Joseon: differenze tra le versioni

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{{NN|Asia|dicembre 2023}}{{Stato storico

{{T|inglese|storia|luglio 2008}}

|nomeCorrente = Joseon / 조선

<!--{{Infobox Former Country

|nomeCompleto = Regno del Grande Joseon

|native_name = {{lang|ko|대조선국 (大朝鮮國)}}<br /><small>{{lang|ko|조선왕조 (朝鮮王朝)(colloquially used)}}</small>

|nomeUfficiale = 대조선국/大朝鮮國

|conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Joseon

|common_namelinkStemma = Coat of Arms of Joseon Korea.svg

|linkBandiera = Flag of the king of Joseon.svg

|

|linkLocalizzazione = Locator map of Korea.svg

|continent = Asia

|linkMappa = Korea_(orthographic_projection).svg

|region = Korea

|didascalia = Il territorio di Joseon dopo la conquista degli Jurchen di re Sejong.

|country = South Korea, North Korea

|paginaStemma = Stemma della Corea del Sud

|era = Kingdom

|paginaBandiera = Bandiera della Corea del Sud

|government_type = Monarchy

|inno =

|

|motto = {{coreano|대명천지|Daemyeongcheonji}}<br />(La terra gloriosa)

|year_start = 1392

|lingua ufficiale =

|year_end = 1897

|lingua = [[lingua coreana|Coreano]]

|

|capitale principale =

|event_start = Coronation of [[Taejo of Joseon|Taejo]]

[[Seul|Hanseong]]

|date_start = 1392

|capitaleAbitanti =

|event_end = Elevation to empire

|capitaleAbitantiAnno =

|date_end = [[October 12]] [[1897]]

|altre capitali =

|

|dipendente da =

|event1 = [[Hangul|Promulgation of Hangul]]

|dipendenze =

|date_event1 = [[October 9]] [[1446]]

|forma di stato = [[Monarchia]]

|event2 = [[Japanese invasions of Korea|Seven-Year War]]

|governo = [[Monarchia]]

|date_event2 = 1592 - 1598

|titolo capi di stato = Re

|event3 = [[Second Manchu invasion of Korea|Manchu invasions]]

|elenco capi di stato = &#32;

|date_event3 = 1636 - 1637

* [[Taejo di Joseon|Taejo]] (primo, 1392–1398)

|event4 = [[Treaty of Ganghwa]]

* [[Sejong il Grande]] (quarto, 1418–1450)

|date_event4 = [[February 27]] [[1876]]

* [[Jeongjo di Joseon|Jeongjo]] (ventiduesimo, 1776–1800)

|

* [[Gojong di Corea|Gojong]] (ventiseiesimo, 1863–1897)

|event_pre = Coup of 1388

|date_pretitolo capi di governo = [[May 20]] [[1388Yeonguijeong]]

|elenco capi di governo = &#32;

* [[Jeong Do-jeon]] (1392-1398)

* [[Hwang Hui]] (1431–1449)

* [[Ryu Seongryong]] (1592–1598)

* [[Chae Jegong]] (1793–1801)

|inizio = 17 luglio [[1392]]

|primo capo di stato = [[Taejo di Joseon]]

|stato precedente = [[File:Royal flag of Goryeo (Bong-gi).svg|20px|border]] [[Goryeo]]

|evento iniziale = Ribellione di Yi Seong-gye

|fine = 12 ottobre [[1897]]

|ultimo capo di stato = [[Gojong di Corea]]

|stato successivo = {{COR 1897-1910}}

|evento finale = Elevazione a impero

|area geografica =

|territorio originale = [[Penisola coreana]]

|superficie massima =

|periodo massima espansione =

|popolazione = 18.960.000

|periodo popolazione = [[1753]]

|moneta = &#32;

* [[Mun coreano|Mun]] (1633-1892)

* [[Yang coreano|Yang]] (1892-1897)

|religioni preminenti = [[Buddismo coreano]], [[sciamanesimo coreano]]

|religione di stato = [[Neoconfucianesimo]]

|altre religioni = [[Cristianesimo]] (dal 1866)

|stato attuale = {{PRK}}<br>{{KOR}}

}}'''Joseon''', o anche '''Chosun''' ({{Coreano|조선|Joseon|Chosŏn|朝鮮}}), è stato un regno dinastico [[corea]]no durato per circa cinque secoli. Fu fondato da [[Taejo di Joseon]] nel luglio 1392 dopo lo scioglimento della dinastia [[Goryeo]] nella moderna città di [[Kaesŏng|Kaesong]]. In un primo momento, la Corea fu ribattezzata e la capitale fu trasferita nell'odierna [[Seul]]. I confini più [[Nord|settentrionali]] del regno furono estesi ai confini naturali sui fiumi [[Yalu]] e [[Tumen (fiume)|Tumen]] attraverso la sottomissione dello [[Jurchen (Tumen)|Jurchen]]. Joseon è stata l'ultima dinastia in Corea e la dinastia [[Confucianesimo|confuciana]] più longeva. Fu sostituita dall'[[impero coreano]] nell'ottobre 1897.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=«조선». 한국민족문화대백과.}}</ref>

Durante il periodo Joseon, venne incoraggiato il radicamento degli ideali e delle dottrine confuciane cinesi nella società coreana, e il [[neoconfucianesimo]] venne installato come ideologia di stato della nuova dinastia. Di conseguenza, il [[Buddhismo|buddismo]] venne scoraggiato e occasionalmente subì persecuzioni dalla dinastia. Joseon consolidò il suo effettivo dominio sulla penisola coreana e vide l'apice della cultura, del commercio, della scienza, della letteratura e della tecnologia coreana classica. Tuttavia, la dinastia fu gravemente indebolita tra la fine del XVI e l'inizio del XVII secolo, quando le [[invasioni giapponesi della Corea (1592-1598)]] e la prima e la [[Seconda invasione manciù della Corea|seconda invasione manciù]] nel 1636 quasi occuparono la penisola coreana, portando la dinastia a una politica isolazionista sempre più dura. Così il paese divenne noto come il "regno eremita" nella letteratura occidentale. Dopo la fine delle invasioni della Manciuria, Joseon conobbe un periodo di pace di quasi 200 anni. Tuttavia, qualunque potere il regno riacquistò durante il suo isolamento diminuì ulteriormente con l'avvicinarsi della fine del XVIII secolo, e affrontando lotte intestine, lotte di potere, pressioni internazionali e ribellioni in patria, la dinastia Joseon declinò rapidamente alla fine del XIX secolo.

|

|

|p1 = Goryeo

|flag_p1 = Sam-Taeguk.svg

|s1 = Korean Empire

|flag_s1 = Flag of Korea 1882.svg

|

|image_flag = Flag of Korea 1882.svg

|flag = Flag of South Korea

|flag_type = Taegukgi (after 1883)

|

|image_coat = Korea-arms2.gif

|symbol =

|symbol_type = Royal emblem of Joseon |

|image_map = Locationmap Korea.png

|image_map_caption = Territory of Joseon after Jurchen conquest of King Sejong

|

|capital = [[Seoul|Hanseong]]

|latd= 37|latm= 32|latNS= N|longd= 126|longm= 59|longEW= E

|

|national_motto =

|national_anthem =

|common_languages = [[Korean language|Korean]]

|religion = [[Neo-Confucianism]]

|currency =

|

|

|title_leader = [[Monarch|Wang]]

|leader1 = [[Taejo of Joseon|Taejo]] (first)

|year_leader1 = 1392 - 1398

|leader2 = [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]] (last)¹

|year_leader2 = 1863 - 1897

|

|title_deputy = [[Head of government of Korea#Prime Minister of Joseon|Yeong-uijeong]]

|deputy1 = [[Hwang Hui]]

|year_deputy1 = 1431 - 1449

|deputy2 = [[Han Myeonghoe]]

|year_deputy2 = 1466 - 1472

|deputy3 = [[Ryu Seongryong]]

|year_deputy3 = 1592 - 1598

|deputy4 = [[Kim Hongjip]]

|year_deputy4 = 1894

|

|footnotes = ¹Became [[Emperor of Korea]] in 1897

}}

-->

{{Storia di Corea}}

'''Joseon''' (luglio 1392 - agosto 1910) (anche '''Chosŏn, Choson, Chosun'''), fu uno stato sovrano fondato da Taejo [[Taejo di Joseon|Yi Seong-gye]] nella moderna [[Corea]], e guidato per circa cinque secoli dall'omonima dinastia. Venne fondato in seguito alla caduta del regno [[Goryeo]] nella moderna città di [[Kaesong]]. La capitale venne spostata a [[Seoul]] e i confini del regno vennero spostati al limite naturale dei fiumi [[fiume Yalu|Amnok]] e [[fiume Tumen|Duman]]. La dinastia Joseon fu l'ultima dinastia imperiale della [[Corea]]. Fu il più lungo goveno di una dinastia [[confucio|confuciana]]. Dopo la dichiarazione dell'[[Impero coreano]] nel 1897, la dinastia si concluse con l'[[annessione giapponese]] nel 1910.

