian]] kings. It controlled the cities of [[Isin]], [[Larsa]] and [[Eshnunna]].

{{Infobox family

|name =Third dynasty of Ur

|native_name ={{native name|sux|𒉆𒈗𒋀𒀕𒆠}}<br /><span style="font-weight: normal">{{Transliteration|sux|nam-lugal urim₂^KI}}</span>

|other_names =Ur III

|parent_family =[[First dynasty of Ur]]

|image ={{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=275|caption_align=center

|align =right

|direction =Vertical

|image1 =Ur III.svg

|caption1 =Map showing the Ur III state and its sphere of influence.

|footer=

{{Location map

|West Asia#Iraq

|width =275px

|float =center

|border =none

|caption =Location of [[Ur]], in [[Western Asia]], modern [[Iraq]].

|relief =yes

|label =[[Ur]]

|position =left

|lat_deg =30.963056

|lon_deg =46.103056

}}}}

|country =[[Sumer]]

|founded =c. 2112 BC

|founder =[[Ur-Nammu]]

|final_ruler =[[Ibbi-Sin]]

|historic_seat =[[Ur]]

|titles ={{Collapsible list

|bullets =on

|1 =[[Lugal|King]] of [[Ur]]

|2 =[[King of Sumer and Akkad]]

|3 =[[King of the Four Corners]]

|4 =[[King of Sumer]]

}}

|other_families =[[Dynasty of Isin]]

|dissolution =c. 2004 BC

| p1 = Gutian dynasty of Sumer

Though documents again began to be written in Sumerian, the dynasty may actually have been Semitic; Sumerian was already becoming a dead language, much as Latin later would be in Medieval Europe. The power of these kings extended to the Mediterranean, and there have been found a large number of inscriptions of their reigns in the form of contracts and similar business documents, as well as chronological tables.

| p2 = Second dynasty of Lagash

| s1 = Isin-Larsa period

| flag_s1 = Elam Map.jpg

| flag_s2 = Babylone 1.PNG

| image_map = Ur III.svg

| image_map_caption = Map showing the Ur III state and its sphere of influence.

}}

The '''Third Dynasty of Ur''' or '''Ur III''' was a [[Sumer]]ian dynasty based in the city of [[Ur]] in the 22nd and 21st centuries [[Common Era|BC]] ([[middle chronology]]). For a short period they were the preeminent power in [[Mesopotamia]] and their realm is sometimes referred to by historians as the '''Neo-Sumerian Empire'''.

The Third Dynasty of Ur is commonly abbreviated as "Ur III" by historians studying the period. It is numbered in reference to previous dynasties, such as the [[First Dynasty of Ur]] (26–25th century BC), but it seems the once supposed Second Dynasty of Ur was never recorded.<ref>"The so-called Second Dynasty of Ur is a phantom and is not recorded in the SKL" in {{cite book |last1=Frayne |first1=Douglas |title=Pre-Sargonic Period: Early Periods, Vol. 1 (2700–2350 BC) |date=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-1-4426-9047-9 |page=910 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8PNAnIome3AC&pg=PT910 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Ur-Nammu]] (originally a general) founded the dynasty. He had supplanted the king of [[Uruk]], [[Utu-khegal]], who himself had unseated the [[Gutian]] king [[Tirigan]]. [[Shulgi]] ([[2047 BC]] [[short chronology]]) received the throne of Ur from Ur-Nammu, and the succession of kings is documented down to [[Ibbi-Sin]].

The Third Dynasty of Ur was the last Sumerian dynasty which came to preeminent power in Mesopotamia. It began after several centuries of control, exerted first by the [[Akkadian Empire]], and then, after its fall, by [[Gutian dynasty of Sumer|Gutian]] and independent Sumerian city-state kings. It controlled the cities of [[Isin]], [[Larsa]], and [[Eshnunna]] and extended as far north as [[Upper Mesopotamia]]. The Ur III provinces, from north to south were Sippar, Tiwe, Urum, Puö, Gudua, Babylon, Kis, Kazallu, [[Apiak]], Marad, Nippur, Uru-sagrig, Isin, Adab, Suruppak, Umma, Girsu, Uruk, and Ur.<ref>Sharlach, Tonia, "Provincial Taxation and the Ur III State" CM 26. Leiden: Brill, 2004</ref>

After the fall of the Ur III dynasty owing to an [[Elam]]ite invasion in 2004 BC, Babylonia passed under foreign ([[Amorite]]) influence.

==History==

''See also'' [[Sumerian king list]].

{{Further|History of Mesopotamia}}

[[File:Utu-Khegal, Prince of the Summerian city of Erech, imploring victory against the Gutian king Tirikan.jpg|thumb|left|[[Utu-hengal]], [[Lugal]] of the Sumerian city of [[Uruk]], praying for victory against the Gutian king [[Tirigan]]. 19th century illustration.]]

