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{{Other people||Francis Willoughby (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name =
|image = Francis Willughby by Soest2.png
|image_size =
|alt = A man with long fair hair in 17th century dress
|caption = Portrait by [[Gerard Soest]] between 1657 and 1660
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1635|11|22|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Middleton Hall, Warwickshire|Middleton Hall]], [[Warwickshire]], England
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1672|07|03|1635|11|22|df=y}}
|death_place = Middleton Hall, Warwickshire, England
|resting_place = [[St. John the Baptist Church, Middleton|St. John the Baptist]] parish church, [[Middleton, Warwickshire|Middleton]]
|resting_place_coordinates = <!-- {{Coord|LAT|LONG|type:landmark|display=inline,title}} -->
|nationality = English
|fields = [[Ornithology]], [[ichthyology]]
|workplaces =
|alma_mater = [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]
|known_for = ''Ornithologiae Libri Tres''
|author_abbrev_zoo =
|awards =
|father = Francis Willoughby
|mother = Cassandra Ridgeway
|signature = <!--(filename only)-->
|spouse = {{marriage|Emma Barnard|1668}}
|relatives = [[Thomas Willoughby, 1st Baron Middleton]] (son)<Br>[[Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of Chandos]] (daughter)
}}
'''Francis Willughby''' (sometimes spelt Willoughby, {{langx|la|Franciscus Willughbeius}}){{efn|Willughby favoured that spelling, but other members of the family, before and after, often used "Willoughby".<ref name= cram>Cram et al. (2003), p. 1.</ref> }} [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (22 November 1635 – 3 July 1672) was an English [[ornithology|ornithologist]], [[ichthyology|ichthyologist]] and mathematician, and an early student of [[linguistics]] and [[game studies|games]].
He was born and raised at [[Middleton Hall, Warwickshire]], the only son of an affluent country family. He was a student at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he was tutored by the [[mathematician]] and [[naturalist]] [[John Ray]], who became a lifetime friend and colleague, and lived with Willughby after 1662 when Ray lost his livelihood through his refusal to sign the [[Act of Uniformity 1662|Act of Uniformity]]. Willughby was elected as a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1661, then aged 27.
Willughby, Ray, and others such as [[John Wilkins]] were advocates of a new way of studying science, relying on observation and classification, rather than the received authority of [[Aristotle]] and the Bible. To this end, Willughby, Ray and their friends undertook a number of journeys to gather information and specimens, initially in England and Wales, but culminating in an extensive tour of continental Europe, visiting museums, libraries and private collections as well as studying local animals and plants. After their continental tour, he and Ray lived and worked mainly at Middleton Hall. Willughby married Emma Barnard in 1668 and the couple had three children.
Willughby had suffered bouts of illness over the years, and eventually died of [[pleurisy]] in July 1672, aged 36. His premature death meant that it fell to Ray to complete the works on animals they had jointly planned. In due course, Ray published books on birds, fish and [[invertebrate]]s, the ''Ornithologiae Libri Tres'', [[De Historia piscium|''Historia Piscium'']] and ''Historia Insectorum''. The ''Ornithology'' was also published in an expanded form in English. The books included innovative and effective ways of classifying animals, and all three were influential in the history of [[List of life sciences|life science]], including their effect on subsequent [[natural history]] writers and their importance in the development of [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus's]] [[binomial nomenclature]].
== Early life ==
[[File:Middleton Hall 04.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The Willughby family home at [[Middleton Hall, Warwickshire]]{{efn|Middleton Hall is a grade II* [[Listed building#Categories of listed building|listed building]]. The depicted house is of 16th century origins with 17th-century plastering and some later brickwork.<ref name= EH>{{NHLE|num = 1365196|desc = Middleton Hall|access-date = 8 February 2019}}</ref>}}|alt=A half-timbered medieval house]]
Francis Willughby was born at [[Middleton Hall, Warwickshire|Middleton Hall]], [[Warwickshire]] on 22 November 1635, the only son of Sir Francis Willoughby and his wife Cassandra ([[Given name#Name at birth|née]] Ridgeway).<ref name=ODNB>{{Cite ODNB|id=29614|title=Willughby, Francis }}</ref> His grandfathers were [[Sir Percival Willoughby]] of [[Wollaton Hall]],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historynottingh01thorgoog/page/n276/mode/1up|title=History of Nottinghamshire: Volume 2|author=Robert Thoroton|year=1797|publisher=J. Throsby|pages=214–215}}</ref> and [[Thomas Ridgeway, 1st Earl of Londonderry]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/captainthomaswil00walt/page/n18/mode/1up|title=Captain Thomas Willoughby 1601-1657 : of England, Barbadoes and lower Norfolk County, Virginia : some of his descendents 1601-1800|author=Walter, Alice Granbery|year=1978|publisher=Manuscript in Virginia Beach Public Library}}</ref> The family were affluent gentry, whose main seat, inherited by Francis, was [[Wollaton Hall]], now in [[Nottingham]].<ref>[https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/middleton/middletonfamilyhistory.aspx The Willoughby Family of Wollaton and Middleton: A Brief History], Manuscripts and Special Collections, University of Nottingham, Accessed March 8, 2024</ref><ref name= birkhead3>Birkhead (2018) pp. 3–5.</ref> The younger Francis studied at [[Bishop Vesey's Grammar School]], [[Sutton Coldfield]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].<ref name=Serjeantson>Serjeantson (2016) pp. 44–60.</ref> He appears to have read widely, his library at his death containing an estimated 2,000 books,<ref name=poole231>Poole (2016) pp. 231–232.</ref> including literary, historical and [[heraldry|heraldic]] works as well as [[natural science]] volumes.<ref name=poole238>Poole (2016) pp. 238–240.</ref>
[[File:Cassandra Ridgeway.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.5|Lady Cassandra Ridgeway, Willughby's mother]]
