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{{Short description|Smaller culture within a larger culture}}
{{
{{Sociology}}
In the [[sociology of culture]], a '''subculture''' is a group of people within a [[Culture|cultural]] [[society]] that differentiates itself from the [[values]] of the mainstream or dominant culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures develop their own norms and values regarding cultural, political, and sexual matters. Subcultures are part of society while keeping their specific characteristics intact. Examples of subcultures include [[Motorcycle club|bikers]], [[Punk subculture|punk]]s, [[skinhead]]s, [[Hip hop culture|hip-hoppers]], and [[Furry fandom|furries]]. The [[concept]] of subcultures was developed in [[sociology]] and [[cultural studies]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-subculture-theories-definition-examples.html|title=What Is Subculture? – Theories, Definition & Examples – Video & Lesson Transcript|publisher=Study.com|language=en|access-date=2017-09-08}}</ref> Subcultures differ from [[counterculture]]s.
==Definitions==
The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' defines subculture, in regards to sociological and cultural anthropology, as "an identifiable subgroup within a society or group of people, esp. one characterized by beliefs or interests at variance with those of the larger group; the distinctive ideas, practices, or way of life of such a subgroup."<ref name="OED">{{Cite OED|subculture|id=192545}}</ref> Some subcultures are formed by members with characteristics or preferences that differ from the majority of society, who generally have a preference for body modifications such as [[tattoo]]s, punctures, and certain forms of plastic surgery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Niosi |first=Andrea |date=2021-06-25 |title=Subcultures |url=https://opentextbc.ca/introconsumerbehaviour/chapter/subcultures/ |journal=https://opentextbc.ca/introconsumerbehaviour/chapter/subcultures/ |language=en}}</ref>
Unlike mainstream social relationships, subcultural communities are characterized by transience, informality, and a lack of typical social kinship relationships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Subcultures - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/subcultures |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>
As early as 1950, [[David Riesman]] distinguished between a [[majority]], "which passively accepted [[Commerce|commercially]] provided styles and meanings, and a 'subculture' which actively sought a minority style ... and interpreted it in accordance with [[Subversion (politics)|subversive]] [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]]".<ref>Middleton 1990</ref> In his 1979 book ''[[Subculture: The Meaning of Style]]'', [[Dick Hebdige]] argued that a subculture is a [[subversion]] to normalcy. He wrote that subcultures can be perceived as negative due to their nature of criticism to the dominant societal standard. Hebdige argued that subculture brings together like-minded individuals who feel neglected by societal standards and allow them to develop a sense of identity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.erikclabaugh.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/181899847-Subculture.pdf|title=Subculture: the meaning of style|last=Hebdige|first=Dick|date=1979}}</ref>
In 1995, [[Sarah Thornton]], drawing on [[Pierre Bourdieu]], described "subcultural capital" as the cultural knowledge and commodities acquired by members of a subculture, raising their status and helping differentiate themselves from members of other groups.<ref>Thornton 1995</ref> In 2007, Ken Gelder proposed to distinguish subcultures from countercultures based on the level of immersion in society.<ref name="Gelder 2007">Gelder 2007</ref> Gelder further proposed six key ways in which subcultures can be identified through their:
# often negative relations to work (as 'idle', 'parasitic', at play or at leisure, etc.);
# negative or ambivalent relation to class (since subcultures are not 'class-conscious' and do not conform to traditional class definitions);
# association with territory (the 'street', the 'hood', the club, etc.), rather than property;
# movement out of the home and into non-domestic forms of belonging (i.e. social groups other than the [[family]]);
# stylistic ties to excess and exaggeration (with some exceptions);
# refusal of the banalities of ordinary life and massification.<ref name="Gelder 2007"/>
Sociologists [[Gary Alan Fine]] and [[Sherryl Kleinman]] argued that their 1979 research showed that a subculture is a group that serves to motivate a potential member to adopt the artifacts, behaviors, norms, and values characteristic of the group.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fine|first1=Gary Alan|last2=Kleinman|first2=Sherryl|date=1979|title=Rethinking Subculture: An Interactionist Analysis|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2778065|journal=American Journal of Sociology|volume=85|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.1086/226971|jstor=2778065|s2cid=144955053|issn=0002-9602|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
Contemporary subcultures typically refer to [[popular culture]], including animation, comics, video games, and popular music.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is subculture? |url=https://www.futurelearn.com/info/blog |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=FutureLearn |language=en-US}}</ref>
==History of studies==
The evolution of subcultural studies has three main steps:<ref>Berzano L., Genova C., Lifestyles and Subcultures. History and a New Perspective, Routledge, London, 2015 (part II)</ref>
===Subcultures and deviance===
The earliest sociological studies on subcultures came from the so-called [[Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago School]], who interpreted them as forms of deviance and delinquency. Starting with what they called [[Social Disorganization Theory]], they claimed that subcultures emerged on one hand because of some population sectors' lack of socialization with the [[mainstream culture]] and, on the other, because of their adoption of alternative [[Axiology|axiological]] and normative models. As [[Robert E. Park]], [[Ernest Burgess]], and [[Louis Wirth]] suggested, by means of selection and segregation processes, there thus appear in society "natural areas" or "moral regions" where deviant models concentrate and are re-inforced; they do not accept objectives or means of action offered by the mainstream culture, proposing different ones in their place—thereby becoming, depending on circumstances, innovators, rebels, or retreatists ([[Richard Cloward]] and [[Lloyd Ohlin]]).