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An accomplished military strategist and renowned commander who originally distinguished himself by repelling the [[Wokou]] who were marauding on the peninsula, Yi Seong-gye, or King Taejo, of the Jeonju clan of [[Yi (Korean name)|Yi]] succeeded in a [[coup d'état]] against King [[U of Goryeo|U]] of the [[Goryeo]] Dynasty, whom he overthrew and, two years later, poisoned, King Gongyang of Goryeo. He subsequently ascended the throne. The capital was relocated to [[Hanseong]] (modern-day [[Seoul]]) from [[Gaegyeong]] (modern-day [[Gaeseong]]) in 1394 and the [[Gyeongbokgung]] palace was erected. From King Taejo descended an unbroken [[patrilineal]] succession of kings, a line of descent that continues to the modern era. The last ruling monarch was [[Sunjong of Korea|Sunjong]], the Yungheui Emperor, who was demoted from his status as head of state in 1910. Surviving bloodlines of the Joseon Dynasty today primarily consist of the descendants of Yeongchinwang ([[Crown Prince Euimin]]) and Uichinwang ([[Prince Imperial Ui]]), Sunjong's younger brothers.

Il periodo Joseon ha lasciato un'eredità sostanziale alla Corea moderna; gran parte della cultura, dell'etichetta, delle norme e degli atteggiamenti sociali coreani moderni verso le questioni attuali furono sviluppati durante questo periodo. La lingua coreana moderna, i suoi dialetti e il gruppo etnico maggioritario coreano, che si riferisce a se stessi come il "popolo Joseon", derivano dalla cultura e dalle tradizioni di Joseon.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=Lee, Seokwoo (2016). The Making of International Law in Korea: From Colony to Asian Power. p. 321. ISBN 978-9004315785.}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=Kim, Hyunjin (21 de Mayo de 2009). Ethnicity and Foreigners in Ancient Greece and China. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 140.}}</ref>

During its reign, Joseon consolidated its absolute rule over Korea, encouraged the entrenchment of Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society, imported and adopted Chinese culture, and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, science, literature, and technology. However, the dynasty was severely weakened during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, when successive [[invasions]] by neighboring [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)|Japan]] and [[Qing]] China virtually overran the peninsula, leading to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy for which the country became known as the [[Hermit Kingdom]]. However, whatever power the kingdom recovered during its isolation further waned as the 18th century came to a close, and faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure and [[List of revolutions and rebellions|rebellions]] at home, the Joseon Dynasty declined rapidly in the late 19th century. In 1895, The Joseon Dynasty was forced to write a document of independency from the [[Qing Dynasty]] after the Japanese victory in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and its peace treaty, the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]]. From 1897 to 1910, Korea was formally known as the ''[[Korean Empire]]'' to signify a sovereign nation no longer a tributary of the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Joseon Dynasty came to an end in 1910, when the [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty]] was enforced by the [[Empire of Japan]].

== Storia ==

The Joseon's rule has left a substantial legacy on the modern face of Korea; much of modern Korean etiquette, cultural norms, societal attitudes towards current issues, and even the modern Korean language and its dialects stem from the traditional thought pattern that originated from this period.

=== Primo periodo Joseon ===

== History ==

{{History of Korea}}

==== RiseFondazione to prominence====

Alla fine del XIV secolo, la dinastia [[Goryeo]], dopo quasi 500 anni dalla fondazione nel 918, stava vacillando e le sue fondamenta crollarono dopo anni di guerra e occupazione di fatto del disintegrato [[impero mongolo]]. Dopo l'emergere della [[dinastia Ming]], la corte reale di Goryeo si divise in due fazioni opposte: il gruppo guidato dal generale Yi (a sostegno dei Ming) e il campo guidato dal generale Choe (al fianco dello Yuan).

By the late 14th century, the 400 year-old Goryeo Dynasty established by [[Wang Geon]] in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war and ''de facto'' occupation from the disintegrating [[Mongol Empire]]. The legitimacy of Goryeo itself was also becoming an increasingly disputed issue within the court, as the ruling house failed to not only govern the kingdom effectively, but was also supposedly tarnished by generations of forced intermarriage with the [[Yuan Dynasty]] and rivalry amongst the various family branches (even King U's mother was a known commoner, thus leading to rumors disputing his descent from [[Gongmin of Goryeo|King Gongmin]]). Within the kingdom, influential aristocrats, generals, and even prime ministers struggled for royal favor and domination of the court, resulting in deep division among various factors. With the ever-increasing number of raids conducted by [[Wokou]] and the invasions of the [[Red Turbans]], those who came to dominate the royal court were the reformed-minded [[Sinjin aristocracy]] and the opposing [[Gwonmun aristocracy]], as well as generals who could actually fight off the foreign threats; namely a talented general named Yi Seong-gye and his rival [[Choe Yeong]].

La dinastia Goryeo sosteneva di essere il successore dell'antico regno di [[Goguryeo]] (che in seguito fu ribattezzato anch'esso Goryeo); in quanto tale, la restaurazione della [[Manciuria]] come parte del territorio coreano fece parte della sua politica estera nel corso della sua storia. Quando un messaggero Ming arrivò a Goryeo nel 1388, quattordicesimo anno di [[U di Goryeo]], per chiedere che l'ex territorio del Nord Goryeo fosse consegnato, il generale Choe colse l'opportunità per sostenere un attacco alla [[penisola di Liaodong]].

Following the wake of the [[Ming Dynasty]] under the charismatic Zhu Yuanzhang (the [[Hongwu Emperor]]), the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions: the group led by General Yi (supporting the Ming Dynasty) and the camp led by General Choe (standing by the Yuan Dynasty). When a Ming messenger came to Goryeo in 1388 (the 14th year of [[U of Goryeo|King U]]) to demand the return of a significant portion of Goryeo’s northern territory, General Choe seized the chance to argue for the invasion of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] (Goryeo claimed to be the successor of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo; as such, restoring [[Manchuria]] as part of Korean territory was part of its foreign policy throughout its history). A staunchly opposed Yi was chosen to lead the invasion; however, at Wuihwa Island on the [[Yalu River]], he revolted and swept back to Gaegyeong (modern-day [[Gaeseong]] and the capital of Goryeo), proceeding to eliminate General Choe and his followers and initiating a [[coup d'état]], overthrowing King U in favor of his son, [[Chang of Goryeo|King Chang]] (1388). He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Yo on the throne (he became [[Gongyang of Goryeo|King Gongyang]]). After indirectly enforcing his grasp on the royal court through the puppet king, Yi then proceeded to ally himself with the [[Sinjin aristocracy]] such as [[Jeong Do-jeon]] and [[Jo Jun]]. One of his first acts as the ''de facto'' [[generalissimo]] of Goryeo was to pass the Gwajeon Law, which effectively confiscated land from the land-wealthy and generally conservative [[Gwonmun aristocracy|Gwonmun aristocrats]] and redistributed it among Yi's supporters in the Sinjin camp. In 1392 (the 4th year of King Gongyang), Yi's fifth son, [[Taejong of Joseon|Yi Bang-won]], after failing to win over a noteworthy aristocrat named Jeong Mong-ju, a supporter of the old dynasty, to swear allegiance to the new reign, had the noble killed by the five assassins including [[Jo Yeong-gyu]] at Seonjuk Bridge near Gaegyeong, eliminating a key figure in the opposition to Yi Seonggye's rule. That same year, Yi dethroned King Gongyang, exiled him to [[Wonju]], and ascended the throne. The Goryeo Dynasty had come to an end after almost 500 years of rule.