Willughby commenced his studies at Trinity aged 17 as a [[Commoner (academia)|Fellow-commoner]].{{efn|A Fellow-commoner paid double tuition fees in return for privileges such as dining with the College Fellows.<ref name= birkhead7>Birkhead (2018) p. 7.</ref>}} His tutor was [[James Duport]], who shared the Willughbys' royalist sympathies in the [[English Civil War]]. [[John Ray]],{{efn|Originally Wray, which he used consistently until 1670 when he changed to Ray for ease of Latinisation as ''Joannes Raius''.<ref name=Raven4>Raven (1942) p. 4.</ref>}} then a mathematics fellow at Trinity, arranged for his student [[Isaac Barrow]] to teach Willughby that subject.<ref name= birkhead24>Birkhead (2018) pp. 24–25.</ref> The two became friends, and in 1655 Barrow dedicated his ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' to Willughby and two other wealthy fellow pupils.<ref name=Serjeantson />
Although affluent students often left university without a degree, Willughby graduated [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in January 1656, and this was later promoted to [[Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)|MA]] by seniority in July 1660.<ref name=Serjeantson /> In 1657 he joined [[Gray's Inn]], not an unusual step for a man of property who might have to deal with legal disputes.<ref name=Johston6>Johnston (2016) pp. 6–8.</ref> Willughby and Ray had collaborated at Trinity on several "chymistry" projects,<ref name=Roos118>Roos (2016) p. 118.</ref>{{efn|Chymistry was a mix of what would now be distinguished as chemistry and [[alchemy]].<ref name=Roos100>Roos (2016) p. 100.</ref>}} including making "[[Lead(II) acetate|sugar of lead]]" and extracting [[antimony]],<ref name=Roos108>Roos (2016) pp. 108–109.</ref> and in 1663 Willughby, then aged 27, was elected a founder [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] on the nominations of Ray and [[John Wilkins]], who became Master of Trinity College in 1660, and eventually [[Bishop of Chester]].<ref name= birkhead43>Birkhead (2018) p. 43.</ref><ref name= birkhead34>Birkhead (2018) pp. 34–38.</ref> In 1667 Ray was also elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society, but was excused the subscription because of his relative poverty.<ref name= wisdom27>Birkhead (2011) p. 27.</ref>
== Travels ==
In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, [[Francis Bacon]] had advocated the advancement of knowledge through observation and experiment, rather than relying on the authority of [[Aristotle]] and the church.<ref name= birkhead11>Birkhead (2018) pp. 11–12.</ref>{{efn|Willughby owned a copy of Bacon's ''Naturali et Universali Philosophia''.<ref name=Serjeantson75>Serjeantson (2016) p. 75.</ref>}} The [[Royal Society]] and its members such as Ray, Wilkins and Willughby sought to put the [[Empirical research|empirical method]] into practice,<ref name= birkhead34 /> including travelling to collect specimens and information.<ref name= birkhead47 />{{efn|Willughby's [[commonplace book]], compiled while he was at Trinity, had a section on "the Art of Travel".<ref name=greengrass143>Greengrass ''et al'' (2016) p. 143.</ref>}} Willughby helped Ray in collecting plants for his botanical work ''Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam Nascentium'' (the ''Cambridge Catalogue''), which was published anonymously in February 1660.<ref name=ODNB /><ref name= birkhead47 />
Later that year, Ray and Willughby journeyed through northern England to the [[Lake District]], the [[Isle of Man]] and the [[Calf of Man]], seeing a [[Manx shearwater]] chick at the last site. Willughby then briefly visited the [[University of Oxford]] to consult some rare natural history books.<ref name= birkhead47>Birkhead (2018) pp. 47–50.</ref>{{efn|The original journals for this expedition are lost, and the itinerary was reconstructed from scattered references by Ray's biographer, Charles Raven.<ref name=greengrass148>Greengrass ''et al'' (2016) pp. 148–154.</ref>}}
=== Cheshire and Wales ===
[[File:Himantopus Willughby's Ornithology.jpg|thumb|upright=0.60|In South Wales, Willughby and [[John Ray|Ray]] saw a rare [[black-winged stilt]] shown here in the ''Ornithologiae Libri Tres'' as "''Himantopus''".|alt=An old print of a [[black-winged stilt]]]]
In May 1662, Willughby, Ray and [[Philip Skippon (1641–1691)|Philip Skippon]], Ray's student, set out on a second journey through [[Nantwich]] and [[Chester]] and west to [[Anglesey]]. They returned inland to [[Llanberis]] and were shown a local lake fish called a ''torgoch'', which Willughby recognised as essentially the same as the [[Salvelinus willughbii|Windermere charr]] he had described previously in the Lake District. The party then headed south through west [[Wales]] to [[Pembroke, Pembrokeshire|Pembroke]], visiting [[Bardsey Island]] on the way.<ref name= birkhead50>Birkhead (2018) pp. 50–55.</ref> They then proceeded back along the Welsh south coast to [[Tenby]], where they saw many fish species, and [[Aberavon]], where they were shown a rare [[black-winged stilt]].<ref name= birkhead59>Birkhead (2018) pp. 59–61.</ref>
Willughby interviewed [[Welsh language|Welsh]] speakers to attempt a systematic study of the language that, although never published, influenced subsequent scholars.<ref name= linguist>Cram (1990) pp. 229–239.</ref> It was during this trip that Ray and Willughby decided to attempt to classify all living things, with Ray mainly working on plants and Willughby on animals.<ref name=ODNB /><ref name= jardine>Jardine (1999) pp. 301–302.</ref> The tables of species they produced were used by Wilkins as part of a unifying scheme later published in 1668 as ''[[An Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language]]''. Wilkins' intention was to create a universal terminology to describe the natural world, and the study of languages and writing systems was meant to create a logical linguistic framework for his classification.<ref name =cram1992>Cram (1992) p. 193.</ref><ref name= Stimson>{{cite journal|last1 = Stimson|first1 = Dorothy|year =1931|title = Dr. Wilkins and the Royal Society|journal = The Journal of Modern History|volume =3|issue =4|pages = 539–563|jstor =1898891|doi =10.1086/235790|s2cid = 144604251 }}</ref>
Willughby and his companions parted company when he fell ill at [[Gloucester]] while they continued through the [[West Country]] to [[Land's End]]. When Willughby had recovered, he spent part of the summer [[birdwatching]] in [[Lincolnshire]].<ref name= birkhead65>Birkhead (2018) pp. 65–70.</ref> Ray and Willughby later visited the West Country together in 1667, returning via [[Dorset]], [[Hampshire]] and London.<ref name= welch />
=== Europe ===
[[File:Willughby ray europe.jpg|thumb|250px|Approximate reconstruction of the journeys through Europe{{legend-line|black solid 2px|Willughby, Ray, [[Nathaniel Bacon (Virginia colonist and rebel)|Bacon]] and [[Philip Skippon|Skippon]]}}{{legend-line|#00FF00 solid 2px|Ray and Skippon to Sicily and Malta}}{{legend-line|blue solid 2px|Willughby and Bacon head north}}{{legend-line|red solid 2px|Willughby alone}}|alt=Map of Europe showing journey routes]]