The Third Dynasty of Ur arose some time after the fall of the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad Dynasty]]. The period between the last powerful king of the Akkad Dynasty, [[Shar-Kali-Sharri]], and the first king of Ur III, [[Ur-Nammu]], is not well documented, but most Assyriologists posit that there was a brief "Dark Age", followed by a power struggle among the most powerful city-states. On the king-lists, Shar-Kali-Sharri is followed by two more kings of Akkad and six in Uruk; however, there are no year names surviving for any of these, nor even any artifacts confirming that any of these reigns was historical — save one artifact for [[Dudu of Akkad]] (Shar-Kali-Sharri's immediate successor on the list). Akkad's primacy, instead, seems to have been usurped by [[Gutian dynasty of Sumer|Gutian]] invaders from the [[Zagros Mountains]], whose kings ruled in Mesopotamia for an indeterminate period (124 years according to some copies of the [[Sumerian King List|king list]], only 25 according to others). An illiterate and nomadic people, their rule was not conducive to agriculture, nor record-keeping, and by the time they were expelled, the region was crippled by severe famine and skyrocketing grain prices.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} Their last king, [[Tirigan]], was driven out by [[Utu-hengal]] of [[Uruk]].

[[File:Map of Ur III.svg|thumb|right|Empire of the Third Dynasty of Ur (in green), with territory, zone of influence, and colonial outposts, at their greatest. West is at top, North at right.]]

{{hist-stub}}

Following Utu-Hengal's reign, [[Ur-Nammu]] (originally a general) founded the Third Dynasty of Ur, but the precise events surrounding his rise are unclear. The ''[[Sumerian King List]]'' states that Utu-hengal had reigned for seven years (or 426, or 26 in other copies), although only one year-name for him is known from records, that of his accession, suggesting a shorter reign.

[[File:Iddin-Sin, King of Simurrum, c. 2000 BC (detail).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Iddin-Sin]], King of the [[Simurrum]]. The Simurrum, a [[mountain tribe]], were vanquished by the armies of the Third Dynasty of Ur, {{Circa|2000 BC}} (detail)]]

It is possible that Ur-Nammu was originally his governor. There are two [[stelae]] discovered in [[Ur]] that include this detail in an inscription about Ur-Nammu's life.

[[File:King Ur-Nammu.jpg|thumb|left|Enthroned King [[Ur-Nammu]], founder of the Third Dynasty of Ur {{Circa|2047 BC}}, on a cylinder seal.<ref name="britishmuseum.org">{{cite web |title=Hash-hamer Cylinder seal of Ur-Nammu |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=368841&partId=1 |website=British Museum}}</ref> His name appears vertically in the upper right corner (𒌨𒀭𒇉).]]

Ur-Nammu rose to prominence as a warrior-king when he crushed the ruler of [[Lagash]] in battle, killing the king himself. After this battle, Ur-Nammu seems to have earned the title 'king of Sumer and Akkad.'

Ur's dominance over the Neo-Sumerian Empire was consolidated with the famous [[Code of Ur-Nammu]], probably the first such law-code for Mesopotamia since that of [[Urukagina]] of [[Lagash]] centuries earlier.

Many significant changes occurred in the empire under [[Shulgi]]'s reign. He took steps to centralize and standardize the procedures of the empire. He is credited with standardizing administrative processes, archival documentation, the tax system, and the national calendar. He captured the city of [[Susa]] and the surrounding region, toppling [[Elamite]] king [[Kutik-Inshushinak]], while the rest of Elam fell under control of [[Shimashki dynasty]].<ref>[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-i Encyclopædia Iranica: Elam – Simashki dynasty, F. Vallat]</ref>

[[File:Lament for ur (cropped).JPG|thumb|right|upright|The [[Lament for Ur]], commemorating the fall of Ur to the Elamites. [[Louvre Museum]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barton |first1=George A. (George Aaron) |title=Miscellaneous Babylonian inscriptions |date=1918 |publisher=New Haven, Yale University Press |pages=45–50 |url=https://archive.org/stream/miscellaneousba00bartgoog#page/n61/mode/2up}}</ref>]]

===The military and conquests of Ur III===

In the last century of the 3rd millennium BCE, it is believed that the kings of Ur waged several conflicts around the frontiers of the kingdom. These conflicts are believed to have been influenced by the king of Akkad. As there is little evidence of how the kings organized their forces, it is unclear whether defensive forces were in the center or outside the kingdom. What is known is that the second ruler of the dynasty, [[Shulgi|Šulgi]] achieved some expansion and conquest. These were continued by his three successors but their conquests are less frequent with time.<ref name="BL"/>