Subcultures, however, are not only the result of alternative action strategies but also of labelling processes on the basis of which, as [[Howard S. Becker]] explains, society defines them as outsiders. As Cohen clarifies, every subculture's style, consisting of image, demeanour and language becomes its recognition trait. And an individual's progressive adoption of a subcultural model will furnish him/her with growing status within this context but it will often, in tandem, deprive him/her of status in the broader social context outside where a different model prevails.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jtpcrim.org/January-2015/Rethinking-subculture.pdf|title=Rethinking Subcultures and Subculture Theory in the Study of Youth Crime _ A theoretical Discourse|last=Nwalozie|first=Chijioke J.|date=2015|access-date=2017-06-14|archive-date=2018-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181223012009/http://www.jtpcrim.org/January-2015/Rethinking-subculture.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Cohen used the term 'Corner Boys' which were unable to compete with their better secured and prepared peers. These [[Lower social class|lower-class]] youths didn't have equal access to resources, resulting in the status of [[frustration]], [[Social exclusion|marginalization]], and search for a solution.<ref>Newburn, T. & Proquest, 2017. Criminology Third., Ann Arbor, Mich.]: ProQuest. pp. 210</ref>
===Subcultures and resistance===
[[File:Goth weekends Portraits (63613710).jpg|thumb|left|upright|A [[Goth subculture|goth]] couple attending the [[Whitby Goth Weekend]] festival, dressed in [[Gothic fashion|typical Gothic]] [[Victorian fashion|Victorian]] and [[1550–1600 in Western European fashion#Elizabethan Style|Elizabethan]] styles]]
In the work of John Clarke, [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], Tony Jefferson, and Brian Roberts of the Birmingham CCCS ([[Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies]]), subcultures are interpreted as forms of resistance. Society is seen as being divided into two fundamental classes, the working class and the [[middle class]], each with its own class culture, and middle-class culture being dominant. Particularly in the working class, subcultures grow out of the presence of specific interests and affiliations around which cultural models spring up, in conflict with both their parents' culture and [[mainstream culture]]. Subcultural groups emphasize voluntary, informal, and organic subordinate relationships formed in unregulated street public spaces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Introduction |url=https://www.rochester.edu/in_visible_culture/issue2/introduction.htm |access-date=2024-06-23 |website=www.rochester.edu}}</ref> Facing a weakening of class identity, subcultures are then new forms of [[Collective identity#In sociology|collective identification]], expressing what Cohen defined "symbolic resistance" against the mainstream culture and developing imaginary solutions for structural problems. However, the Birmingham School believes that the symbolic rejection of mainstream bourgeois lifestyles by subcultures is illusory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is a Subculture? – Subcultures and Sociology |url=https://haenfler.sites.grinnell.edu/subcultural-theory-and-theorists/what-is-a-subculture/ |access-date=2024-06-23 |language=en}}</ref>
As [[Paul Willis]] and [[Dick Hebdige]] underline, identity and resistance in subcultures are expressed through the development of a distinctive style which, by a re-signification and "[[bricolage]]" operation, use [[culture industry|cultural]] [[goods and services]] as standardized products to buy and [[Consumerism|consume]], in order to communicate and express one's own conflict. Yet the culture industry is often capable of re-absorbing the components of such a style and once again transforming them into [[consumer goods]] for the [[mass society]]. At the same time the [[mass media]], while they participate in building subcultures by broadcasting their images, also weaken subcultures by depriving them of their subversive content or by spreading a [[Social stigma|socially stigmatized]] image of them and their members.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwhHBQAAQBAJ&q=Subculture+and+Deviance+_+Post+War+Consumerism+and+Resistance&pg=PA115|title=The Death and Resurrection of Deviance: Current Ideas and Research|last1=Dellwing|first1=M.|last2=Kotarba|first2=J.|last3=Pino|first3=N.|date=2014-10-22|publisher=Springer|isbn=9781137303806|language=en}}</ref>
===Subcultures and distinction===
The most recent interpretations see subcultures as forms of distinction. In an attempt to overcome the idea of subcultures as forms of deviance or resistance, they describe subcultures as collectivities which, on a cultural level, are sufficiently homogeneous internally and heterogeneous with respect to the outside world to be capable of developing, as Paul Hodkinson points out, consistent distinctiveness, identity, commitment and autonomy. Defined by [[Sarah Thornton]] as taste cultures, subcultures are endowed with elastic, porous borders, and are inserted into relationships of interaction and mingling, rather than independence and conflict, with the cultural industry and mass media, as [[Steve Redhead]] and David Muggleton emphasize. The very idea of a unique, internally homogeneous, dominant culture is explicitly criticized. Thus forms of individual involvement in subcultures are fluid and gradual, differentiated according to each actor's investment, outside clear dichotomies. The ideas of different levels of subcultural capital ([[Sarah Thornton]]) possessed by each individual, of the supermarket of style ([[Ted Polhemus]]) and of style surfing (Martina Böse) replace that of the subculture's insiders and outsiders – with the perspective of subcultures supplying resources for the construction of new identities going beyond strong, lasting identifications.