In August 1662 Ray resigned his Fellowship at Cambridge, being unwilling to subscribe to the requirements of the [[Act of Uniformity 1662|Act of Uniformity]] imposed on [[Church of England]] clerics. Unemployed and without a source of income, his position might have been difficult, but Willughby offered him accommodation and work at Middleton, writing "I am likely to spend much of my life afterwards in wandring or else in Private Studiing at Oxford. having but little heart to thinke of settling, or ingaging in a family. I shall bee Verie glad of your constant company and assistance in my studies".<ref name= birkhead65 />
In April 1663, Willughby, Ray, Skippon and [[Nathaniel Bacon (Virginia colonist)|Nathaniel Bacon]] (another friend from Trinity) departed for continental Europe on a pre-planned itinerary armed with the requisite passports and [[Letter of introduction|letters of introduction]] to notable personages,<ref name=greengrass166>Greengrass ''et al'' (2016) pp. 166–167.</ref> with Willughby's wealth making the trip financially viable. They intended to visit museums, libraries and private collections, and also study local animals and plants. Given the limitations of time on their demanding schedule, fish and bird markets were a useful source of information and specimens.<ref name=Johston6 /><ref name=greengrass184>Greengrass ''et al'' (2016) p. 184.</ref> Although all kept journals, most of Willughby's are lost,<ref name=greengrass148 /> and the journey is mainly documented in Ray's ''Observations topographical, moral & physiological made in a journey through part of the Low-Countries, Germany, Italy and France'', which included Willughby's notes from Spain.<ref name= welch>{{cite journal|last1 = Welch|first1 =Mary|year= 1972|title = Francis Willoughby, F.R.S. (1635–1672)|journal = Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History|volume =6|issue =2|pages = 71–85|doi =10.3366/jsbnh.1972.6.2.71 }}</ref>
The travellers visited [[Brussels]], the [[Old University of Leuven|University of Leuven]], [[Antwerp]], [[Delft]], [[The Hague]] and [[Leiden University|Leiden's university]] and public library. On 5 June{{efn|Catholic Europe switched to the [[Gregorian calendar]] from 1582, but Great Britain did not adopt the new form until 1752. Dates for the journey are therefore based on the [[Julian calendar]] used by the travellers, and for the period concerned are ten days earlier than the Gregorian equivalent.<ref name= birkhead77>Birkhead (2018) p. 77.</ref>}} they visited a colony of [[great cormorant|cormorants]], [[grey heron]]s and [[Eurasian spoonbill|spoonbills]] at [[Zevenhuizen, Kaag en Braassem|Zevenhuizen]], and Willughby dissected a spoonbill chick obtained there.<ref name= birkhead78>Birkhead (2018) pp. 78–87.</ref> The party continued north through [[Haarlem]], [[Amsterdam]] and [[Utrecht]] before heading to [[Strasbourg]],<ref name= birkhead95>Birkhead (2018) pp. 95–98.</ref> where Willughby made a diversion to buy a handwritten book from its author, [[Leonhard Baldner|Leonard Baldner]]. This book was illustrated with paintings of birds, fish and other animals.<ref name=birkhead95 />{{efn|The paintings in Willughby's copies were by a Johann Georg Walther, and depicted 56 birds, 40 fish and 52 other animals including invertebrates.<ref name=greengrass195>Greengrass ''et al'' (2016) p. 195.</ref>}}
Baldner was a prosperous former fisherman, town councillor and self-taught naturalist who, like the Englishmen, only wrote about what he saw.<ref name=birkhead95 /> [[Frederick Slare]] FRS made a translation of the German text into English,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Leonard Baldner, seventeenth century sportsman and naturalist. An unrecorded copy of his book, containing his portrait|first=John C.|last=Phillips|journal=The Auk|volume=42|issue=3|year=1925|pages=332–341|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v042n03/p0332-p0341.pdf|doi=10.2307/4074378|jstor=4074378 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal|last=Lownes|first=Albert E.|year=1940|title=A collection of seventeenth-century drawings|journal=The Auk|volume=57|issue=4|pages=532–535|jstor=4078696|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v057n04/p0532-p0535.pdf|doi=10.2307/4078696 }}</ref> later added to Willughby's copy after his death.<ref name=birkhead95 /> Ray claimed in his preface to the ''Ornithology'': "For my part, I must needs acknowledge that I have received much light and information from the Work of this poor man, and have been thereby inabled to clear many difficulties, and rectifie some mistakes in [[Conrad Gessner|Gesner]].", although in practice few of Baldner's insights were incorporated into the text.<ref name=Birkhead101>Birkhead (2018) p. 101.</ref>
[[File:Palazzo Publico Bologna by Ferdinand -Cospi.png|thumb|A room in the Palazzo Publico, [[Bologna]], visited by Willughby's group to see the collections of [[Ferdinando Cospi]] and [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]].|alt=Old print of a large room with many cabinets]]
The party continued through [[Liège]], [[Cologne]] and [[Nuremberg]],<ref name= birkhead104>Birkhead (2018) p. 104.</ref> and arrived in [[Vienna]] on 15 September where they stayed for several days before leaving on 24 September for Venice.<ref name= birkhead114>Birkhead (2018) pp. 114–123.</ref>{{efn|The journey from Calais to Venice took 172 days in total, with 84 overnight stops.<ref name=greengrass170>Greengrass ''et al'' (2016) pp. 170–171.</ref>}} The journey through the [[Alps]] was arduous, with poor mountain tracks, bad weather and little food except bread, and it was 6 October before they reached their destination, where Skippon listed 60 species of fish and 28 kinds of birds he had noted in the Venetian markets.<ref name= birkhead114 />
The group remained in Venice from 6 October 1663 to 1 February 1664,<ref name= birkhead114 /> apart from a trip to [[Padua]], where they investigated medical procedures including the [[dissection]] of human corpses. They then travelled through northern Italy, stopping in [[Ferrara]], [[Verona]], [[Bologna]], [[Milan]] and [[Genoa]]. In Bologna they toured the public museum of the 'Bologna Aristotle', [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]], "by the favor of Dr. [[Ovidio Montalbani]]," its current [[curator]].<ref>John Ray, ''Travels through the Low Countries, Germany, Italy and France, With curious observations'' (London, 1738), Vol. I, p. 220; Philip Skippon, ''An Account of a Journey Made thro' Part of the Low-Countries, Germany, Italy and France'', in ''A Collection of Voyages and Travels'', A. Churchill and S. Churchill, eds. (London, 1752 ed.), Vol. VI, p. 572.</ref> On 15 April 1664 they set sail for [[Naples]] from [[Livorno]].<ref name="birkhead114" /><ref name="hunter">{{cite journal|last1 = Hunter|first1 = Michael|year =2014|title = John Ray in Italy: Lost manuscripts rediscovered|journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society|volume =68|issue = 2|pages = 93–109|doi =10.1098/rsnr.2013.0061|pmid = 24921104|pmc = 4006159 }}</ref> It was here that the party divided, Willughby and Bacon heading to Rome, where they spent May, June and July,<ref name="birkhead125">Birkhead (2018) pp. 125–126.</ref> while Ray and Skippon went on to [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]].<ref name= birkhead114 />