At the very height of the expansion of Ur, they had taken territory from southeastern [[Anatolia]] (modern [[Turkey]]) to the Iranian shore of the Persian Gulf, a testimony to the strength of the dynasty. There are hundreds of texts that explain how treasures were seized by the Ur III armies and brought back to the kingdom after many victories. In some texts, it also appears that the Shulgi campaigns were the most profitable for the kingdom, although it is likely that the kings and temples of Ur were primarily those that benefited from the spoils of war.<ref name="BL">{{Cite journal|last=Lafont|first=Bertrand|title=The Army of the Kings of Ur: The Textual Evidence|journal=Cuneiform Digital Library Journal}}</ref>

====Conflicts with northeastern mountain tribes====

The rulers of Ur III were often in conflict with the highland tribes of the [[Zagros|Zagros mountain]] area who dwelled in the northeastern portion of Mesopotamia. The most important of these tribes were the [[Simurrum]] and the [[Lullubi]] tribal kingdoms.<ref name="JE">{{cite book |last1=Eidem |first1=Jesper |title=The Shemshāra Archives 1: The Letters |date=2001 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=9788778762450 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PggUcchMk4AC&pg=PA24}}</ref><ref name="DF">{{cite book |last1=Frayne |first1=Douglas |title=Old Babylonian Period (2003–1595 BC) |date=1990 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=9780802058737 |pages=707ff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA697}}</ref> They were also often in conflict with [[Elam]].

====Military rulers of Mari====

In the northern area of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], Semitic military rulers called the [[Shakkanakku]]s apparently continued to rule contemporaneously with the Third Dynasty of Ur, or possibly in the period that just preceded it,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Thomas |first1=Ariane |last2=Potts |first2=Timothy |title=Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins |date=2020 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-1-60606-649-2 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 |language=en}}</ref> with rulers such as military governors like [[Puzur-Ishtar]], who was probably contemporary with [[Amar-Sin]].<ref name="GL">{{cite book |last1=Leick |first1=Gwendolyn |title=Who's Who in the Ancient Near East |date=2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-78796-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAGFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="MLD227">{{cite book |last1=Durand |first1=M.L. |title=Supplément au Dictionnaire de la Bible: Tell Hariri/Mar: Textes |page=227 |date=2008|url=http://pix.archibab.fr/4Dcgi/11710M2807.pdf}}</ref>

===List of rulers===

Assyriologists employ many complicated methods for establishing the most precise dates possible for this period, but controversy still exists. Generally, scholars use either the conventional (middle, generally preferred) or the low (short) chronologies. They are as follows:

{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center"

|-

!width="1%"|#

!width="24.75%"|Portrait or inscription

!width="24.75%"|Ruler

!width="24.75%"|{{abbr|Approx.|approximately}} date and length of reign

!width="24.75%"|Comments, notes, and references for mentions

|-

|colspan="5"align="center"style="background-color:palegoldenrod"|'''Ur III period ({{circa|2119|2004 BC|lk=yes}})'''

|-

!colspan="5"|[[History of Sumer#Fifth Dynasty of Uruk|Fifth dynasty of Uruk / Uruk V dynasty]] ({{circa|2119|2112 BC}})

|-

|colspan="5"align="left"|{{blockquote|''"Then the army of [[Gutian dynasty#List of rulers|Gutium]] was defeated and the [[Throne|kingship]] was taken to [[Uruk#List of rulers|Uruk]]."''|''[[Sumerian King List]]'' (''SKL'')}}

|-

|1st

|[[file:Utu-Khegal, Prince of the Summerian city of Erech, imploring victory against the Gutian king Tirikan.jpg|120px]]

|([[Utu-hengal]])<br>𒀭𒌓𒃶𒅅

|{{reign|c. 2119|c. 2112 BC|show=lword}}<br>([[Middle Chronology]])<br>

<small>{{reign|c. 2055|c. 2048|era=BC}}<br>([[Short Chronology]])<br>(7 or 26 years)</small>

|

* ''[[Tempore|temp.]]'' of [[Tirigan]]

* ''temp.'' of [[Puzur-Inshushinak]]

* A ''"[[Ensi (Sumerian)|Governor]]"'' of Uruk who overthrew the [[Gutium|Gutians]] and briefly ruled Sumer until he was succeeded by [[Ur-Nammu]], who he had appointed governor of [[Ur]], thus ending the final Sumerian dynasty of Uruk<ref>[https://archive.org/details/ASumerianReading-book] C.J Gadd, ''A Sumerian reading-book'', Clarendon Press, 1924</ref>

|-

!colspan="5"|

|-

|colspan="5"align="left"|{{blockquote|''"1 king; he ruled for 7 years, 6 months, and 15 days. Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship was taken to [[Ur#List of rulers|Ur]]."''|''SKL''}}

|-

|colspan="5"align="center"style="background-color:palegoldenrod"|'''[[History of Sumer#Third Dynasty of Ur|Third dynasty of Ur / Ur III dynasty]] ({{circa|2112|2004 BC}})'''

|-

|1st

|[[File:King Ur-Nammu.jpg|120px]]

|[[Ur-Nammu]]<br>𒌨𒀭𒇉

|{{reign|c. 2112|c. 2094|era=BC}}<br>(MC)<br>

<small>{{reign|c. 2048|c. 2030|era=BC}}<br>(SC)<br>(18 years)</small>

|

* ''temp.'' of Utu-hengal

* ''temp.'' of [[Nam-mahani]]