==Identifying==
[[File:Ramones 30081980 10 800.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Members of the seminal [[punk rock]] band [[Ramones]] wearing early [[Punk fashion|punk fashion items]] such as [[Converse sneakers]], black [[leather jackets]], and blue [[jeans]]]]
The study of subcultures often consists of the study of symbolism attached to [[clothing]], [[music]], [[hairstyles]], [[jewellery]], and other visible affectations by members of subcultures, and also of the ways in which these same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture. Dick Hebdige writes that members of a subculture often signal their membership through a distinctive and symbolic use of style, which includes [[fashion]]s, {{wikt-lang|en|mannerisms}}, and [[argot]].<ref>Hebdige 1981</ref>
[[File:Star Trek uniforms.jpg|thumb|left|230px|[[Star Trek fandom|Trekkies]] are a subculture of ''[[Star Trek]]'' fans.]]
Subcultures can exist at all levels of organizations, highlighting the fact that there are multiple cultures or value combinations usually evident in any one organization that can complement but also compete with the overall organisational culture.<ref>Anheier, Helmut K., Stefan Toepler and Regina List, eds., ''International Encyclopedia of Civil Society'', (Springer, 2010)</ref> In some instances, subcultures have been legislated against, and their activities regulated or curtailed.<ref name="HallStuart">Hall, Stuart, Tony Jefferson, Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-War Britain (Routledge, 1993).</ref> British [[youth subculture]]s had been described as a moral problem that ought to be handled by the guardians of the dominant culture within the [[post-war consensus]].<ref name="HallStuart" />
==Relationships with mainstream culture==
[[File:Bar-b-quin' with my HONEY.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Potato chip]] packages featuring [[Hip-hop culture|hip hop subcultural]] designs in a case of mainstream commercial cultural merging]]
It may be difficult to identify certain subcultures because their style (particularly clothing and music) may be adopted by mass culture for commercial purposes. Businesses often seek to capitalize on the subversive allure of subcultures in search of ''[[Cool (aesthetic)|Cool]]'', which remains valuable in the selling of any product.<ref>Howes, David. ''Cross-cultural consumption: global markets, local realities.'' New York: Routledge, 1996. Print.</ref> This process of [[cultural appropriation]] may often result in the death or evolution of the subculture, as its members adopt new styles that appear alien to mainstream society.<ref>Goldstein-Gidoni, Ofra. "Producers of 'Japan' in Israel: ''Cultural appropriation'' in a non-colonial context." ''Ethnos:Journal of Anthropology'' 68.3 (2003): 365. Print.</ref>
Music-based subcultures are particularly vulnerable to this process; what may be considered subcultures at one stage in their histories{{snd}}such as [[jazz]], [[Goth subculture|goth]], [[Punk subculture|punk]], [[Hip hop culture|hip hop]], and [[rave culture]]s{{snd}}may represent mainstream taste within a short period.<ref>Blair, M. Elizabeth, "Commercialization of Rap Music Youth ''Subculture''." Journal of Popular Culture 27.3 (1993): 21–33. Print.</ref> Even religious groups can be seen as subcultures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reddy-Best |first=Kelly L. |url=https://iastate.pressbooks.pub/dressappearancediversity/ |title=Dress, Appearance, and Diversity in U.S. Society |date=2020-08-01 |publisher=Iowa State University Digital Press |language=en |doi=10.31274/isudp.2020.9}}</ref> In his research on British punk rock in the late 1970s, Hebdige proposed a controversial proposition at the time: punk portrayed the entire history of post-war working-class youth culture in a "cut" form, blending elements that originally belonged to completely different eras.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} Some subcultures reject or modify the importance of style, stressing membership through the adoption of an [[ideology]] which may be much more resistant to commercial exploitation.<ref>Lewin, Phillip, J. Patrick Williams. "Reconceptualizing Punk through ''Ideology'' and Authenticity". ''Conference Papers--American Sociological Association''. 2007 Annual Meeting, 2007.</ref> The [[punk subculture]]'s distinctive (and initially shocking) style of clothing was adopted by mass-market fashion companies once the subculture became a media interest. [[Dick Hebdige]] argues that the punk subculture shares the same "radical aesthetic practices" as the [[Dada]]ist and [[Surrealism|Surrealist]] art movements:
<blockquote>
Like Duchamp's 'ready mades' - manufactured objects which qualified as art because he chose to call them such, the most unremarkable and inappropriate items - a pin, a plastic clothes peg, a television component, a razor blade, a tampon - could be brought within the province of punk (un)fashion ... Objects borrowed from the most sordid of contexts found a place in punks' ensembles; lavatory chains were draped in graceful arcs across chests in plastic bin liners. Safety pins were taken out of their domestic 'utility' context and worn as gruesome ornaments through the cheek, ear or lip ... fragments of school uniform (white bri-nylon shirts, school ties) were symbolically defiled (the shirts covered in graffiti, or fake blood; the ties left undone) and juxtaposed against leather drains or shocking pink mohair tops.<ref>Dick Hebdige p.106-12</ref>