Throughout the continental journey, Willughby and Skippon in particular had continued their research into languages.<ref name= cram2016258>Cram (2016) p. 258.</ref> In Vienna, apart from visiting the local collections, they had taken the opportunity to study [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and several [[Slavic languages]],<ref name= birkhead114 /> and surviving manuscripts show comparison tables for seventeen languages including [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Persian language|Persian]].<ref name= cram201646>Cram (2016) pp. 246–247.</ref>
Bacon contracted [[smallpox]] somewhere in Northern Italy, and Willughby continued with just a servant to [[Montpellier]], where Ray was already present. Willughby entered Spain on 31 August and progressed through [[Valencia]], [[Granada]], [[Seville]], [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] and [[Madrid]], reaching [[Irun]] on 14 November.<ref name= birkhead142>Birkhead (2018) pp. 142–145.</ref>{{efn|The journey through Spain took 76 days in total, with 53 overnight stops.<ref name=greengrass170 />}} Willughby found little of scientific interest in Spain, which he considered backward. He also disliked the land and the people: "almost desolate... tyrannical inquisition... multitude of whores... wretched laziness... very like the Welsh and Irish."<ref name= birkhead146>Birkhead (2018) pp. 146–147.</ref>
== Later life and death ==
[[File:Willoughby memorial in Middleton parish church.jpg|thumb|Willoughby memorial in [[St. John the Baptist Church, Middleton|Middleton church]]|upright=0.60|alt=Large wall-mounted marble memorial]]
In Seville, Willughby had received a letter saying that his father was seriously ill, so he had hastened his return to Middleton where he arrived shortly before Christmas 1664.<ref name= birkhead146 /> His father died in December 1665 and Francis then became responsible for the estate. Willughby was soon being urged by his relatives to find a wife, but procrastinated knowing that this would restrict his researches.<ref name= birkhead149>Birkhead (2018) pp. 149–150.</ref>
In 1661 he had sent the Royal Society the first paper to describe the [[Insect#Reproduction and development|life cycle of insects]],<ref name= birkhead149 /> and he and Ray also verified the [[parasitoid]]ism of caterpillars by [[Ichneumonidae|ichneumon wasps]].{{efn|[[Charles Darwin]] was later to quote this as one reason why he doubted that there was a beneficent and omnipotent god.<ref name=darwin>{{cite web|url =https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2814.xml;query=22%20May%201860;brand=default|title = Letter to Asa Gray|last = Darwin|first = Charles|date = 22 May 1860|publisher =Darwin Correspondence Project, Letter no. 2814|access-date =28 January 2019 }}</ref>}} Willughby also bred and studied [[Megachile|leaf-cutter bees]], his chosen research species later being named after him as Willughby's leaf-cutter bee, ''[[Megachile willughbiella]]''.<ref name= birkhead154>Birkhead (2018) pp. 154–157.</ref><ref name= birkhead259 /> Willughby was the first person to unambiguously distinguish the [[European honey buzzard|honey buzzard]] from the [[common buzzard]],<ref name= birkhead164>Birkhead (2018) pp. 164–166.</ref> and in 2018 it was suggested that the former species should be renamed "Willughby's Buzzard" to commemorate this.<ref name= charmentier>{{cite journal|last1 = Birkhead|first1 =Tim. R|last2 = Charmantier|first2 =Isabelle|last3 = Smith|first3 = Paul J|last4= Montgomerie|first4=Robert|year =2018|title = Willughby's Buzzard: names and misnomers of the European Honey-buzzard (''Pernis apivorus'')|journal = Archives of Natural History|volume =45|issue =1|pages = 80–91|doi =10.3366/anh.2018.0484}}</ref>
In 1668 Willughby married Emma Barnard, daughter of Sir Henry Barnard of [[Bridgnorth]] and London. They had three children. Their first child, Francis, died at the age of nineteen, while their daughter [[Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of Chandos|Cassandra Willoughby]] married the [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos|Duke of Chandos]], who was a patron of the English [[natural history|naturalist]] [[Mark Catesby]]. The second son, [[Thomas Willoughby, 1st Baron Middleton|Thomas]], was created Baron Middleton in 1711 by [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]].<ref name=TAPS>{{cite journal|last1 = Allen|first1 =Elsa Guerdrum|year =1951|title = The history of American ornithology before Audubon|journal = Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|volume = 41|issue = 3|pages = 387–591 (421–422)|jstor = 1005629|doi =10.2307/1005629|hdl =2027/uc1.31822011760568|hdl-access = free}}</ref>
Willughby and Ray continued their researches, now mainly on birds, with the help of Francis Jessop, another Trinity alumnus, who sent them specimens from the [[Peak District]], including [[twite]] and [[red grouse]].<ref name= birkhead169>Birkhead (2018) pp. 169–172.</ref> They also were the first to investigate the active flow of [[sap]] in [[Betula pubescens|birches]].<ref name= birkhead173>Birkhead (2018) pp. 173–175.</ref><ref name=sap>{{ cite journal|last1=Willughby|first1=Francis|last2=Wray|first2=John|year=1669|title=Concerning the motion of the sap in trees made this spring|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|volume=48|pages=963–965|url=https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47668588 }}</ref>
Willughby had suffered several periods of illness, including violent fevers, between 1668 and 1671, described by Ray as "tertian ague" ([[malaria]]), and the additional physical and financial demands occasioned by having to defend a bitterly disputed inheritance put him under more strain.{{efn|A distant relative, William Willoughby, had left Francis the greater part of his estate. William Willoughby's sister and her husband, Beaumont Dixie, had expected to inherit more than they actually received, and argued that the deceased was not of sound mind when he made his will.<ref name= birkhead209 />}} On 3 June 1672 he became seriously ill again, and signed his will on 24 June, disbarring any Catholic descendants from inheriting. He died on 3 July. The immediate cause of death was [[pleurisy]], probably related to [[pneumonia]]. He was buried at [[St. John the Baptist Church, Middleton|St. John the Baptist parish church]], [[Middleton, Warwickshire|Middleton]], with Ray, Skippon and Jessop present with the family at the interment.<ref name= birkhead209>Birkhead (2018) pp. 209–212.</ref> The church contains a large memorial commemorating Francis, his parents, Francis senior and Cassandra, and his son, also Francis; this was erected by his second son, Thomas.<ref name=Johnston24>Johnston (2016) pp. 24–25.</ref>