* ''temp.'' of Tirigan

|-

|2nd

|[[File:Cylinder seal of Shulgi.jpg|120px]]

|[[Shulgi]]<br>𒀭𒂄𒄀

|{{reign|c. 2094|c. 2046|era=BC}}<br>(MC)<br>

<small>{{reign|c. 2030|c. 1982|era=BC}}<br>(SC)<br>(46, 48, or 58 years)</small>

|

* Son of Ur-Nammu

* Held the title of, ''"[[King of the Four Corners]]"''

* He [[List of people who have been considered deities#Self-deification|self-deified]]

|-

|3rd

|[[File:P1150892 Louvre figurine-clou-Ur AO3142 rwk.jpg|120px]]

|[[Amar-Sin]]<br>𒀭𒀫𒀭𒂗𒍪

|{{reign|c. 2046|c. 2037|era=BC}}<br>(MC)<br>

<small>{{reign|c. 1982|c. 1973|era=BC}}<br>(SC)<br>(9 of 25 years)</small>

|

* Son of Shulgi

* He has been compared with the Biblical king [[Amraphel]]

* He may have been contemporaneous with the Biblical patriarch [[Abraham]]

|-

|4th

|[[File:Seal of Gimil-Sin (Shu-Sin).jpg|120px]]

|[[Shu-Sin]]<br>𒀭𒋗𒀭𒂗𒍪

|{{reign|c. 2037|c. 2028|era=BC}}<br>(MC)<br>

<small>{{reign|c. 1973|c. 1964|era=BC}}<br>(SC)<br>(7, 9, 16, or 20 years)</small>

|

* Son of Amar-Sin

* Historicity certain

* Held the title of, ''"[[King of Sumer and Akkad]]"''

|-

|5th

|[[File:Ibbi-Sin enthroned.jpg|120px]]

|[[Ibbi-Sin]]<br>𒀭𒄿𒉈𒀭𒂗𒍪

|{{reign|c. 2028|c. 2004|era=BC}}<br>(MC)<br>

<small>{{reign|c. 1964|c. 1940|era=BC}}<br>(SC)<br>(15, 23, 24, or 25 years)</small>

|

* Son of Shu-Sin

* Said on the ''SKL'' to have held the title of, ''"[[lugal|King]]"'' of not just Akkad; but, to have held the ''"[[Hegemony|Kingship]]"'' over ''all'' of Sumer

* Mentioned on the, ''"[[Lament for Sumer and Ur]]"''

|-

|colspan="5"align="left"|{{blockquote|''"5 kings; they ruled for 108 years. Then the reign of Ur was [[abolition of monarchy|abolished]]. The very foundation of Sumer was torn out. The kingship was taken to [[Isin#List of rulers|Isin]]."''|''SKL''}}

|}

The list of the Kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur with the length of their reigns, appears on a cuneiform document listing the kings of Ur and [[Isin]], the "List of Reigns of Kings of Ur and Isin" (MS 1686). The list explains: "18 years [[Ur-Nammu|Ur-Namma]] [was] king, 48 years [[Shulgi]] [was] king, 9 years [[Amar-Sin|Amar-Suen]], 9 years [[Shu-Sin|Su-Suen]], 24 years [[Ibbi-Sin|Ibbi-Suen]]."<ref>{{cite book |last1=George |first1=A.R. |title=Sumero-Babylonian King Lists and Date Lists |date=January 2011 |pages=206–210 |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/12833/1/CUSAS-17-11.pdf}}</ref>

===Fall of Ur III===

{{see also|Lament for Ur}}

The power of the Neo-Sumerians was waning. [[Ibbi-Sin]] in the 21st century launched military campaigns into [[Elam]], but did not manage to penetrate far into the country. In 2004/1940 BC (middle/short chronology respectively), the Elamites, allied with the people of [[Susa]] and led by [[Kindattu]], king of the Elamite [[Shimashki dynasty]], was able to surround Ur and managed to sack [[Ur]](early summer?)<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.sanityquestpublishing.com/Chapter1.pdf |title= Abram |publisher= Cary Cook |year=2007 |page=1}}</ref> and lead [[Ibbi-Sin]] into captivity, ending the [[third dynasty of Ur]]. After this victory, the Elamites destroyed the kingdom, and ruled through military occupation for the next 21 years.<ref name="TB">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA221|title=The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: The Near East from the Early Bronze Age to the fall of the Persian Empire|last1=Bryce|first1=Trevor|date=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134159079|page=221|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Potts2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WE62CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133|title=The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State|author=D.T. Potts|year=2015|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-09469-7|page=133}}</ref>