[[Taejo di Joseon|Yi Seong-gye]] venne scelto per guidare l'attacco; tuttavia, si ribellò e tornò a Gaegyeong e diede inizio a un colpo di stato, rovesciando il re U a favore di suo figlio, [[Chang di Goryeo]] (1388). In seguito li uccise entrambi dopo una restaurazione fallita e mise con la forza sul trono un reale di cognome Yi (divenne [[Gongyang di Goryeo]]). Nel 1392, Yi eliminò [[Jeong Mong-ju]], che era un leader molto rispettato di un gruppo fedele alla dinastia Goryeo, e detronizzò il re Gongyang, esiliandolo a [[Wonju]], prima di salire al trono con il nome di Taejo. La dinastia Goryeo era giunta alla fine dopo quasi 500 anni di governo.

=== Elimination of the Vestiges of Goryeo ===

All'inizio del suo regno, Taejo intendeva continuare a usare il nome Goryeo per il paese che governava e semplicemente cambiare la linea di discendenza reale con la sua, mantenendo così i 500 anni di esistenza. Tuttavia, dopo numerose minacce di ammutinamento da parte dei nobili Gwonmun drasticamente indeboliti ma ancora influenti, che continuavano a giurare fedeltà a ciò che rimaneva della dinastia Goryeo e ora al clan reale Wang degradato, il consenso nella corte riformata fu che servisse un nuovo titolo dinastico. Nel nominare la nuova dinastia, Taejo contemplò due possibilità: "Hwaryeong" e "Joseon". Dopo molte discussioni interne, nonché l'approvazione dell'imperatore della dinastia Ming, Taejo dichiarò che il nome del regno era Joseon, un tributo all'antico stato coreano di Gojoseon.<ref>{{Cita web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&dq=ming+taizu+joseon&source=gbs_navlinks_s|titolo=The Land of Scholars: Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism Homa & Sekey Books. p. 177. Consultado el 7 de agosto de 2015. "Yi Seong-gye issued a royal edict to proclaim the name of the new dynasty to "Joseon" and issued amnesty to all criminals who opposed the transition in dynasty. The statement by Taizu about "only the name of Joseon is beautiful and old" naturally refers to Gija Joseon."}}</ref> Trasferì anche la capitale da Hanyang a Kaesong.

In the beginning of his reign, Yi Seonggye, now [[King Taejo]], intended to continue use of the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining the façade of continuing the 500 year-old Goryeo tradition. However, after numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo Dynasty, now the demoted Wang clan, and the overall atmosphere in the reformed court that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change, he declared a new dynasty in 1393 under the name of Joseon (meaning to revive an older dynasty also known as [[Gojoseon|Joseon]], founded nearly four thousand years previously) and renamed the country the "Kingdom of Great Joseon", although it came to be simply referred to, even by historians today, by the title of its ruling house.

==== Lotte tra principi ====

[[Immagine:Taejo of Korea.jpg|thumb|left|230px|King Taejo's portrait.]]

[[File:Portrait of King Taejo of Joseon.jpg|miniatura|Ritratto di Re [[Taejo di Joseon|Taejo]]|alt=|sinistra]]

Quando la nuova dinastia fu promulgata e ufficialmente portata all'esistenza, Taejo sollevò la questione di quale figlio sarebbe stato il suo successore. Sebbene Yi Bangwon, il quinto figlio di Taejo con la regina Sineui, avesse contribuito maggiormente all'ascesa al potere di suo padre, il primo ministro [[Jeong Do-jeon]] e Nam Eun usarono la loro influenza sul re Taejo per nominare il suo ottavo figlio (secondo figlio della regina Sindeok), il Gran Principe Uian (Yi Bangseok), come principe ereditario nel 1392. Questo conflitto sorse in gran parte perché Jeong Do-jeon, che formò e stabilì le basi ideologiche, istituzionali e legali della nuova dinasti, vedeva Joseon come un regno governato da ministri nominati dal re, mentre Yi Bangwon voleva istituire la monarchia assoluta governata direttamente dal re. Con il sostegno di Taejo, Jeong Do-jeon continuò a limitare il potere della famiglia reale vietando la partecipazione politica dei principi e tentando di abolire i loro eserciti privati. Entrambe le parti erano ben consapevoli della grande animosità reciproca e si stavano preparando ad attaccare per prime.

Dopo la morte improvvisa della regina Sindeok, e mentre il re Taejo era ancora in lutto per la sua seconda moglie, Yi Bangwon attaccò per primo il palazzo e uccise Jeong Do-jeon e i suoi seguaci, così come i due figli della regina Sindeok (i suoi fratellastri), compreso il principe ereditario, nel 1398. Questo incidente divenne noto come la Prima Lotta dei Principi.

With the declaration of the new royal house were voiced concerns of what solution to apply to the remaining descendants of the deposed Wang family. King Taejo and his officials especially felt that if the legitimacy of their rule was ever questioned by the remaining members of the Goryeo Dynasty, they might have to suppress a mass rebellion or even risk the loss of the recently gained throne. In the end, Taejo had his prime minister [[Jeong Do-jeon]] summon all of the Wang family members to the coast of the [[Yellow Sea]] and instruct them to board a ship bound for Ganghwa Island, where they were to supposedly live quietly out of the sight of the government. However, the entire ploy was a trap, and a pre-instructed crew member onboard smashed a hole in the hull as soon as the ship had entered sufficiently deep waters. The ship sank, and the last of the Goryeo Dynasty were lost by drowning. According to an urban legend, after the fate of the Wang family members gullible enough to board the doomed ship reached their relatives on the mainland, most of them changed their surnames from Wang (王) to Ok (玉) by adding an extra brush stroke and thus hiding their true descent.

Inorridito dal fatto che i suoi figli fossero disposti a uccidersi a vicenda per la corona, e psicologicamente esausto per la morte della sua seconda moglie, il re Taejo abdicò e incoronò immediatamente il suo secondo figlio Yi Banggwa come re [[Jeongjong di Joseon]]. Uno dei primi atti di re Jeongjong come monarca fu riportare la capitale a Kaesong, dove si ritiene che si sentisse notevolmente più a suo agio, lontano dalla lotta per il potere. Tuttavia, Yi Bangwon mantenne il potere reale e fu presto in conflitto con il fratello maggiore scontento Yi Banggan, che anelava anch'egli al potere. Nel 1400, le tensioni tra la fazione di Yi Bangwon e il campo di Yi Banggan si intensificarono in un conflitto a tutto campo che divenne noto come la Seconda Lotta dei Principi. All'indomani dei combattimenti, lo sconfitto Yi Banggan fu esiliato a Dosan mentre i suoi sostenitori furono giustiziati. Completamente intimidito, il re Jeongjong investì immediatamente Yi Bangwon come suo presunto erede e abdicò volontariamente. Nello stesso anno, Yi Bangwon salì al trono di Joseon come re [[Taejong di Joseon|Taejong]], il terzo re di Joseon.

After the demise of the last portions of the Goryeo Dynasty came calls for a new capital. Although Gaegyeong had served well as the seat of government for over 400 years, it was already something of a tradition for new dynasties in Korea to move their capitals to a new ___location considered fortuitous according the Chinese [[feng-shui]] philosophy of [[geomancy]]. Gaegyeong had also long since considered to have lost its share of energy to maintain any kind of permanent capital. As a result, three sites were officially brought into consideration: the foot of Mt. Gyeryong and the cities of Muak and Hanyang. The ___location near Mt. Gyeryong was quickly rejected after some time due to its relatively rough terrain and lack of convenient communication, while the site at Muak was seriously considered before it was decided by King Taejo that Hanyang was the most fitting candidate for the new capital. Hanyang outranked its rivals in various aspects; not only was it was easily accessible from sea and land, and geographically the center of the Korean Peninsula, but the fertile Han River valley on which the ancient city was situated historically had been the most contested region between the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. For centuries, Hanyang had also been argued to be blessed, and Korean geomancers claimed the city was occupying a sacrosanct place flowing with geomantic energy. Hanyang was also conformed to Sino-Korean tradition; it had a larger mountains in the north and a smaller mountains in the south for defense, while in between there was a large plain, and thus the city would fit the customary north-south axis. In 1394, Hanyang was declared the new capital and formally renamed "Hanseong". That year, the foot of Mt. Bugak was chosen for the foundation of the main palace. Development and construction of the entire city and its complicated system of avenues, gates, walls, civilian residences, educational facilities, government buildings, and five main palace complexes began in 1394 as well. The official royal residence [[Gyeongbok Palace]] was completed in 1395, while the less important Changdeok Palace was completed in 1405. Other royal palaces followed suit, and by the end of the first half of the 15th century all of the capital had been completed and was in working order.