== Subjects of his studies ==
[[File:Willughby Ornithology Title Page.jpg|thumb|upright=0.60|Title page of ''Ornithologiae Libri Tres''|alt=Cover of an old book]]
[[File:Pepys copy of Willughby's Ornithology.jpg|thumb|upright=0.60|Plate XLIII from [[Samuel Pepys]]'s hand-coloured copy of the ''Ornithology''<ref name= pepys>{{cite journal|last1 = Birkhead|first1 =Tim R|last2 = Montgomerie|first2 = Robert|year =2009|title = Samuel Pepys's hand-coloured copy of John Ray's 'The Ornithology of Francis Willughby' (1678)|journal =Journal of Ornithology|volume = 150|issue =4|pages = 883–891|url=http://post.queensu.ca/~mont/Montgomerie/pdfs/montgomerie2009j_ornithol.pdf|doi =10.1007/s10336-009-0413-3|s2cid =39409738}}</ref>|alt=A set of coloured bird prints]]
As well as being a friend, John Ray was one of five [[executor]]s of Willughby's will, in which he was left the sum of £60 a year for life. He saw it as his duty to complete and publish his colleague's work on animals.<ref name=ODNB />
=== Birds ===
Willughby's ''Ornithology'' was intended to describe all the then-known birds worldwide.<ref name= birkhead218>Birkhead (2018) p. 218.</ref> Its innovative features were an effective [[Biological classification|classification]] system based on [[anatomy|anatomical]] features, such the bird's beak, feet and overall size, and a [[single-access key|dichotomous key]], which helped readers to identify birds by guiding them to the page describing that group.<ref name= birkhead219>Birkhead (2018) pp. 219–221.</ref> The authors also placed an asterisk against species of which they had no first-hand knowledge, and were therefore unable to verify.<ref name= birkhead292>Birkhead ''et al'' (2016) p. 292.</ref> Willughby had been keen to add details of "[[Field mark|characteristic marks]]" to help with identification.<ref name= birkheadetal273>Birkhead ''et al'' (2016) p. 273.</ref> The authors also largely avoided the practice of previous writers, such as [[Conrad Gessner]], by not including extraneous material relating to the species, such as proverbs, references in history and literature, or use as an [[emblem]].<ref name=kusukawa306>Kusukawa (2016) p. 306.</ref> The book was published in [[Latin]] as ''Ornithologiae Libri Tres'' (''Three Books of Ornithology'') in 1676.<ref name= birkhead225>Birkhead (2018) p. 225.</ref>
The first of the three sections included an introduction to bird biology, an explanation of the new classification system and the dichotomous key. The second and third sections described land birds and [[seabird]]s respectively.<ref name= birkhead229>Birkhead (2018) p. 229.</ref> Emma Willughby paid for the 80 [[printmaking#Engraving|metal-engraved]] plates that completed the work, and this is acknowledged on the title page.<ref name= birkhead231>Birkhead (2018) pp. 231–232.</ref><ref name= flis>{{cite journal|last1 = Flis|first1 = Nathan|year =2015|title = Francis Barlow, the King's Birds, and the Ornithology of Francis Willughby and John Ray|journal = Huntington Library Quarterly|volume =78|issue =2|pages = 263–300|jstor = 10.1525/hlq.2015.78.2.263|doi =10.1525/hlq.2015.78.2.263|quote= Sumptus in chalcegraphos fecit illustriss. D. Emma Willughby vidua [The cost of the plates was met by the noble Emma Willughby, widow]}}</ref> The English-language version, ''The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton'', published in 1678, included additional material, including a section on [[fowling]] to broaden its appeal, but had no mention of Willughby's widow.<ref name= birkhead236>Birkhead (2018) p. 236.</ref> Its commercial success is unknown, but its influence was profound.<ref name= birkhead239>Birkhead (2018) p. 239.</ref>
=== Fish ===
The next book, on fish, was many years in the making; Willughby's widow had remarried, and her new husband, [[Josiah Child]], had barred Ray from accessing his friend's papers. Furthermore, there were far more known species of fish than there were birds to describe, and Ray was working on his own ''History of Plants''.<ref name= birkhead241 /><ref name=jardine303>Jardine (1999) pp. 303–306.</ref> The ''Historia Piscium'' was finally published in Latin in 1686 with a dedication to [[Samuel Pepys]], President of the Royal Society, who had made a generous financial contribution to the project. The book had four sections: an introduction to fish biology; [[cetacea]]ns; [[Chondrichthyes|cartilaginous fish]] (sharks and [[Batoidea|rays]]); and [[Osteichthyes|bony fish]], the last group being further classified by the number and nature of their fins. 187 plates completed the work, their cost making the book a financial disaster for the Royal Society, which had largely funded its publication.<ref name= birkhead241>Birkhead (2018) pp. 241–245.</ref><ref name=jardine307>Jardine (1999) pp. 307–310.</ref><ref name=Kusukawa309>Kusukawa (2016) p. 309.</ref>
=== "Insects" ===
[[File:Megachile willughbiella male (21626826474).jpg|thumb|upright=0.60|Willughby studied this [[Megachile|leaf-cutter bee]], named by [[William Kirby (entomologist)|Kirby]] in 1802 as ''[[Megachile willughbiella]]''.|alt=a bee on a flower]]
In the seventeenth century, the term "insect" had a much wider meaning than it does today, so the third major book, ''Historia Insectorum'', included many other [[invertebrate]]s, such as worms, spiders and [[millipede]]s. It excluded [[Mollusca|molluscs]], perhaps because [[Martin Lister]], another Fellow of the Royal Society, was writing his own ''Historia Animalium'' that covered that group. Ray's problems with completing this publication were much the same as with the fish book, although in 1704 he was able to see manuscripts prepared independently by Sir Thomas Willoughby and the scholar Thomas Man, Sir Thomas having moved into Wollaton Hall in 1687 and regained access to Middleton and his father's papers and possessions.<ref name= birkhead246>Birkhead (2018) pp. 246–251.</ref>