[[Mesopotamia]] then fell under [[Amorite]] influence. The Amorite kings of the [[Dynasty of Isin]] formed [[successor state]]s to Ur III, starting the [[Isin-Larsa period]]. They managed to drive the Elamites out of Ur, rebuilt the city, and returned the statue of [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]] that the Elamites had plundered. The Amorites were nomadic tribes from the northern [[Levant]] who were [[Northwest Semitic]] speakers, unlike the native [[Akkadians]] of southern Mesopotamia and [[Assyria]], who spoke [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]]. By around the [[19th century BC]], much of southern Mesopotamia was occupied by the Amorites. The Amorites at first did not practice agriculture, preferring a semi-nomadic lifestyle, herding sheep. Over time, Amorite grain merchants rose to prominence and established their own independent dynasties in several south Mesopotamian city-states, most notably [[Isin]], [[Larsa]], [[Eshnunna]], [[Lagash]], and later, founding [[Babylon]] as a state.

== Dating systems ==

[[File:Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq 2005.jpg|thumb|The [[Ziggurat of Ur]], rebuilt and enlarged many times, was founded by the Third Dynasty of Ur]]

When Kings of the Third Ur dynasty ruled they had specific dates and names for each period of their rule. One example was "the year of Ur-nammu king," which marked Ur-Nammu's coronation. Another important time was the year named "The threshed grain of Largas." This year name references an event in which Ur-Nammu attacked the territory of Largas and took grain back to Ur. Another year-name that has been discovered was the year that Ur-Nammu's daughter became ''en'' of the god Nanna and was renamed with the priestess-name of En-Nirgal-ana. This designation as ''en'' of Nanna makes the year's designation almost certain.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC)|last=Frayne|first=Douglas|publisher=Canadian Electronic Library|year=1997}}</ref>

==Social and political organization==

===Political organization===

[[File:Cylinder seal of Shulgi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Cylinder seal of King [[Shulgi]], Louvre Museum.]]

The Ur III state followed a [[Patrimonialism|patrimonial]] system. The state was organized into a hierarchical pyramid of households with the royal household at the top. As described by Steinkeller it was a network of households linked together by mutual rights and obligations. All resources of the state were exclusively owned by the royal household. All inferior households were considered dependants of the higher ones. Inferior households contributed corvee labour to the royal household and received economic support, land, and protection in return.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Steinkeller |first=Piotr |title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume Two: The History of Empires |date=March 2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780197532799 |pages=43–72 |chapter=The Sargonic and Ur III Empires}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Notizia |first=Palmiro |date=2019 |title=HOW TO "INSTITUTIONALIZE" A HOUSEHOLD IN UR III ĜIRSU/LAGAŠ: THE CASE OF THE HOUSE OF UR-DUN |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48569340 |journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies |volume=71 |pages=11–12|doi=10.1086/703851 |jstor=48569340 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Garfinkle |first=Steven |title=The Growth of an Early State in Mesopotamia: Studies in Ur III Administration |publisher=Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas |year=2008 |___location=Madrid |pages=55–61 |chapter=Was the Ur III state bureaucratic? Patrimonialism and Bureaucracy in the Ur III period}}</ref>

In each province, administrative and economic responsibility were split between two households: one headed by a governor (ensi) and one headed by a general (Šagina) who represented the crown.

Each province had a redistribution center where provincial taxes, called [[bala taxation|bala]], would all go to be shipped to the capital. The bala tax worked on a rotating basis, with only one province supporting the kingdom at a time. Each province would support the kingdom for an amount of time determined by the size of their economy. Taxes could be paid in various forms, from crops to livestock to land.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Podany |first=Amanda |title=The Ancient Near East: A Very Short Introduction |date=December 2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=58–61 |chapter=The Third Dynasty of Ur, 2193–2004 bce}}</ref> The government would then apportion out goods as needed, including funding temples and giving food rations to the needy.