</blockquote>
== Urban tribes ==
{{redirect|Urban tribe|the American musician|Urban Tribe}}
In 1985, French sociologist [[Michel Maffesoli]] coined the term ''urban tribe'' or [[neotribalism]]. It gained widespread use after the publication of his ''[[The Time of the Tribes]]'' (1988).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frehse |first1=Fraya |title=As realidades que as 'tribos urbanas' criam |trans-title=The realities that 'urban tribes' create |language=pt |journal=Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais |date=February 2006 |volume=21 |issue=60 |doi=10.1590/S0102-69092006000100012 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1996, this book was published in English.<ref>{{cite book|title= The Time of the Tribes: The Decline of Individualism in Mass Society|author= Maffesoli, Michel|date= 1996-02-27|isbn=080398474X }}</ref> According to Maffesoli, neo tribes are microgroups of people who share common interests in urban areas. The members of these relatively small groups tend to have similar worldviews, dress styles and behavioral patterns.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.expatica.com/fr/news/Urban-tribes-thriving-in-modern-society_434885.html|title='Urban tribes' thriving in modern society|access-date=2017-09-08|archive-date=2017-09-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908154605/https://www.expatica.com/fr/news/Urban-tribes-thriving-in-modern-society_434885.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Their [[social interactions]] are largely [[Formality|informal]] and emotionally laden, different from [[late capitalism]]'s [[corporate]]-[[bourgeoisie]] cultures, based on dispassionate logic. Maffesoli claims that [[Punk subculture|punks]] are a typical example of an "urban tribe".<ref>Maffesoli 1996</ref>
In the context of [[Consumer culture theory|consumer culture]], the notion of consumer tribes indicate ephemeral groups of individuals that often share a common interest and a share a subculture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Canniford |first=Robin |date=2011-12-01 |title=How to manage consumer tribes |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0965254X.2011.599496 |journal=Journal of Strategic Marketing |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=591–606 |doi=10.1080/0965254X.2011.599496 |s2cid=167613824 |issn=0965-254X|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Unlike traditional tribes that share kinship and language, consumer tribes are elective and ephemeral because they disperse without necessarily building long-term relationships.<ref>{{Citation |last=Ruiz |first=Carlos A. Diaz |title=Consumer Tribes |date=2024-06-13 |work=Elgar Encyclopedia of Consumer Behavior |pages=113–115 |url=https://www.elgaronline.com/display/book/9781803926278/ch36.xml |access-date=2024-08-14 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |doi=10.4337/9781803926278.ch36 |isbn=978-1-80392-627-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Consumer tribes often fluctuate around a common hobby or interest but lack permanent social bonds to become a [[brand community]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diaz Ruiz |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Penaloza |first2=Lisa |last3=Holmqvist |first3=Jonas |date=2020-01-01 |title=Assembling tribes: An assemblage thinking approach to the dynamics of ephemerality within consumer tribes |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-08-2018-0565 |journal=European Journal of Marketing |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=999–1024 |doi=10.1108/EJM-08-2018-0565 |s2cid=216399732 |issn=0309-0566|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
== Sexual and gender identity-based subcultures ==
{{Main|Sexual Revolution|Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures}}
{{Further|LGBTQ movements|Queer spaces|Sexual fetishism|Sexual roleplay}}
[[File:Stonewall_Inn_5_pride_weekend_2016.jpg|thumb|The [[Stonewall Inn]] in the [[gay village]] of [[Greenwich Village]], [[LGBT culture in New York City|Manhattan]], site of the June 1969 [[Stonewall riots]], is adorned with [[Rainbow flag (LGBT)|rainbow pride flags]].<ref name=GayGreenwichVillage1>{{cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/new-york/articles/why-new-york-city-is-a-major-destination-for-lgbt-travelers/|title=Why New York City Is a Major Destination for LGBT Travelers|last=Goicichea|first=Julia|publisher=The Culture Trip|date=August 16, 2017|access-date=February 2, 2019}}</ref><ref name=GayGreenwichVillage2>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/25/nyregion/stonewall-inn-named-national-monument-a-first-for-gay-rights-movement.html |title=Stonewall Inn Named National Monument, a First for the Gay Rights Movement|last=Rosenberg|first=Eli|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 24, 2016|access-date=June 25, 2016}}</ref><ref name=GayGreenwichVillage3>{{cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/diversity/stonewall.htm |title=Workforce Diversity The Stonewall Inn, National Historic Landmark National Register Number: 99000562 |publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior |access-date=April 21, 2016}}</ref>]]