Ray died in January 1705, and little happened with the ''Historia Insectorum'' until [[William Derham]] and the Royal Society finally published it in 1710 in Latin, incomplete, unillustrated and under Ray's name only.<ref name= birkhead246 /> Ray, however, makes it clear that Willughby did the bulk of the insect research,<ref name=kusukawa336>Kusukawa (2016) pp. 336–337.</ref> including, for example, 20 pages of beetle descriptions.<ref name=ogilvie352>Ogilvie (2016) p. 352.</ref> The book had four sections, starting with an innovative [[Taxonomy (biology)|classification system]] based on [[metamorphosis]].<ref name= birkhead246 /> The second section contained the main species descriptions, followed by Ray's observations of [[lepidoptera|butterflies and moths]] and their caterpillars, and an appendix by Martin Lister on British beetles.<ref name=ogilvie340>Ogilvie (2016) p. 340.</ref> Plates prepared by Sir Thomas Willoughby were not used, and they have now been lost, as have the manuscripts Sir Thomas showed to Ray.<ref name= birkhead246 />
=== Games and probability ===
[[File:Playingcardsvanda.jpg|thumb|upright=0.60|Willughby is believed to have studied [[probability]] with respect to card games. This 17th-century [[Popish Plot]] deck was engraved by [[Francis Barlow (artist)|Francis Barlow]], whose bird paintings were the basis of some of the illustrations in the ''Ornithology''.|alt=old playing cards]]
Willughby's ''[[Francis Willughby's Book of Games|Book of Games]]'' was unfinished at his death,{{efn|''Book of Games'' was the name coined for the manuscript by Mary Welch, a former archivist of the [[University of Nottingham]] Library and the first to study the Middleton collection.<ref name= birkhead180>Birkhead (2018) pp. 181–182.</ref>}} but was published with accompanying interpretative material in 2003. He gave details of dozens of games and sports, including cards, [[cockfight]]ing, football and word games; some are now unfamiliar, such as "Lend me your Skimmer".<ref name=cramgamesix>Cram ''et al'' (2003) pp. ix–x.</ref> For each entry he included the rules, equipment and manner of play.<ref name=cramgamesappendix3>Cram ''et al'' (2003) pp. 243–291.</ref> He also studied the first games that babies and children play,<ref name=cramgamesix /> and wrote a more mathematical section "On the rebounding of tennis balls".<ref name=cramgamestennis>Cram ''et al'' (2003) pp. 234–235.</ref> As with his biological works, the ''Book of Games'' is organised on the empirical principles of observation, description, and [[Taxonomy (biology)|classification]].<ref name=cramgamesix />
A lost work appears to have been one that, according to his daughter Cassandra, "shews the chances of most games",<ref name= chandos>"There are in the library at Wollaton many manuscripts which were written by my father... One which shews the chances of most
games" in Chandos (1958) p. 105.</ref> which may have been titled ''The Book of Dice'' ("''Historii Chartitudii''").<ref name=Johston12>Johnston (2016) p. 12.</ref><ref name=cramgames12>Cram ''et al'' (2003) p. 12.</ref> Willughby was a competent mathematician,<ref name=Wardhaugh124>Wardhaugh (2016) pp. 124–125.</ref> and there is evidence that the lost text considered [[probability]] with regard to card and dice games.<ref name=Wardhaugh128>Wardhaugh (2016) pp. 128–129.</ref>
=== Illustrations and sources ===
The numerous plates illustrating the species in the bird and fish books came from a number of sources. Willughby's own extensive collection included paintings he had bought on his European travels, and he also borrowed pictures owned by friends like Skippon and Sir [[Thomas Browne]]. Many illustrations were taken from previous publications by other writers,<ref name= birkhead216>Birkhead (2018) pp. 216–217.</ref> and some were based on [[Francis Barlow (artist)|Francis Barlow's]] oil-paintings of birds in [[Charles II of England|Charles II's]] [[aviary]] in [[St James's Park]].<ref name= birkhead227>Birkhead (2018) pp. 227–228.</ref><ref name= jackson>Jackson (2006) pp. 114–115.</ref>
The illustrations taken from earlier books were from many sources, particularly the earlier natural histories or ornithologies by [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]], [[Giovanni Pietro Olina|Pietro Olina]], [[Georg Marcgrave]] and [[Willem Piso]].<ref name= birkhead2016292>Birkhead ''et al'' (2016) pp. 292–295.</ref> Where feasible, Willughby and Ray compared the available illustrations with life or specimens, or, if that were not possible, against each other, to select the most accurate version for publication.<ref name=flis /> In addition to these authors, sources used for the text included works by [[Carolus Clusius]], [[Adriaen Collaert]], [[Gervase Markham]], [[Juan Eusebio Nieremberg]] and [[Ole Worm]].<ref name= birkhead2016292 /><ref name=Gurney>Gurney (1921) pp. [https://archive.org/details/cu31924005489558/page/n220 210–211]</ref> Olina's ''Ucelliera'', at least, seems to have been revisited between the Latin and English editions of the ''Ornithology'', since the later version contains a description of [[territory (animal)|territorial]] behaviour by the [[common nightingale|nightingale]] absent from the earlier work.<ref name= birkhead2011223>Birkhead (2011) p. 223.</ref>
== Legacy ==
[[File:FMIB 46268 Willoughby's Char.jpeg|thumb|Windermere or Willughby's charr, ''[[Salvelinus willughbii]]''|alt=Drawing of a trout-like fish]]
Much of Willughby's written work has been lost, along with his scientific equipment and most of his collections of items of natural history interest;<ref name =birkhead89>Birkhead (2018) pp. 89–93.</ref><ref name=charm>Charmantier ''et al'' (2016) pp. 360–361.</ref> what remains is largely owned by the family and housed in the University of Nottingham Middleton archive.<ref name=charm373>Charmantier ''et al'' (2016) p. 373.</ref> The ''Ornithology'' influenced [[René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur|Réamur]] in organising his great bird collection, and [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]] in the compilation of his own work on the topic. [[Georges Cuvier]] commented on the influence of the ''Historia Piscium'', and [[Carl Linnaeus]] from 1735 onwards relied heavily on Willughby and Ray's books in his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'', the basis of [[binomial nomenclature]].<ref name=charm377>Charmantier ''et al'' (2016) pp. 377–380.</ref><ref name=Johanson>Johanson ''et al'' (2016) p. 139.</ref>
The lack of physical evidence, together with Willughby's early death and the publication of his books by Ray, means that the relative contributions of the two men has subsequently been disputed. Willughby's work was initially well-regarded, but Ray's reputation grew as time passed,<ref name= birkhead260>Birkhead (2018) pp. 260–265.</ref> and, in 1788, the English botanist [[James Edward Smith (botanist)|James Edward Smith]] wrote that Willughby's contribution had been overstated by his friend, who gave himself too little credit.<ref name= smithje>{{cite journal|last1 = Smith|first1 = James Edward|year = 1788|title = Introductory discourse on the rise and progress of Natural History|journal = Transactions of the Linnean Society of London|volume = 1|pages = 1–55|url = http://biostor.org/reference/5796/page/18|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190113232135/http://biostor.org/reference/5796/page/18|url-status = dead|archive-date = 13 January 2019|doi = 10.1111/j.1096-3642.1791.tb00380.x}}</ref> The opposite view was given by [[William Swainson]], who felt that Ray's fame rested entirely on that of his patron, and he lacked the genius to have achieved anything on his own.<ref name= birkhead260 />