==== EarlyConsolidamento strifedel potere reale ====

All'inizio del regno di Taejong, Taejo si rifiutò di rinunciare al sigillo reale che indicava la legittimità del governo di qualsiasi re. Taejong iniziò ad avviare politiche che riteneva avrebbero dimostrato la sua qualifica per governare. Uno dei suoi primi atti come re fu quello di abolire il privilegio di mantenere eserciti privati di cui godevano le alte sfere del governo e l'aristocrazia. La revoca di tali diritti alle forze del campo indipendente interruppe di fatto la loro capacità di organizzare rivolte su larga scala e aumentò notevolmente il numero di uomini impiegati nell'esercito nazionale. Il successivo atto di Taejong fu quello di rivedere la legislazione esistente sulla tassazione della proprietà terriera e la registrazione dello stato dei sudditi. Con la scoperta di terre precedentemente nascoste, il reddito nazionale raddoppiò.

[[Immagine:Gyeonghuigung.01.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Gyeongbokgung]]]]

Nel 1399, Taejong svolse un ruolo influente nello smantellamento dell'Assemblea Dopyeong, un consiglio dell'ex amministrazione governativa che aveva il monopolio della magistratura durante gli ultimi anni della dinastia Goryeo, a favore del [[Uijeongbu (Joseon)|Consiglio di Stato di Joseon]] ({{Coreano|의정부|hanja=議政府}}), un nuovo ramo dell'amministrazione centrale che ruotava attorno al re e ai suoi editti. Dopo aver approvato la documentazione della questione e la legislazione fiscale, il re Taejong emise un nuovo decreto in cui tutte le decisioni approvate dal Consiglio di Stato potevano entrare in vigore solo con l'approvazione del re. Ciò pose fine all'usanza dei ministri e dei consiglieri di corte di prendere decisioni attraverso dibattiti e negoziati tra di loro, portando così il potere reale a nuovi livelli.

King Taejo had two wives, both of which he had sons by. His first wife, Queen Sinui, had predeceased him sometime previously to the overthrow of Goryeo but had given birth to six sons. Taejo's wife upon ascension to the throne, Queen Sindeok, had two sons as well. When the new dynasty was promulgated and officially brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although Taejo's fifth son by Queen Sineui, Yi Bang-won, had contributed most to assisting his father's rise to power, he harbored a profound hatred against two of his fathers key allies in the court, the prime minister Jeong Do-jeon and [[Nam Eun]]. Both sides were fully aware of the mutual animosity that existed between each other and constantly felt threatened. When it became clear that Yi Bang-won was the most worthy successor to the throne, Jeong Do-jeon used his influence on the king to convince him that the wisest choice would be in the son that Taejo loved most, not the son that Taejo felt was best for the kingdom. In 1392, the eighth son of King Taejo (and the second son of Queen Sindeok), Grand Prince Uian (Yi Bang-seok) was appointed Prince Royal, Successor. After the sudden death of the queen, and while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Jeong Do-jeon conspired to preliminately kill Yi Bang-won and his brothers to secure his position in court. In 1398, upon hearing of this plan, Yi Bang-won immediately revolted and raided the palace, killing Jeong Do-jeon, his followers, and the two sons of the late Queen Sindeok. This incident became known as the First Strife of Princes.

Poco dopo, Taejong istituì un ufficio, noto come Sinmun, per ascoltare i casi in cui soggetti feriti si sentivano sfruttati o offesi da funzionari governativi o aristocratici. Tuttavia, Taejong mantenne intatte per la maggior parte le riforme di Jeong Do-jeon. Inoltre, giustiziò o esiliò molti dei suoi seguaci che lo avevano aiutato a salire al trono per rafforzare l'autorità reale. Per limitare l'influenza dei suoceri, uccise anche i quattro fratelli della sua regina e il suocero di suo figlio [[Sejong il Grande|Sejong]].

Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for the crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo immediately crowned his second son Yi Bang-gwa, later [[Jeongjong of Joseon|King Jeongjong]], as the new ruler. Soon after, he departed to the northern city of Hamhung.

==== Sejong il Grande ====

One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaeseong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable. Meanwhile, Yi Bang-won, not in the least discouraged by the fact that his elder brother held the throne, began plotting to be invested as Royal Prince Successor Brother, the traditional title for brothers appointed as heir-presumptives to the throne when the incumbent had no issue. However, Yi Bang-won's plans were opposed by Taejo's fourth son Yi Bang-gan, who too yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the Second Strife of Princes. In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was exiled to Tosan, while those who urged him to battle against Yi Bang-won were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won assumed the throne of Joseon at long last as King Taejong. In 1401, Joseon Dynasty had officially been admitted to enter into the [[tribute]] relationship with [[Ming Dynasty]] of China.

Nell'agosto 1418, dopo l'abdicazione di Taejong due mesi prima, suo figlio Sejong salì al trono. Nel maggio 1419, sotto il consiglio e la guida di suo padre, si imbarcò in una spedizione a est di Gihae per rimuovere il fastidio dai [[Wokou]] (pirati costieri), che operavano dall'[[Tsushima (isola)|isola di Tsushima]].

[[File:Hunmin jeong-eum.jpg|miniatura|Una pagina da Hunmin Jeong-eum Eonhae, una traduzione parziale di [[Hunminjeongeum]], la promulgazione originale dell'alfabeto coreano.]]

Nel settembre 1419 il [[Daimyō|daimyo]] di Tsushima, Sadamori, capitolò alla corte Joseon. Nel 1443 fu firmato il Trattato di Gyehae che concedeva al daimyō di Tsushima i diritti di commerciare con la Corea su cinquanta navi all'anno in cambio dell'invio di tributi alla Corea e contribuendo a fermare qualsiasi attacco costiero dei pirati da parte dei [[Wokou]] contro i porti coreani.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=Richard Rutt. (Miércoles, 15 de septiembre de 1999). Korea. Routledge/Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-0464-7.}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=John W. Hall. (27 de abril de 1990). The Cambridge history of Japan [Japón Medieval] 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22354-7. https://books.google.com/?id=lCd4reJRaG8C&pg=PA442&dq=kyehae+treaty&q=kyehae%20treaty}}</ref>

Sul confine settentrionale, Sejong stabilì quattro forti e sei postazioni ({{Coreano|육진|hanja=四郡六鎭}}) per proteggere il suo popolo dagli Jurchen, che in seguito divennero i Manciù, che vivevano in [[Manciuria]]. Nel 1433, Sejong inviò Kim Jong-seo, un funzionario del governo, a nord per difendere il regno dagli Jurchen. La campagna militare di Kim catturò diversi castelli, si spinse a nord e ripristinò il territorio coreano, all'incirca fino all'attuale confine tra [[Corea del Nord]] e [[Cina]].<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=박영규 (2008). 한권으로 읽는 세종대왕실록. 웅진, 지식하우스. ISBN 89-01-07754-X.}}</ref>

In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the Grand King Former, Taejo, refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Uncomfortable at the fact that his father did not recognise him as a ''de jure'' ruler for the family deaths he caused, Taejong sent several messengers, among them his childhood friend ''Bak Sun'', to recover the royal seal. However, Taejo assassinated every messenger that came into sight of his guards as a sign of his fury at Taejong, who continued to remain unaware of their fates. This episode became known as the [[Case of the Hamhung Envoys]], and the term "Hamhung envoy" is still used to refer to a person who has gone on an assignment from whom there is no reply concerning their whereabouts.

Durante il dominio di Sejong, la Corea vide progressi in scienze naturali, agricoltura, letteratura, medicina tradizionale cinese e ingegneria. A causa di tale successo, Sejong ricevette il titolo di "Sejong il Grande".<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=«King Sejong the Great And The Golden Age Of Korea». asiasociety.org. 19 de agosto de 2008. Consultado el 27 de noviembre de 2009. http://www.asiasociety.org/countries-history/traditions/king-sejong-great}}</ref> Il suo contributo più ricordato è la creazione dell'[[Hangŭl|Hangul]], l'alfabeto coreano, nel 1443.