The [[Sexual Revolution]] of the 1960s led to a [[Counterculture of the 1960s|countercultural rejection of the established sexual and gender norms]] in the [[Western world]], particularly in the urban areas of Europe, North and South America, Australia, and South Africa. A more permissive social environment in these areas led to a proliferation of ''sexual subcultures''—cultural expressions of [[Heteronormativity|non-normative sexuality]]. As with other subcultures, sexual subcultures adopted certain styles of fashion and gestures to distinguish themselves from mainstream Western culture.<ref name="Hovey 2007">{{cite book |author-last=Hovey |author-first=Jaime |year=2007 |chapter=Sexual subcultures |editor-last=Malti-Douglas |editor-first=Fedwa |title=Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender |___location=[[Farmington Hills, Michigan]] |publisher=[[Gale (publisher)|Macmillan Reference USA]] |volume=4 |series=Macmillan Social Science Library |pages=1372–1374 |isbn=9780028661155 |oclc=922889305}}</ref>
[[Lesbian]], [[gay]], [[Bisexuality|bisexual]], [[transgender]], and [[queer]] (''[[LGBTQ]]'') people express themselves through the [[LGBTQ culture]], considered the largest sexual subculture of the 20th and 21st centuries.<ref name="LGBTQ Youth">{{cite book |author1-last=Green |author1-first=Amy E. |author2-last=Taliaferro |author2-first=Lindsay A. |author3-last=Price |author3-first=Myeshia N. |year=2021 |chapter=Understanding Risk and Protective Factors to Improve Well-Being and Prevent Suicide Among LGBTQ Youth |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ndFYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176 |editor-last1=Miranda |editor-first1=Regina |editor-last2=Jeglic |editor-first2=Elizabeth L. |title=Handbook of Youth Suicide Prevention: Integrating Research into Practice |___location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |pages=177–194 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-82465-5_11 |isbn=978-3-030-82465-5}}</ref> With the [[Societal attitudes toward homosexuality|ever-increasing acceptance of homosexuality in the early 21st century]], including its expressions in fashion, music, and design, the [[gay culture]] can no longer be considered a subculture in many parts of the world, although some aspects of gay culture like [[Leather subculture|leathermen]], [[Bear (gay culture)|bears]], and [[Chub (gay culture)|chubs]] are considered subcultures within the gay movement itself.<ref name="Hovey 2007"/> The [[butch and femme]] identities or roles among some lesbians also engender their own subculture with stereotypical attire, for instance [[drag king]]s.<ref name="Hovey 2007"/> A late 1980s development, the queer movement can be considered a subculture broadly encompassing the rejection of [[heteronormativity]] in sexual behavior while embracing [[Non-binary|non-binary self-identification]] and/or [[Non-monogamy|non-monogamous forms of intimate relationships]],<ref>{{cite journal |author1-last=Kelberga (Kelberg) |author1-first=Anna |author2-last=Martinsone |author2-first=Baiba |date=September 2022 |title=Motivation of non-monogamous adults to engage in sex with their different partners |journal=[[Frontiers in Psychology]] |___location=[[Lausanne]] |publisher=Frontiers Media |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.961949 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=9533024 |pmid=36211920}}</ref> and whose members celebrate visibility and [[LGBTQ movements|LGBTQ rights activism]].<ref name="LGBTQ Youth"/> The wider movement coincided with growing academic interests in [[Feminist sociology]], [[queer studies]], and [[queer theory]].<ref name="LGBTQ Youth"/>
Aspects of sexual subcultures can vary along other cultural lines. For instance, in the United States, ''[[Down-low (sexual slang)|down-low]]'' is a slang term specifically used within the [[African Americans|African-American community]]<ref name="Cassell's Dic">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GpLcC4a5fAC&q=slang+down-low&pg=PA414|title=Cassell's Dictionary of Slang|last=Green|first=Jonathon|date=2006 |page= 893 |publisher=Sterling Publishing|isbn=978-0-304-36636-1|quote=down low n. [1990s+] (US Black) a state of secrecy. down low adj. [1990s+] () covert, secret (i.e. keeping a low profile)|access-date=2008-03-19}}</ref> to refer to [[Black people|black men]] who usually identify as [[Heterosexuality|heterosexual]] but actively seek [[Men who have sex with men|sexual encounters and relations with other men]], practice [[Cruising for sex|gay cruising]], and frequently adopt a specific [[Hip hop fashion|hip-hop attire]] during these activities.