[[File:James Edward Smith.jpg|thumb|[[James Edward Smith (botanist)|James Edward Smith]] wrote in 1788 that Willughby's contribution was overstated.|upright=0.75|alt=head and shoulders of man in 18th century clothes]]
The pendulum swung again when [[Charles E. Raven]] wrote his 1942 biography of Ray, seeing him as the senior partner and saying that Willughby had "less knowledge, patience and judgment" than Ray, whom he considered a scientist of genius,<ref name = raven>Raven (1942) p. 336.</ref> and whose contributions he tended to compare favourably with the achievements of most other writers.<ref name=egerton>{{cite journal|last1 = Egerton|first1 =Frank N|year =2003|title =A history of the ecological sciences, Part 18: John Ray and his associates Francis Willughby and William Derham|journal =Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America|volume = 86|issue =4|pages = 301–313|url = http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history18.pdf|doi =10.1890/0012-9623(2005)86[301:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> Raven was unaware of the Willughby family archive at the University of Nottingham when he wrote his book,<ref name= birkheadvii>Birkhead (2018) pp. vii–viii.</ref><ref name=Nottingham>{{cite web|url= http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/middleton/biographies/biographyoffranciswillughbyfrs(1635-1672).aspx|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100404154612/http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/middleton/biographies/biographyoffranciswillughbyfrs(1635-1672).aspx|url-status= live|archive-date= 4 April 2010|title= Biography of Francis Willughby F.R.S. (1635–1672)|work= Manuscripts and Special Collections|publisher= University of Nottingham|access-date= 15 January 2019 }}</ref> and access to that and other new material have led to modern appraisals giving a more balanced picture, with the two men seen to have made significant individual contributions, each demonstrating his own strengths.<ref name= birkhead267>Birkhead (2018) pp. 267–268.</ref><ref name=ogilvieRS>{{cite journal|last1 = Ogilvie|first1 = Brian W|year =2012|title = Attending to insects: Francis Willughby and John Ray|journal = Notes and Records of the Royal Society|volume =66|issue =4|pages = 357–372|doi =10.1098/rsnr.2012.0051|pmc=3594893 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Willughby and Ray discovered several previously undescribed species of birds,<ref name= birkhead269>Birkhead (2018) pp. 269–270.</ref> fish and invertebrates.<ref name= birkhead134>Birkhead (2018) pp. 134–135.</ref> The names of the Windermere charr (''Salvelinus willughbii''),<ref name= Frost>{{cite journal|last1 = Frost|first1 = Winifred E|last2 = Wells|first2 = George Philip|year =1965|title = Breeding habits of Windermere charr, ''Salvelinus willughbii'' (Günther), and their bearing on speciation of these fish|journal =Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume =163|issue = 991|pages = 232–283|doi =10.1098/rspb.1965.0070|pmid = 4378483|doi-access=|bibcode = 1965RSPSB.163..232F|s2cid = 8516893 }}</ref> Willughby's leaf-cutter bee (''Megachile willughbiella'') and the tropical plant [[genus]] ''[[Willughbeia]]'' all commemorate the younger man.<ref name= birkhead259>Birkhead (2018) p. 259.</ref> However, Willughby and Ray's main influence was through their three books, especially the ''Ornithology'', with their emphasis on systematic description and classification.<ref name=charm379>Charmantier ''et al'' (2016) p. 379.</ref><ref name= birkheadix>Birkhead (2018) pp. ix–x.</ref> Even Willughby's own collection of 170 plates and nature paintings seems to be intended not just to provide individual illustrations, but to be an integral part of a collection intended to reinforce the order of nature.<ref name= grindle>{{cite journal|last1 = Grindle|first1 = Nick|year =2005|title ='No other sign or note than the very order': Francis Willughby, John Ray and the importance of collecting pictures|journal = Journal of the History of Collections|volume = 17|issue =1|pages = 15–22|doi =10.1093/jhc/fhi006}}</ref>
== Books ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/observationstopo00rayj/page/n8|title=Observations Topographical, Moral, & Physiological; Made in a Journey Through Part of the Low-countries, Germany, Italy, and France|last=Ray|first=John|date=1673|publisher=John Martyn|___location = London}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/historiainsector00rayj/page/n12|title=Historia Insectorum|last=Ray|first=John|date=1710|publisher=A&J Churchill|language = la|___location = London}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/AnEssayTowardsARealCharacterAndAPhilosophicalLanguage|title=An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language|last=Wilkins|first=John|publisher=John Martyn|year=1668|___location=London}}
* {{cite book|last1 = Willughby|first1 = Francis|last2=Ray|first2=John|title = Ornithologiae Libri Tres|publisher = John Martyn|year = 1676|___location = London|language = la|url =https://archive.org/details/b3034220x/page/n12}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ornithologyFran00Will|title=The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick|last1=Willughby|first1=Francis|last2=Ray|first2=John|date=1678|publisher=John Martyn|___location = London}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/francisciwillugh00will/page/n10|title= Historia Piscium|last1=Willughby|first1=Francis|last2=Ray|first2=John|date=1686|publisher=E Theatro Sheldoniano|___location =Oxford|language = la }}
{{refend}}
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}
=== Cited texts ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last1 = Birkhead|first1 = Tim|title = The Wisdom of Birds: An Illustrated History of Ornithology|publisher= Bloomsbury|year = 2011|___location = London|isbn = 978-0-7475-9822-0}}
* {{cite book|last1 = Birkhead|first1 = Tim|title = [[The Wonderful Mr Willughby: The First True Ornithologist]]|publisher = Bloomsbury|year = 2018|___location = London|isbn = 978-1-4088-7848-4 }}
* {{cite book|last1= Birkhead|first1= Tim|last2= Smith|first2= Paul J.|last3= Doherty|first3= Meghan|last4= Charmantier|first4= Isabelle|year=2016|chapter= Willughby’s Ornithology|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=268–304 }}