=== Initial Consolidation of Power ===

[[Immagine:Statue Sejong le Grand.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Sejong the Great of Joseon]]]]

With his father unwilling to pass over the royal seal he needed for recognition, Taejong began to initiate policies he believed would prove his intelligence and right to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revoking of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military.

==== Sei ministri martirizzati ====

Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. Although many aristocrats who benefited from King Taejo's laws redistributing property from the Gwonmun aristocrats to the members of the Sinjin faction managed to avoid taxation by deliberately hiding land they acquired, King Taejong's re-investigation of land ownership in 1405 put an end to such practices. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold. In addition, King Taejong initiated the first population survey in 1413 and ordered the documentation of family names/clans, places of birth/death, and the dates of birth/death for all Korean male subjects. All males over the legal age of sixteen, whichever class in society they occupied, were also required by law to carry wooden tablets on which their name, birth date, and other information was engraved. Many historians regard this legislation as the predecessor of the Korean resident identification and social security system. Taejong's new law regarding the documentation of males was also effective in preventing men from evading the mandatory military draft service.

Dopo la morte del re Sejong, suo figlio Munjong continuò l'eredità di suo padre, ma presto morì di malattia nel 1452, solo due anni dopo la sua incoronazione. Gli successe il figlio di dodici anni, Danjong. Tuttavia, lo zio di Danjong Sejo ottenne il controllo del governo e alla fine depose suo nipote per diventare il settimo re di Joseon nel 1455. Dopo che sei ministri fedeli a Danjong cercarono di assassinare Sejo per riportare Danjong al trono, Sejo giustiziò i sei ministri e uccise anche Danjong nel suo luogo di esilio.

Il re Sejo permise al governo di determinare il numero esatto di sudditi e di mobilitare efficacemente le truppe. Rivide anche l'ordinanza sulla terra per migliorare l'economia nazionale e incoraggiò la pubblicazione di libri. Soprattutto, compilò il Grande Codice per l'amministrazione statale, che diventò la pietra angolare dell'amministrazione dinastica e fornì la prima forma di legge costituzionale in forma scritta in Corea. Tuttavia, minò molte basi di molti sistemi, incluso il Jiphyeonjeon, che i suoi predecessori, re Sejong e Munjong, avevano accuratamente stabilito, riducendo tutto ciò che considerava indegno dello sforzo e causando così innumerevoli complicazioni a lungo termine. Gran parte dei suoi aggiustamenti vennero fatti sotto il suo potere, indipendentemente dalle conseguenze e dai problemi che ne sarebbero derivati. Inoltre, l'inesorabile favoritismo che mostrò nei confronti dei ministri che lo avevano aiutato a salire al trono portò a molta corruzione ai vertici del campo politico.

[[Immagine:Joseon throne hall.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Throne Hall]]

==== Assetti istituzionali e fioritura della cultura ====

In 1399 (the 2nd year of King Jeongjong), Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping the [[Dopyeong Assembly]], a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of the Goryeo Dynasty, in favor of the [[Uijeong Department]], a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, King Taejong issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the Euijeong Department could only come into effect with the approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors in making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves and with the king only as an onlooker, and thus, through the implication of the king in the actual administration of Korea, brought royal power to new heights. Shortly afterward, Taejong also installed a branch of the government, known as the [[Sinmun Office]], to receive cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or unfair actions had been taken against them by government officials or aristocrats.

Il figlio debole di Sejo, Yejong, gli succedette come ottavo re, ma morì due anni dopo nel 1469. Il nipote di Yejong, Seongjong, salì al trono. Il suo regno fu segnato dalla prosperità e dalla crescita dell'economia nazionale e dall'ascesa di studiosi neo-confuciani chiamati sarim, che furono incoraggiati da Seongjong ad entrare nella politica di corte. Fondò l'Hongmungwan (弘文館), la biblioteca reale e il consiglio consultivo composto da studiosi confuciani, con i quali discusse di filosofia e politiche di governo. Inaugurò un'età dell'oro culturale che rivaleggiò con il regno di Sejong pubblicando numerosi libri su geografia, etica e altri campi.

Nel 1491 inviò anche diverse campagne militari contro lo Jurchen al confine settentrionale, come molti dei suoi predecessori. La campagna, guidata dal generale Heo Jong, ebbe successo e lo sconfitto Jurchen, guidato dal clan Udige (兀狄哈), si ritirò a nord del [[fiume Yalu]]. Al re Seongjong successe suo figlio, [[Yeonsangun di Joseon|Yeonsangun]], nel 1494.

During the course of Taejong's rule, the growing animosity between the [[Buddhist]]s and Confucian scholars was also a concern, so the new government readily decided to adopt Confucianism as the state ideology. A strict status system, dominated by the scholarly nobility class known as the ''[[yangban]]'', was in place keeping order during this period. [[Hangeul]] (the Korean alphabet) was created by [[King Sejong the Great of Joseon|King Sejong]] in 1443. Prior to [[Hangeul]], all of the Korean literati used the [[Hanja]] writing system, which were traditional Chinese characters with Korean pronunciation and meaning, and used a written language known as [[Hanmun]], which was basically [[Classical Chinese]], for official court documents. However, even with the advent of the Korean alphabet, use of Hanja and Hanmun in daily correspondence was not discontinued, with the Korean aristocracy, educated in Classical Chinese for the transcription of the [[Korean language]], assumed condescending attitudes toward Hangeul and any kind of usage of it (as displayed by the number of pejoratives used to refer to it). Hangeul was officially re-recognised in the late 19th century, and everyday written use of Hanja and Hanmun eventually came to end slowly in the latter half of the 20th century.

==== EarlyEpurazioni Japanesedei invasionsletterati ====

Yeonsangun è spesso considerato il peggior tiranno di Joseon, il cui regno fu segnato dalle epurazioni dei letterati coreani tra il 1498 e il 1506. Il suo comportamento divenne irregolare dopo aver appreso che sua madre biologica non era la regina Junghyeon, ma la deposta regina Yun, costretta a bere del veleno dopo aver avvelenato una delle concubine di Seongjong per gelosia e lasciato un graffio sul viso di Seongjong stesso. Quando gli venne mostrato un indumento che si supponeva macchiato con il sangue di sua madre vomitato dopo aver bevuto veleno, picchiò a morte due delle concubine di Seongjong che avevano accusato la regina Yun e sostenuto la regina Insu, che in seguito fu uccisa. Giustiziò funzionari governativi che avevano sostenuto la morte della regina Yun insieme alle loro famiglie, e gli studiosi Sarim per aver scritto frasi critiche sull'usurpazione del trono di Sejo.

{{main|Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)}}

Yeonsangun sequestrò anche un migliaio di donne dalle province per servire come intrattenitrici di palazzo e utilizzò l'accademia Sungkyunkwan come un campo di piacere personale. Abolì l'Ufficio dei Censori, la cui funzione era quella di criticare le azioni e le politiche inappropriate del re e dell'Hongmungwan. Vietò l'uso dell'hangul quando la gente comune lo usò per scrivere sui manifesti che criticavano il re. Dopo dodici anni di malgoverno, fu deposto da un colpo di stato che pose sul trono il suo fratellastro Jungjong nel 1506.[[File:Cho Kwang-jo in 1750.jpg|miniatura|Ritratto dello studioso confuciano Jo Gwang-jo (1482-1519).]]Jungjong era un re fondamentalmente debole a causa delle circostanze che lo misero sul trono, e il suo regno vide anche un periodo di grandi riforme guidate dal suo ministro Jo Gwang-jo, il leader carismatico dei sarim. Egli stabilì un sistema locale di autogoverno chiamato [[hyangyak]] per rafforzare l'autonomia locale e lo spirito di comunità tra la gente, cercò di ridurre il divario tra ricchi e poveri con una riforma agraria che distribuisse la terra agli agricoltori in modo più equo e limitasse la quantità di terra e il numero di schiavi che uno poteva possedere, ampiamente diffuso tra la popolazione scritti confuciani con traduzioni in volgare, e cercò di tagliare le dimensioni del governo riducendo il numero dei burocrati. Secondo gli [[Annali della dinastia Joseon]], si diceva che nessun funzionario osasse prendere una tangente o sfruttare la popolazione durante questo periodo perché la legge era rigorosamente applicata.