=== The city of Nippur and its importance ===

The city of [[Nippur]] was one of the most important cities in the Third Dynasty of Ur. Nippur is believed to be the religious center of Mesopotamia. It was home to the shrine of [[Enlil]], who was the lord of all gods. This was where the God Enlil spoke the king's name and was calling the king to his existence. This was used as a legitimacy for every king in order to secure power. The city is also believed to be a place where people would often take disputes according to some tablets that were found near the city. Politically it is hard to say how significant Nippur was because the city had no status as a dynastic or military power. However, the fact that Nippur never really gave kings any real political or military advantages suggests to some that it was never really conquered. The city itself was more viewed as "national Cult Center." Because it was viewed this way it was thought that any conquest of the city would give the Mesopotamian rulers unacceptable political risks. Also as the city was seen as a holy site this enabled Nippur to survive numerous conflicts that wiped out many other cities in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fish|first=T.|title=The Sumerian City Nippur in the Period of the Third Dynasty of Ur|journal=Iraq|volume=5|pages=157–179|doi=10.2307/4241631|jstor=4241631|year=1938|s2cid=193037384 }}</ref>

===Social system===

[[File:P1150892 Louvre figurine-clou-Ur AO3142 rwk.jpg|thumb|left|upright|An architectural foundation-nail figurine depicting king [[Amar-Sin]] himself carrying the builder's wicker traybasket.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.178256 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |author=John Bagnell Bury |year=1925 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-07791-5 |page=607|display-authors=etal}}</ref> His name translates to 'immortal moon-god'.]]

This is an area where scholars have many different views. It had long been posited that the common laborer was nothing more than a serf, but new analysis and documents reveal a possible different picture. Gangs of labourers can be divided into various groups.

Certain groups indeed seem to work under compulsion. Others work in order to keep property or get rations from the state. Still other laborers were free men and women for whom social mobility was a possibility. Many families travelled together in search of labor. Such laborers could amass private property and even be promoted to higher positions. This is quite a different picture of a laborer's life than the previous belief that they were afforded no way to move out of the social group they were born into.

Slaves also made up a crucial group of labor for the state. One scholar{{who|date=December 2015}} estimates that 2/5 of chattel slaves mentioned in documents were not born slaves but became slaves due to accumulating debt, being sold by family members, or other reasons. However, one surprising feature of this period is that slaves seem to have been able to accumulate some assets and even property during their lifetimes such that they could buy their freedom. Extant documents give details about specific deals for slaves' freedoms negotiated with slaveowners.

===An early code of law===

{{

Location map+|Iraq|width=300|float=right|relief=yes|caption=Map of [[Iraq]] showing important sites that were occupied by the Third Dynasty of Ur (clickable map)|places=

{{

Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.1|long=44.1|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Akshak]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.536389|long=44.420833|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Babylon]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.123611|long=45.931389|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Der (Sumer)|Der]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=30.815833|long=45.996111|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Eridu]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.885|long=45.268611|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Isin]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.540278|long=44.604722|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.411389|long=46.407222|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Lagash]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.433333|long=45.933333|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Larak (Sumer)|Larak]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.285833|long=45.853611|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Larsa]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=34.549444|long=40.89|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Mari, Syria|Mari]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.126444|long=45.233381|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Nippur]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.777222|long=45.510833|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Shuruppak]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.058829|long=44.252153|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Sippar]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=35.9575|long=39.0475|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Tuttul]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.621369|long=45.933406|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Umma]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=30.9625|long=46.103056|position=right|label_size=75|label=[[Ur]]

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Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.322222|long=45.636111|position=left|label_size=75|label=[[Uruk]]

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One salient feature of Ur III is its establishment of one of the earliest known law-codes, the ''[[Code of Ur-Nammu]]''. It is quite similar to the famous [[Code of Hammurabi]], resembling its prologue and bodily structure. Extant copies, written in [[Akkadian language|Old Babylonian]], exist from [[Nippur]], [[Sippar]], and also [[Ur]] itself. Although the prologue credits [[Ur-Nammu]], the author is still somewhat under dispute; some scholars attribute it to his son, [[Shulgi]].<ref name="DTP132">{{cite book |last1=Potts |first1=D.T. |title=The Archaeology of Elam |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=132 |isbn=9780521564960 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mc4cfzkRVj4C&pg=PA132}}</ref>

The prologue to the law-code, written in the first person, established the king as the beacon of justice for his land, a role that previous kings normally did not play. He claims to want justice for all, including traditionally unfortunate groups in the kingdom like the widower or the orphan.

Most legal disputes were dealt with locally by government officials called mayors, although their decision could be appealed and eventually overturned by the provincial governor. Sometimes legal disputes were publicly aired with witnesses present at a place like the town square or in front of the temple. However, the image of the king as the supreme judge of the land took hold, and this image appears in many literary works and poems. Citizens sometimes wrote letters of prayer to the king, either present or past.

==Industry and commerce==

[[File:Sumerian Cylinder Seal of King Ur-Nammu.jpg|thumb|left|Cylinder seal of King [[Ur-Nammu]].<ref name="britishmuseum.org"/>]]

[[File:Plan of terrain AO5677 mp3h9127.jpg|thumb|Plan of a real estate of the city of [[Umma]], with indications of the surfaces of the parts. Third Dynasty of Ur, [[Louvre]].]]