<ref name="Hovey 2007"/><ref name="Am. J. Public Health">{{cite journal |last1=Bond |first1=Lisa |last2=Wheeler |first2=Darrell P. |last3=Millett |first3=Gregorio A. |last4=LaPollo |first4=Archana B. |last5=Carson |first5=Lee F. |last6=Liau |first6=Adrian |date=April 2009 |title=Black Men Who Have Sex With Men and the Association of Down-Low Identity With HIV Risk Behavior |editor-last=Morabia |editor-first=Alfredo |editor-link=Alfredo Morabia |journal=[[American Journal of Public Health]] |publisher=[[American Public Health Association]] |volume=99 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=S92–S95 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2007.127217 |eissn=1541-0048 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=2724949 |pmid=19218177 |s2cid=40119540 }}</ref> They avoid sharing this information even if they have female sexual partner(s), they are married to a woman, or they are single.<ref name="Coming Up from the Down Low">{{cite web|last=King |first=J.L. |author2=Courtney Carreras |title=Coming Up from the Down Low: The Journey to Acceptance, Healing and Honest Love |page=36 |publisher=Three Rivers Press |date=April 25, 2006 |url=https://www.enotalone.com/article/lgbtq/the-cycle-coming-up-from-the-down-low-r5642/ |access-date=2009-12-18 }}</ref><ref name="Secret Gay">{{cite news| last = Johnson| first = Jason|title=Secret gay encounters of black men could be raising women's infection rate| newspaper = San Francisco Chronicle| date = 1 May 2005| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/05/01/MNG4TCID0F1.DTL&type=health| access-date = 2009-12-18}}</ref><ref name="Black masculinities">{{cite book |last=Mutua |first=Athena |title=Progressive Black Masculinities |___location=[[New York City|New York]] and [[London]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |page=169 |isbn=978-0-415-97687-9 |date=September 28, 2006 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=GAzEzR3dap4C&q=%22down%20low%22%2C%20adapted%20by%20a%20subculture%20of%20black%20men&pg=PT197 |access-date=2009-12-18}}</ref><ref name="Outing Hip-Hop">{{cite magazine| last = Bennett| first = Jessica| title = Outing Hip-Hop| magazine = Newsweek| date = May 19, 2008| url = http://www.newsweek.com/id/137380/page/1| access-date = 2009-12-19}}</ref>
==Social media==
{{Main|Digital media|Internet culture|New media}}
{{Further|Global village|Influencer marketing|Intercultural communication}}
In a 2011 study, Brady Robards and Andy Bennett said that [[Online identity management|online identity expression]] that proliferated through early online communities, including message boards and [[Usenet]] groups, has been interpreted as exhibiting subcultural qualities. However, they argue it is more in line with [[neotribalism]] than with what is often classified as subculture. [[Social networking website]]s are quickly becoming the most used form of communication and means to distribute information and news. They offer a way for people with similar backgrounds, lifestyles, professions, or hobbies to connect. According to a co-founder and executive creative strategist for RE-UP, as technology becomes a "life force", subcultures become the main bone of contention for brands as social networks rise through cultural mash-ups, [[viral phenomenon]]s, and [[Internet meme|memes]] on the internet.<ref>{{cite web|author=Laurent Francois @lilzeon |url=http://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/subcultures-big-opportunity-social-brands-generate-value |title=Subcultures: Big Opportunity for Social Brands to Generate Value |publisher=Social Media Today |date=2013-05-25 |access-date=2017-10-19}}</ref>
Where [[social media]] is concerned, there seems to be a growing interest among media producers to use subcultures for branding. This is seen most actively on social media platforms based on [[user-generated content]], such as [[YouTube]], [[Twitter]], [[Facebook]], and [[Instagram]]. Therefore, subcultures can be and have been [[Social media marketing|successfully targeted by firms for commercial purposes]]. A stream of academic research in [[consumer culture]] shows the multiple ways in which companies and firms target subcultures with commercial offerings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Diaz Ruiz |first1=Carlos A. |last2=Kjellberg |first2=Hans |date=2020 |title=Feral segmentation: How cultural intermediaries perform market segmentation in the wild |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1470593120920330 |journal=Marketing Theory |language=en |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=429–457 |doi=10.1177/1470593120920330 |s2cid=219027435 |issn=1470-5931|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schouten |first1=John W. |last2=McAlexander |first2=James H. |year=1995 |title=Subcultures of Consumption: An Ethnography of the New Bikers |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/209434 |access-date=2023-03-25 |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |volume=22 |page=43 |doi=10.1086/209434|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
==Discrimination==
{{Main|Minority group|Racial segregation|Social exclusion}}
{{Further|Hate crime|Hate group|In-group favoritism|Online hate speech|Violence against LGBTQ people}}