[[Immagine:Turtle boat.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Turtle ship]], world's first ironclad warship]]

Queste riforme radicali erano molto popolari tra la popolazione, ma furono ferocemente osteggiate dai funzionari conservatori che contribuirono a mettere Jungjong sul trono. Questi complottarono per far dubitare Jungjong della lealtà di Jo. Questi fu giustiziato e la maggior parte delle sue misure di riforma morirono con lui nella risultante terza epurazione dei letterati del 1519. Per quasi 50 anni, la politica di corte fu segnata da combattimenti sanguinosi e caotici tra fazioni che sostenevano le consorti. e principi rivali. I suoceri della famiglia reale esercitavano un grande potere e contribuirono a molta corruzione in quel momento.

=== Periodo Joseon medio ===

Throughout Korean history, there were frequent [[pirates]] attacks on both the sea and land. The only purpose for the Koreans running a navy was to secure the maritime trade against the [[Wokou|Wokou pirates]]. The Korean navy maintained superiority{{Fact|date=February 2007}} over the pirates by using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies (i.e. cannons, [[fire arrows]] in form of [[Singijeon]] deployed by [[Hwacha]], etc.) from [[China]].

Il periodo medio della dinastia Joseon fu segnato da una serie di intense e sanguinose lotte di potere tra fazioni politiche che indebolirono il paese e invasioni su larga scala del Giappone e della Manciù che quasi rovesciarono la dinastia.

==== Lotta di fazione ====

During [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598)]], Japanese warlord [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], with the ambition to conquer [[Ming]] China with the Portuguese guns, invaded Korea with his [[daimyō]] and their troops in 1592 and 1597. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of European firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern peninsula occupied within months, with both [[Pyongyang]] and [[Seoul|Hanseong (present-day Seoul)]] captured. According to the [[Annals of Joseon Dynasty]], the Japanese were joined by rebelling Korean [[slavery|slaves]], who burned down the palace of [[Gyeongbokgung]] and its storehouse of slave records.<ref>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wna_12505003_006 宣祖實錄二十五年 (1592) 五月壬戌 (May 3)] “危亡迫至, 君臣之間, 何可有隱? 大抵收拾人心爲上。 近來宮人作弊。 內需司人, 假稱宮物, 而積怨於民。 今日生變之由, 皆緣王子宮人作弊, 故人心怨叛, 與倭同心矣。 聞賊之來也, 言: ‘我不殺汝輩, 汝君虐民, 故如此。’ 云我民亦曰: ‘倭亦人也, 吾等何必棄家而避也?’ 請誅內需司作弊人, 且免平安道積年逋欠。” “慶尙道人皆叛云, 然耶?”-[[Annals of Joseon Dynasty|The annals of the Choson Dynasty]]-[[National Institute of Korean History]]</ref>

[[File:정철.jpg|miniatura|Jeong Cheol (1536-1593), capo della fazione occidentale.|alt=|sinistra]]

[[Immagine:Yi-Sun-sin.jpg|100px|right|thumb|Admiral [[Yi Sunsin]]]]

La fazione dei sarim aveva subito una serie di sconfitte politiche durante i regni di Yeonsangun, Jungjong e Myeongjong, ma ottenne il controllo del governo durante il regno di re [[Seonjo di Joseon|Seonjo]]. I sarim si divisero presto in fazioni opposte note come orientali e occidentali. Per decenni gli orientali furono divisi in meridionali e settentrionali; nel diciassettesimo secolo, anche gli occidentali furono definitivamente divisi in Noron e Soron.

Local resistance, however, slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral [[Yi Sun-sin]] left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, [[Ming]] China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back the Japanese together with the Koreans. During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and high-quality gunpowder and the [[Turtle ship]]s, the first cannon-bearing [[ironclad warship]]s in world history. The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese, who retreated back to their homeland, but victory came at a deep price. Farmlands were devastated, irrigation dikes were destroyed, villages and towns were burned down; the population was first plundered and then dispersed, and tens of thousands of skilled workers (celadon ware makers, craftsmen, artisans, etc) were either killed during the war or kidnapped to Japan as captives to help Japanese develop their crafts. The Japanese also pilfered many thousands of Joseon historical and royal artifacts, many of which are preserved in Japanese museums. In 1598 alone, the Japanese took the ears and noses of some 38,000 Koreans as trophies (a common samurai practice) and built the monument [[Mimizuka]] in [[Kyōto]]. The long war reduced the productive capacity of farmlands from 1,708,000 kyol to 541,000 kyol. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan had been completely suspended. Japan was cut off from the technology of continental Asia{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. After the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, however, negotiations between the Korean court and the Tokugawa shogunate were carried out via the Japanese lord on Tsushima. In 1604, [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]], needing to restore commercial relations with Korea in order to have access to the technology of the mainland again, met Korea's demands and released some 3000 captive Koreans. As a result, in 1607, a Korean mission visited [[Edo]], and diplomatic and trade relations were restored on a limited basis.

Le alternanze al potere tra queste fazioni erano spesso accompagnate da accuse di tradimento e sanguinose epurazioni, dando inizio ad un ciclo di vendetta ad ogni cambio di regime. Un esempio è la ribellione di Jeong Yeo-rip nel 1589, una delle più sanguinose epurazioni politiche di Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, un orientale, aveva formato un'alleanza con un gruppo di seguaci che avevano anche ricevuto un addestramento militare per combattere il [[Wokou|Wokoku]]. C'è ancora una disputa sulla natura e lo scopo del loro gruppo, che riflette il desiderio di una società senza classi. Successivamente fu accusato di cospirazione per iniziare una ribellione. Jeong Cheol, capo della fazione occidentale, fu incaricato di indagare sul caso e utilizzò questo evento per effettuare una diffusa epurazione della popolazione orientale che aveva il minimo legame con Jeong Yeo-rip. Alla fine 1000 orientali furono uccisi o esiliati in seguito.

[[Immagine:Buryeongsa.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Buddhist temple Buryeongsa]]

==== ManchuPrime invasionsinvasioni giapponesi ====

Nel corso della storia coreana, i pirati in mare e il banditismo a terra erano frequenti. L'unico scopo della marina di Joseon era quello di garantire il commercio marittimo e impedire ai Wakō di intervenire in esso. La marina respingeva i pirati usando la tecnologia avanzata della polvere da sparo, inclusi cannoni e frecce di fuoco a forma di [[singijeon]] attaccate alle [[hwacha]].

[[Immagine:Bifyu 8.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Hwaseong Fortress]] in [[Suwon]]]]

Following these events the Korean Kingdom became increasingly [[isolationist]]. Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries. In addition, the [[Ming Dynasty]] was weakened, partly because of the war in Korea against Japan, which led to the establishment of the new [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Koreans decided to build tighter borders, exert more controls over inter-border traffic, and wait out the initial turbulence of the Manchu overthrow of the Ming.

Durante le [[Invasioni giapponesi della Corea (1592-1598)|invasioni giapponesi nel 1590]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], tramando la conquista con armi portoghesi della Cina dominata dai Ming, invase la Corea con i suoi [[Daimyō|daimyo]] e le sue truppe, con l'intenzione di utilizzare la Corea come trampolino di lancio. La divisione delle fazioni nella corte Joseon, l'incapacità di valutare le capacità militari giapponesi e i tentativi falliti di diplomazia portarono a una scarsa preparazione da parte di Joseon. L'uso di armi da fuoco europee da parte dei giapponesi lasciò la maggior parte della parte meridionale della penisola coreana occupata in pochi mesi, con la cattura di [[Hanseong]] e [[Pyongyang]].[[File:Turtle boat.jpg|miniatura|Nave tartaruga.]]Tuttavia, l'invasione fu rallentata quando l'ammiraglio [[Yi Sun-sin]] distrusse la flotta d'invasione giapponese. Anche la resistenza guerrigliera che alla fine si formò aiutò. La resistenza locale rallentò l'avanzata giapponese e le decisive vittorie navali dell'ammiraglio Yi lasciarono il controllo delle rotte marittime nelle mani della Corea, ostacolando seriamente le linee di rifornimento giapponesi. Inoltre, la dinastia Ming intervenne a favore dei coreani, inviando una grande forza al fianco dei coreani nel 1593 che respinse i giapponesi.