The Ur III kings oversaw many substantial state-run projects, including intricate [[irrigation]] systems and centralization of agriculture. An enormous labor force was amassed to work in agriculture, particularly in irrigation, harvesting, and sowing.

Textiles were a particularly important industry in Ur during this time. The [[textile industry]] was run by the state. Many men, women, and children alike were employed to produce [[wool]] and [[linen]] [[clothing]]. The detailed documents from the administration of this period exhibit a startling amount of centralization; some scholars have gone so far as to say no other period in Mesopotamian history reached the same level.

=== Trade with the Gulf Region ===

Trade was very important to the Ur Dynasty because it was a way to ensure that the empire had enough ways to grow its wealth and care for those Ur ruled. One of the areas that Mesopotamia traded with was the Persian Gulf area, trading mostly raw materials such as metal, wood, ivory, and also semi-precious stones. One specific kind of item traded with the two regions were conch shells. These were made by craftsmen who would turn them into lamps and cups dating back to the 3rd millennium. They have been discovered in graves, palaces, temples, and even residential homes. The fact that this item was mostly found in upper class contexts could show that only the wealthy at the time had access to the item. Additionally, Ur consumed jewelry, inlays, carvings, and cylinder seals in significant amounts. The high demand for these items shows a heavy trade relationship with the Gulf region.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Edens|first=Cristopher|title=Dynamics of Trade in the Ancient Mesopotamian 'World System'|journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series|pages=22}}</ref>

===Commercial relations with the Indus===

[[File:Mesopotamia-Indus.jpg|thumb|The trade routes between Mesopotamia and the Indus]]

{{main|Indus-Mesopotamia relations}}

Evidence for imports from the Indus to [[Ur]] can be found from around 2350 BC.<ref name="JR14">{{cite book |last1=Reade |first1=Julian E. |title=The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) |date=2008 |publisher=Archaeopress |isbn=978-1-4073-0312-3 |pages=14–17 |url=https://www.academia.edu/28245304 |language=en}}</ref> Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly ''Trubinella Pyrum'' and ''Fasciolaria Trapezium'', have been found in the archaeological sites of Mesopotamia dating from around 2500–2000 BC.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gensheimer |first1=T.R. |title=The Role of shell in Mesopotamia : evidence for trade exchange with Oman and the Indus Valley |journal=Paléorient |volume=10 |date=1984 |pages=71–72 |doi=10.3406/paleo.1984.4350 }}</ref> Several Indus seals with Harappan script have also been found in Mesopotamia, particularly in [[Ur]] and [[Babylon]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal found in Ur BM 122187 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805148&partId=1&images=true |website=British Museum}}<br />{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 123208 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=804667&partId=1&museumno=1932.1008.178&page=2 |website=British Museum}}<br />{{cite web |title=Indus stamp-seal discovered in Ur BM 120228 |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=805338&partId=1&images=true |website=British Museum}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gadd |first1=G. J. |title=Seals of Ancient Indian style found at Ur |date=1958 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.33779/page/n11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Brotherhood of Kings: How International Relations Shaped the Ancient Near East|page=49|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JTvRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49|first=Amanda H.|last=Podany|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-971829-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA246|quote=Square-shaped Indus seals of fired steatite have been found at a few sites in Mesopotamia.|author1=Joan Aruz|author2=Ronald Wallenfels|page=246|isbn=978-1-58839-043-1|year=2003| publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art }}</ref> About twenty seals have been found from the Akkadian and Ur III sites, that have connections with [[Harappa]] and often use the [[Indus script]].<ref name="JMI">{{cite book |last1=McIntosh |first1=Jane |title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives |date=2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781576079072 |pages=182–190 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&pg=PA189 |language=en}}</ref>

These exchanges came to a halt with the decline of the [[Indus valley civilization]] after around 1900 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stiebing |first1=William H. |title=Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781315511160 |page=85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoyTDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

== Art and culture ==

{{main|Neo-Sumerian art}}

[[File:Ibbi-Sin enthroned.jpg|thumb|The last king of the Ur III dynasty King [[Ibbi-Sin]] (c. 2028–2004 BCE) enthroned, with standing goddess.<ref>{{cite web |title=Seated figure approached by a goddess leading a worshiper |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1988.380.2/ |website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref>]]

Sumerian dominated the cultural sphere and was the language of legal, administrative, and economic documents, while signs of the spread of Akkadian could be seen elsewhere. New towns that arose in this period were virtually all given Akkadian names. Culture also thrived through many different types of [[Neo-Sumerian art|art forms.]]