[[Discrimination]]-based harassment and violence are sometimes directed towards a person or group based on their culture or subculture.<ref name="iraq-emo-killings">{{cite news |last1=Rasheed |first1=Ahmed |last2=Ameer |first2=Mohammed |date=10 March 2012 |title=Iraq militia stone youths to death for "emo" style |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-emo-killings-idUSBRE8290CY20120310 |url-status=live |publisher=Reuters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423113031/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-emo-killings-idUSBRE8290CY20120310 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="bbc-17333275">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=11 March 2012 |title=Iraqi 'emo' youths reportedly killed by conservative militias |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-17333275 |url-status=live |publisher=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618083508/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-17333275 |archive-date=18 June 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="Sedgwick 2013">{{cite news |last=Sedgwick |first=Mark |date=4 April 2013 |title=How are goths and emos defined? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22026044 |url-status=live |publisher=BBC News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425025550/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-22026044 |archive-date=25 April 2022 |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref><ref name="www.channel4.com">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 April 2013 |title=Attacks on goths, punks, and emos are 'hate crimes' |url=https://www.channel4.com/news/goth-hate-crime-emo-punk-metal-police-gmp |url-status=live |publisher=Channel 4 News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019015118/https://www.channel4.com/news/goth-hate-crime-emo-punk-metal-police-gmp |archive-date=19 October 2021 |access-date=1 July 2022}}</ref> In the United States and the United Kingdom, the concept of subculture has always been the main explanatory tool for sociological and criminological understanding of deviant behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blackman |first=Shane |date=2013-06-03 |title=Subculture Theory: An Historical and Contemporary Assessment of the Concept for Understanding Deviance |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01639625.2013.859049 |journal=Deviant Behavior |language=en |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=496–512 |doi=10.1080/01639625.2013.859049 |issn=0163-9625|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In 2013, the [[Greater Manchester Police]] in the United Kingdom began to classify attacks on subcultures such as [[Goth subculture|goths]], [[emo]]s, [[Punk subculture|punks]], and [[Heavy metal subculture|metalheads]] as hate crimes, in the same way they record abuse against people because of their religion, race, disability, sexual orientation or transgender identity.<ref name="www.channel4.com"/> The decision followed the [[murder of Sophie Lancaster]] and beating of her boyfriend in 2007, who were attacked because they were goths.<ref name="Sedgwick 2013"/> In 2012, [[human rights]] [[Social activism|activists]] have denounced the occurrence of [[emo killings in Iraq]], which consisted of between at least 6 and up to 70 teenage boys who were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered in [[Baghdad]] and elsewhere in [[Iraq]], due to being targeted because they dressed in a "Westernized" emo style.<ref name="iraq-emo-killings"/><ref name="bbc-17333275"/>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Politics|Psychology|Society}}
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Alternative lifestyle]]
* [[Anti-globalization movement]]
** [[Alter-globalization|Alternative globalization]]
** [[Criticism of capitalism]]
** ''[[Globalization and Its Discontents]]''
** [[Indigenous movements in the Americas]]
* [[Art world]]
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[Cultural competence]]
* [[Cultural identity]]
* [[Cultural sensitivity]]
* [[Culture jamming]]
* [[Folklore]]
* [[Heterosociality]]
* [[High culture]] and [[low culture]]
* [[History of modern Western subcultures]]
* [[List of subcultures]]
* [[Influence of mass media]]
** [[Black propaganda]]
** [[Conspiracism]]
** [[Far-right subcultures]]
** [[Media culture]]
* ''[[Radical chic]]''
* [[Rainbow Family]]
* [[Recreational drug use]]
** [[Hipster (1940s subculture)|1940s hipster culture]]
** [[Cannabis culture]]
** [[Hippie counterculture]]
** [[Rave culture]]
* [[Social osmosis]]
* [[Subcultural theory]]
* [[Underclass]]
* [[Underground culture]]
* [[Urban culture]]
* [[Urban sociology]]
* [[Youth culture]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last = Cante |first = Richard C. |title = Gay Men and the Forms of Contemporary US Culture |publisher = Ashgate Publishing |isbn = 978-0-7546-7230-2 |date = March 2009 |___location = London, England }}
* Gelder, Ken (2007). '' Subcultures: Cultural Histories and Social Practice'' (Routledge, March 2007; softcover {{ISBN|0-415-37952-0}})
* [[Dick Hebdige|Hebdige, Dick]] (1979). ''[[Subculture: The Meaning of Style]]'' (Routledge, March 10, 1981; softcover {{ISBN|0-415-03949-5}}). Cited in Negus, Keith (1996). ''Popular Music in Theory: An Introduction''. Wesleyan University Press. {{ISBN|0-8195-6310-2}}.