Despite these limits, Korea had extensive trade with Mongolia, Northern Asia, China, and Japan. However, at times trade with Japan was limited to missions appointed by the king in order to prevent piracy and conduct orderly trade, which had been a problem even in the [[Goryeo]] Period.

Durante la guerra, i coreani svilupparono potenti armi da fuoco e [[Kobukson|navi tartaruga]]. Le forze Joseon e quelle della dinastia Ming sconfissero i giapponesi a caro prezzo. Dopo la guerra, le relazioni tra Corea e Giappone furono completamente sospese fino al 1609.

==== Invasioni manciù ====

Korea suffered from two invasions by the Manchus, in 1627 (see the [[First Manchu invasion of Korea]]) and 1637 (see the [[Second Manchu invasion of Korea]]). Korea surrendered to the Manchus and agreed to pay tribute to the new Qing dynasty emperors as a Qing dynasty's protectorate, which at this time involved two way trade missions with China. The Qing rulers adopted a foreign policy to avoid the creation of foreign trading enclaves on Chinese soil. This policy limited the presence of the traditional [[entrepot]] of the foreign [[Hong (Chinese word)|hong]]s to [[Macau]]. These entrepot handled the significant trade of Chinese silks for foreign silver. This arrangement relegated foreign trade to the southern provinces of China, leaving the more unstable northern region under careful regulation and limiting the influence of foreigners. This decision affected Korea since China was Korea's main trading partner.

Dopo le invasioni giapponesi, la penisola coreana era devastata. Nel frattempo, [[Nurhaci]] (1583-1626), il capo Jurchen di Jianzhou, stava unificando le tribù Jurchen della [[Manciuria]] in una forte coalizione che suo figlio [[Huang Taiji|Hung Taiji]] (1626-1643) avrebbe poi cambiato con il nome "Manciù". Dopo aver dichiarato le sette lamentele contro la dinastia Ming nel 1618, Nurhaci e i Ming furono coinvolti in vari conflitti militari. In tali occasioni, Nurhaci chiese aiuto a [[Gwanghaegun di Joseon]] (1608-1623), mettendo lo stato coreano in una posizione difficile perché anche la corte Ming chiedeva aiuto. Gwanghaegun cercò di rimanere neutrale, ma la maggior parte dei suoi funzionari si oppose a lui per non aver sostenuto i Ming, che avevano salvato Joseon durante le invasioni giapponesi.<ref name=":0">{{cita libro|autore=Patricia Buckley Ebrey|autore2=Anne Walthall|autore3=James B. Palais|titolo=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History|url=https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0|editore=Houghton Mifflin|anno=2006|isbn=0-618-13384-4|p=[https://archive.org/details/eastasiacultural00ebre_0/page/349 349]|lingua=en}}</ref>

Nel 1623, Gwanghaegun fu deposto e sostituito da [[Injo di Joseon]] (1623-1649), che bandì i sostenitori di Gwanghaegun. Invertendo la politica estera del suo predecessore, il nuovo re decise di sostenere apertamente i Ming, ma una ribellione guidata dal comandante militare Yi Gwal scoppiò nel 1624 e distrusse le difese militari di Joseon nel nord.<ref name=":0" /> Anche dopo che la ribellione fu repressa, il re Injo dovette dedicare forze militari per garantire la stabilità della capitale, lasciando meno soldati a difendere i confini settentrionali.<ref name=":0" />

=== Faction politics ===

{{main|Political factions in Joseon Dynasty}}

[[File:Jurchen warriors.jpg|miniatura|Un dipinto coreano raffigurante due guerrieri Jurchen e i loro cavalli.|alt=|sinistra]]

Throughout the Dynasty, various regional and ideological factions struggled for dominance of the political system. The factions evolved and shifted with the generations. In the earliest years of Joseon, tension between the capital faction and the [[Yeongnam]]-based [[Sarim]] faction predominated. Village ''[[Seowon]]'', which combined the function of Confucian shrines with educational institutions, often reflected the factional alignment of the local elites. In areas where the Western faction predominated, key figures of Westerner thought such as were enshrined. In the 16th century, a nationwide split occurred between the [[Eastern faction]] (''Dong-in'') and [[Western faction]]s (''Seo-in''). The Eastern faction in turn split under the reign of [[Seonjo of Joseon|Seonjo]] between the hard-line [[Northern faction]] (''Buk-in'') and the moderate [[Southern faction]] (''Nam-in'').<ref>Lee (1984), p. 221.</ref> The Western faction later split in its turn, between the [[Old Learning]] (''Noron'') and the [[Young Learning]] (''Soron'').

Nel 1627, un esercito Jurchen di 30.000 uomini guidato dal nipote di Nurhaci, Amin, sconfisse le difese Joseon. Dopo una rapida campagna assistita dagli [[yangban]] settentrionali che avevano sostenuto Gwanghaegun, lo Jurchen impose un trattato che costrinse Joseon ad accettare "relazioni fraterne" con il regno Jurchen. Poiché Injo persisteva nella sua opposizione ai Manciù, l'imperatore Qing Hong Taiji inviò una spedizione punitiva di 120.000 uomini a Joseon nel 1636. Sconfitto, il re Injo fu costretto a porre fine ai suoi rapporti con i Ming e riconoscere i Qing come sovrani al suo posto. Il successore di Injo, [[Hyojong di Joseon]] (1649-1659), cercò di formare un esercito per tenere lontani i suoi nemici e sconfiggere i Qing per vendetta, ma non fu mai in grado di attuare i suoi piani.

These factional splits were often driven by questions of royal succession or appropriate royal conduct. For example, the split between the Northerners and Southerners was driven by questions involving the proper successor to Seonjo, who had no legitimate son. The Northerners came to support the [[Gwanghaegun of Joseon|Gwanghaegun]]; accordingly, they flourished under his reign (1608-1623) but were swept from power by the Westerners after the succession of [[Injo of Joseon|Injo]].

Nonostante il ripristino delle relazioni economiche entrando ufficialmente nel sistema tributario imperiale cinese, i capi e gli intellettuali Joseon rimasero risentiti nei confronti dei Manciù, che consideravano barbari. Molto tempo dopo essersi sottomessi al Qing, alla corte Joseon molti intellettuali coreani contavano ancora gli anni con il sistema della dinastia Ming, come quando uno studioso segnò il 1861 come "anno 234 di Chongzhen".

Under the reigns of [[Yeongjo of Joseon|Yeongjo]] and [[Jeongjo of Joseon|Jeongjo]] in the 18th century, the kings pursued a strict politcy of equality, favoring no faction over another.<ref>Lee (1984), p. 223.</ref> However, in Jeongjo's reign strife re-emerged between the [[Byeokpa]] and [[Sipa (Korean Faction)|Sipa]], two groups which cut across the earlier factions and differed in their attitudes towards Yeongjo's murder of his son, who was also Jeongjo's father. In the 19th century, the playing field shifted once more, and in-law families rather than scholarly factions came to dominate the throne. For most of the 19th century, the Jangdong branch of the '''Andong [[Kim (Korean name)|Kim]] clan''' was in control of the government; however, there was a brief interlude in which control shifted to the '''Pungyang Jo clan'''.

=== Tardo periodo Joseon ===

When [[Daewon-gun]]'s reign ended, Faction politics started declining and completely disappeared in the 19th century.

[[File:Kim Yuk 02.jpg|miniatura|Ritratto di Kim Yuk (1580-1658), uno dei primi filosofi Silhak della dinastia Joseon.]]

Dopo le invasioni del Giappone e della Manciuria, Joseon visse un periodo di pace di quasi 200 anni. Joseon assistette all'ascesa del [[Silhak]]. Il primo gruppo di studiosi Silhak sostenne una riforma completa dell'esame del servizio civile, della tassazione, delle scienze naturali e del miglioramento delle tecniche agricole e agricole. Il loro obiettivo era ricostruire la società Joseon dopo che era stata devastata dalle due invasioni. Sotto la guida di [[Kim Yuk]], il primo ministro del re Hyeonjong, l'attuazione delle riforme si rivelò molto vantaggiosa sia per il reddito dello Stato che per la sorte dei contadini.