===Literature===

Sumerian texts were mass-produced in the Ur III period; however, the word 'revival' or 'renaissance' to describe this period is misleading because archaeological evidence does not offer evidence of a previous period of decline.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Cooper|first=Jerrold S.|title=Problems of canonicity and identity formation in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia|date=2016|others=Kim Ryholt, Gojko Barjamovic, Københavns universitet, Denmark) Problems of Canonicity and Identity Formation in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (2010 : Copenhagen, Denmark) Literature and Identity Formation (2010 : Copenhagen|isbn=978-87-635-4372-9|___location=Copenhagen|pages=1–18|chapter=Sumerian literature and Sumerian identity|oclc=944087535}}</ref> Instead, Sumerian began to take on a different form. As the Semitic Akkadian language became the common spoken language, Sumerian continued to dominate literature and also administrative documents. Government officials learned to write at special schools that used only Sumerian literature.

Some scholars believe that the Uruk ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' was written down during this period into its classic [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] form. The Ur III Dynasty attempted to establish ties to the early kings of Uruk by claiming to be their familial relations.

For example, the Ur III kings often claimed Gilgamesh's divine parents, [[Ninsun]] and [[Lugalbanda]], as their own, probably to evoke a comparison to the epic hero.

Another text from this period, known as "The Death of Urnammu", contains an underworld scene in which Ur-Nammu showers "his brother Gilgamesh" with gifts.

<gallery widths="200" heights="200" perrow="4">

File:Stele of Ur-Nammu (front and back).jpg|Stele of [[Ur-Nammu]], University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archeology and Anthropology.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Stela of the Flying Angels |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/journal/8955/ |website=The Museum Journal |language=en}}</ref>

File:Cuneiform tablet impressed with cylinder seal. Receipt of goats,ca. 2040 B.C. Neo-Summerian.jpg|Cuneiform tablet impressed with cylinder seal. Receipt of goats, {{Circa|2040 BC}}, year 7 of [[Amar-Sin]]. Neo-Sumerian.<ref name="IS">{{cite book|last1=Spar|first1=Ira|title=Cuneiform Texts in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Volume I Tablets Cones and Bricks of the Third Ur Dynasty|date=1988|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|page=38, Nb 35|url=http://resources.metmuseum.org/resources/metpublications/pdf/Cuneiform_Texts_in_The_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art_Volume_I_Tablets_Cones_and_Bricks_of_the_Third_.pdf}}</ref>

File:Cuneiform tablet impressed with cylinder seal. Receipt of goats,ca. 2040 B.C. Neo-Summerian (drawing).jpg|Cuneiform tablet impressed with cylinder seal. Receipt of goats, {{Circa|2040 BC}}. Neo-Sumerian (drawing).<ref name="IS" />

File:Administrative Tablet, Third Dynasty of Ur, 2026 BC.jpg|Administrative Tablet, Third Dynasty of Ur, 2026 BC.

</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[List of Mesopotamian dynasties]]

* [[Renaissance of Sumer]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

==Further reading==

* {{Cite book |last=Dahl |first=Jacob Lebovitch |title=The ruling family of Ur III Umma: a prosopographical analysis of an elite family in southern Iraq 4000 years ago |date=2007 |publisher=[[Netherlands Institute for the Near East]] |isbn=978-90-6258-319-5 |series=Publications of the Netherlands Institute for the Near East in Leiden |___location=Leiden}}

* {{Cite book |last=Frayne |first=Douglas |url=https://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=4670277 |title=Ur III Period (2112–2004 BC) |date=1997 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |isbn=978-1-4426-2376-7 |series=RIM The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia |___location=Toronto |id={{ProQuest|<!-- Add ProQuest data here --> }}}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Robertson |first=John F. |date=September 1984 |title=The Internal Political and Economic Structure of Old Babylonian Nippur: The Guennakkum and His 'House' |journal=[[Journal of Cuneiform Studies]] |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=145–190 |doi=10.2307/1360054 |issn=0022-0256 |jstor=1360054 |s2cid=156528750}}

* {{Cite book |last1=Sallaberger |first1=Walther |title=Mesopotamien: Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit |last2=Westenholz |first2=Aage Christian Felix |date=1999 |publisher=Universitätsverlag Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |isbn=978-3-7278-1210-1 |volume=160/3 |___location=Freiburg, Schweiz Göttingen}}

* {{Cite book |last=Van de Mieroop |first=Marc |author-link=Marc Van de Mieroop |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_SiQgAACAAJ |title=A history of the ancient Near East, c. 3000–323 B.C |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishers]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4051-4910-5 |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell history of the ancient world |___location=Malden, MA}}

==External links==

* [https://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=ur_iii_state_of_research The State of Ur III Research – CDLI]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Third Dynasty Of Ur}}

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