* {{cite book|last1 = Chandos|first1 = Brydges Cassandra Willoughby, Duchess of|editor-last=Wood|editor-first= A C|title = The Continuation of the History of the Willoughby Family|publisher = University of Nottingham|year = 1958|___location = Windsor, UK|oclc=65482756 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Charmantier|first1= Isabelle|last2= Johnston|first2= Dorothy|last3=Smith|first3=Paul J|year=2016|chapter=The legacies of Francis Willughby|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=360–385 }}
* {{cite book|last=Cram|first=David|year=1990|chapter=John Ray and Francis Willughby: Universal language schemes and the foundations of linguistic field research|editor-last= Hüllen|editor-first=Werner|title=Understanding the Historiography of Linguistics|___location=Münster|publisher=Nodus|isbn=978-3-89323-221-5|pages=229–239 }}
* {{cite book|last=Cram|first=David|year=1992|chapter=Language universals and seventeenth-century universal schemes|editor-last=Subbiondo|editor-first= Joseph L|title = John Wilkins and 17th-Century British Linguistics|___location=Amsterdam|publisher=John Benjamins|isbn=978-1-55619-362-0|pages=191–206 }}
* {{cite book|last1 = Cram|first1 = David|last2 = Foreng|first2 = Jeffrey L|last3 = Johnston|first3 = Dorothy|title = Francis Willughby's Book of Games: A Seventeenth-Century Treatise on Sports, Games and Pastimes|publisher = Routledge|year =2003|___location = Aldershot|isbn = 978-1-85928-460-5 }}
* {{cite book|last= Cram|first= David|year=2016|chapter= Francis Willughby and John Ray on words and things|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=244–267 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Greengrass|first1=Mark|last2=Hildyard|first2=Daisy|last3=Preston|first3=Christopher D|last4=Smith|first4=Paul J|year=2016|chapter=Science on the move: Francis Willughby’s expeditions|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=142–226 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Gurney|first1 = John Henry|title =Early Annals of Ornithology|publisher= H. F. & G. Witherby|year = 1921|___location = London|url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/116436#page/5/mode/1up}}
* {{cite book|last1 = Jackson|first1 = Christine E|title = Peacock|publisher = Reaktion|year = 2006|___location = London|isbn = 978-1-86189-293-5}}
* {{cite book|last1 = Jardine|first1 = Lisa|title = Ingenious Pursuits: Building the Scientific Revolution|publisher = Little, Brown|year = 1999|___location = London|isbn = 978-0-349-11305-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1 = Johanson|first1 = Zerina|last2 = Barrett|first2= Paul M|last3 = Richter|first3= Martha|last4= Smith|first4= Mike|title = Arthur Smith Woodward: His Life and Influence on Modern Vertebrate Palaeontology|publisher= Geological Society of London|year = 2016|___location =London |volume =430|series= Geological Society of London, Special Publications|isbn = 978-1-86239-741-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnston|first=Dorothy|year=2016|chapter=The life and domestic context of Francis Willughby|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=1–43 }}
* {{cite book|last= Kusukawa|first=Sachiko|year=2016|chapter= ''Historia Piscium'' (1686) and its sources|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=305–334 }}
* {{cite book|last=Ogilvie|first=Brian W|year=2016|chapter= Willughby on insects|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=1–43 }}
* {{cite book|last= Poole|first= William|year=2016|chapter= The Willughby library in the time of Francis the naturalist|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=227–243 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Raven|first1=Charles E.|title=John Ray, Naturalist: His Life and Works|year=1942|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-31083-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Roos|first=Anna Marie|year=2016|chapter=The chymistry of Francis Willughby (1635–72): the Trinity College, Cambridge community|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=99–121 }}
* {{cite book|last=Serjeantson|first=Richard|year=2016|chapter=The education of Francis Willughby|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=44–98 }}
* {{cite book|last= Wardhaugh|first= Benjamin|year=2016|chapter= Willughby’s mathematics|editor-last=Birkhead|editor-first=Tim|title=Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672)|___location=Leiden|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-28531-6|pages=122–141 }}
== Bibliography ==
* Willughby, Francis. ''A Volume of Plaies''. (Manuscript in the Middleton collection, University of Nottingham, shelfmark Li 113.) c1665-70.
{{refend}}
== External links ==
=== Voice recordings ===
* {{cite web|url = https://royalsociety.org/science-events-and-lectures/2012/first-ornithologist/|title = The first ornithologist: Francis Willughby|last = Birkhead|first = Tim|date = 9 March 2012|publisher = Royal Society|work= Public history of science lecture|access-date = 8 February 2019 }}
=== Other resources ===
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100404154612/http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/family/middleton/biographies/biographyoffranciswillughbyfrs(1635-1672).aspx Middleton archives at the University of Nottingham]
* {{cite journal|title= Mr Francis Willughby's epitaph|journal=The Naturalist's Library|editor-last= Jardine|editor-first= William|volume=v|issue=1|year=1833|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.17346|page=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/17303547#page/98/mode/1up 98]|last1=M. S.|url=https://www.archive.org/download/naturalistslibra01jardrich/naturalistslibra01jardrich.pdf}}
* ''National Geographic'' interview with Tim Birkhead "[https://web.archive.org/web/20180818200211/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/08/genius-naturalist-willughby-evolution/ The Amazing Tale of the Genius that History Forgot]".
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{{Featured article}}
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[[Category:17th-century alchemists]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge]]
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[[Category:English alchemists]]
[[Category:English Dissenters]]
[[Category:English ichthyologists]]
[[Category:English ornithologists]]
[[Category:Linguists from England]]
[[Category:Original fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:People educated at Bishop Vesey's Grammar School]]
[[Category:People from the Borough of North Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Willoughby family]]
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