* Huq, Rupa (2006) 'Beyond subculture' (Routledge, 2006; softcover {{ISBN|0-415-27815-5}}. Hardcover {{ISBN|0-415-27814-7}})
* Maffesoli, Michel (1996). ''The Time of the Tribes: The Decline of Individualism in Mass Society''. (London: Sage Publications. {{ISBN|0-8039-8474-X}})
* McKay, George (1996) ''Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance since the Sixties''. (London: Verso. {{ISBN|1-85984-028-0}}.)
* McKay, George (2005) ''Circular Breathing: The Cultural Politics of Jazz in Britain.'' Durham NC: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-3573-5}}.
* [[David Riesman|Riesman, David]] (1950). "Listening to popular music", ''American Quarterly'', 2, p. 359-71. Cited in [[Richard Middleton (musicologist)|Middleton, Richard]] (1990/2002). ''Studying Popular Music'', p. 155. Philadelphia: Open University Press. {{ISBN|0-335-15275-9}}.
* Thornton, Sarah (1995). ''Club Cultures: Music, Media, and Subcultural Capital''. Cambridge: Polity Press. Cited in Negus, Keith (1996). ''Popular Music in Theory: An Introduction''. Wesleyan University Press. {{ISBN|0-8195-6310-2}}.
* Watters, Ethan (2003). ''Urban Tribes: A Generation Redefines Friendship, Family, and Commitment''. {{ISBN|1-58234-264-4}}.
* Hall, Stuart, Tony Jefferson (1993). ''Resistance Through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-War Britain''. Routledge, 1993.
* {{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=M. Elizabeth |title=Commercialization of the Rap Music Youth Subculture |journal=The Journal of Popular Culture |date=December 1993 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=21–33 |id={{ProQuest|195356599}} |doi=10.1111/j.0022-3840.1993.00021.x }}
* Goldstein-Gidoni, Ofra. "Producers of 'Japan' in Israel: ''Cultural appropriation'' in a non-colonial context." ''Ethnos:Journal of Anthropology'' 68.3 (2003): 365. Print.
* Lewin, Phillip, J. Patrick Williams. "Reconceptualizing Punk through ''Ideology'' and Authenticity". ''Conference Papers—American Sociological Association''. 2007 Conference Papers, 2007.
* Howes, David. ''Cross-cultural consumption: global markets, local realities''. New York: Routledge, 1996. Print.
* {{cite journal |last1=Fine |first1=Gary Alan |last2=Kleinman |first2=Sherryl |title=Rethinking Subculture: An Interactionist Analysis |journal=American Journal of Sociology |date=July 1979 |volume=85 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1086/226971 |s2cid=144955053 }}
* Francois, L. (2013, May 25). Subcultures: Big Opportunity for Social Brands to Generate Value. Retrieved November 24, 2014, from http://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/subcultures-big-opportunity-social-brands-generate-value
* Huntington, S. (2014, March 24). Subcultures and Social Media: Mass Differentiation. Retrieved November 24, 2014, from http://socialmediadata.com/subcultures-and-social-media-mass-differentiation/
* {{cite journal |last1=Robards |first1=Brady |last2=Bennett |first2=Andy |title=MyTribe: Post-subcultural Manifestations of Belonging on Social Network Sites |journal=Sociology |date=1 April 2011 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=303–317 |doi=10.1177/0038038510394025 |hdl=10072/39970 |s2cid=146711846 |hdl-access=free }}
* Беляев, И. А. [http://culturolog.ru/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2051&Itemid=6 Культура, субкультура, контркультура] / И. А. Беляев, Н. А. Беляева // Духовность и государственность. Сборник научных статей. Выпуск 3; под ред. И. А. Беляева. — Оренбург: Филиал УрАГС в г. Оренбурге, 2002. — С. 5–18.
* Berzano, L., Genova, C. (2015). Lifestyles and Subcultures. History and a New Perspective. New York, NY: Routledge.
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category|Subcultures}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070317052819/http://www.intcul.tohoku.ac.jp/~holden/MediatedSociety/Readings/2003_04/Appadurai.html Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Economy] 126-98/5ย้าย126/2ตอนนี้แม่อยู่ไหนลูกก็อยู่นั้น563013ทะเบียนเล่ม
* [http://rbth.ru/articles/2010/11/25/key_youth_subcultures_from_lenin_to_our_day05146.html Key youth subcultures from Lenin to our day]
* [http://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/subcultures-big-opportunity-social-brands-generate-value Subcultures: Big Opportunities for Social Brands to Generate Value]
* [http://www.slate.com/blogs/xx_factor/2013/11/08/etsy_economic_impact_report_etsy_crafters_generate_895_million_in_annual.html Etsy Touts the Economic Power of Its Small Business Owner--Even If They Make $100 a Year]
{{Culture}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Subcultures| ]]
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