Il conflitto tra le fazioni divenne particolarmente intenso sotto i regni dei re Sukjong e Gyeongjong, con importanti rapide battute d'arresto da parte della fazione dominante, nota come hwanguk. In risposta, i re successivi, Yeongjo e Jeongjo, generalmente perseguirono il Tangpyeongchaek, una politica per mantenere l'equilibrio e l'uguaglianza tra le fazioni.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=«탕평책». 한국민족문화대백과.}}</ref> I due re guidarono una seconda rinascita della dinastia Joseon.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=A Brief History of Korea (in inglese). Ewha Womans University Press. ISBN 9788973006199. Consultado el 23 de diciembre de 2016.}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=Beirne, Paul. Su-un and His World of Symbols: The Founder of Korea's First Indigenous Religion (in inglese). Routledge. ISBN 9781317047490. Consultado el 23 de diciembre de 2016.}}</ref> Il nipote di Yeongjo, l'illuminato re Jeongjo, attuò varie riforme durante il suo regno, in particolare stabilendo Gyujanggak come biblioteca reale al fine di migliorare la posizione culturale e politica di Joseon e reclutare ufficiali di talento per guidare la nazione. Re Jeongjo guidò anche audaci iniziative sociali, aprendo posizioni di governo a coloro che in precedenza sarebbero stati esclusi a causa del loro status sociale. Il re Jeongjo aveva il sostegno di molti studiosi Silhak, che sostenevano il suo potere reale. Il regno del re Jeongjo vide anche la maggiore crescita e sviluppo della cultura popolare di Joseon. A quel tempo, il gruppo di studiosi Silhak incoraggiava le persone a riflettere sulle tradizioni e sullo stile di vita dello stato, avviando studi sulla Corea che si occupavano della sua storia, geografia, epigrafia e lingua.

=== Imperialist power infiltration ===

{{See also|French Campaign against Korea, 1866}}

{{See also|United States expedition to Korea (1871)}}

{{See also|Treaty of Ganghwa}}

==== Governo delle famiglie politiche ====

The [[French Campaign against Korea, 1866|French campaign against Korea of 1866]] is also known as '''Byeonginyangyo''' (Korean: 병인양요, Western Disturbance of the byeong-in year [1866]). It refers to the French occupation of [[Ganghwa]] Island in Korea in retaliation for the earlier execution by Korea of French [[Jesuit]] priests prosletyzing illicitly in that country. The encounter, which lasted nearly six weeks, was the first armed encounter between Korea and a Western power. The overall result was a French retreat and a check on its influence in the region. The violent encounter also confirmed Korea in its isolationism for another decade.

Dopo la morte del re Jeongjo, Joseon dovette affrontare difficili problemi interni ed esterni. Internamente, le basi della legge e dell'ordine nazionale furono indebolite a seguito della politica del "Sedo" (governo politico) da parte della famiglia politica reale.

Il giovane re [[Sunjo di Joseon|Sunjo]] succedette al re Jeongjo nel 1800. Con la morte di Jeongjo, la fazione degli intransigenti prese il potere sotto la reggenza della [[Jeongsun di Joseon|regina vedova Jeongsun]], la cui famiglia aveva forti legami con gli intransigenti, e iniziò una persecuzione dei cattolici. Ma dopo il ritiro e la morte della regina vedova, gli intransigenti furono gradualmente espulsi e la fazione degli opportunisti, che includeva la famiglia di Kim Jo-sun, il padre della regina, ottenne il potere. A poco a poco, gli Andong Kim arrivarono a dominare il regno.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=오영교 (25 de julio de 2007). 세도정권기 조선사회와 대전회통. 혜안. ISBN 9788984943131.}}</ref>

The [[United States expedition to Korea (1871)|United States expedition to Korea in 1871]] also known as '''Sinmiyangyo''' (Korean: 신미양요 ,Western Disturbance of the Sinmi year) was the first American military action in Korea. It took place predominantly on and around the Korean island of Ganghwa. The reason for the presence of the American military expeditionary force in Korea was to support an American diplomatic delegation sent to establish trade and diplomatic relations with Korea, to ascertain the fate of the [[General Sherman incident|General Sherman]] merchant ship, and to establish a treaty assuring aid for shipwrecked sailors. The conservative nature of the Joseon Dynasty government and the assertiveness of the Americans led to a misunderstanding between the two parties that changed a diplomatic expedition into an armed conflict. The United States won a minor military victory, but as the Koreans refused to open up the country to them (and the U.S. forces in Korea did not have the authority or strength to press the issue) the United States failed to secure their diplomatic objectives.

Con il governo degli Andong Kim iniziò l'era della "politica della seta" o governo politico. Il formidabile lignaggio politico, che monopolizzava posizioni vitali nel governo, dominava la scena politica e interveniva nella successione al trono. Questi re non avevano autorità monarchica e non potevano governarli. Gli yangban delle altre famiglie, sopraffatti dal potere esercitato dai suoceri, non potevano parlare. Mentre il potere si concentrava nelle mani del lignaggio reale, ci fu un disordine nel processo di governo e la corruzione divenne dilagante. Grandi somme furono offerte in tangenti a potenti linee di sangue per posizioni nominalmente di alto rango. Anche posizioni di basso rango vennero acquistate e vendute. Questo periodo, durato 60 anni, vide il manifestarsi di una grave povertà tra la popolazione coreana e di incessanti ribellioni in varie parti del Paese.

In 1875, the [[Japanese gunboat Unyo|''Unyo'']], a small Japanese warship, was dispatched to survey coastal waters without Korean permission. It attacked a Korean port and withdrew back to Japan. Taking this opportunity, the Japanese demanded a treaty. The [[Treaty of Ganghwa]] became the first [[unequal treaty]] signed by Korea; it gave extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in Korea, forced the Korean government to open three ports to Japanese and foreign trade, specifically [[Busan]], [[Incheon]] and [[Wonsan]], and made Korea establish its independence in foreign relations from China.

Esternamente, Joseon divenne sempre più isolazionista, poiché i suoi governanti cercavano di limitare i contatti con l'estero.

=== Decline ===

{{wikisourcepar|Littell's Living Age/Volume 129/Issue 1662/A Glimpse of the Korea|a description of a visit to Korea by a British ship in 1876}}

[[Immagine:Taegukgi.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Early versions of the [[Korean flag]]]]

==== Fine della dinastia ====

In the 19th century tensions mounted between [[Qing China]] and [[Japan]], culminating in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] (1894-1895). Much of this war was fought on the Korean peninsula. Japan, after the [[Meiji Restoration]], acquired Western military technology, had forced Joseon to sign the [[Treaty of Ganghwa]] in 1876. Japan encroached upon Korean territory in search of fish, iron ore, and natural resources. It also established a strong economic presence in the peninsula, heralding the beginning of Japanese imperial expansion in East Asia.

[[File:이하응 초상.jpg|miniatura|Heungseon Daewongun]]Nel 1863, il re [[Gojong di Corea|Gojong]] salì al trono. Suo padre, il reggente [[Heungseon Daewongun]], governò per lui fino a quando Gojong non raggiunse l'età adulta. A metà degli anni 1860, il reggente era il principale sostenitore dell'isolazionismo e lo strumento della persecuzione dei cattolici nativi e stranieri, una politica che portò direttamente alla campagna francese contro la Corea nel 1866. I primi anni del suo governo furono anche testimoni di un grande sforzo per restaurare il fatiscente Palazzo Gyeongbok, sede dell'autorità reale. Durante il suo regno, il potere e l'autorità delle famiglie politiche come gli Andong Kim diminuirono drasticamente. Per sbarazzarsi delle famiglie Andong Kim e Pungyang Cho, promosse persone senza affiliazioni familiari o partiti politici, e per ridurre gli oneri delle persone e consolidare le basi dell'economia della nazione, riformò il sistema fiscale. Nel 1871, le forze [[Stati Uniti d'America|americane]] e coreane si scontrarono in un tentativo americano di "diplomazia delle cannoniere" in seguito all'[[Incidente del General Sherman|incidente del generale Sherman]] nel 1866.

Nel 1873, il re Gojong annunciò la sua assunzione del governo reale. Con il successivo ritiro di Heungseon Daewongun, la futura [[Myeongseong di Corea|regina Min]] ottenne un grande potere a corte, ponendo la sua famiglia in posizioni di alta corte.

==== Imo Rebellion and Gapsin Coup ====

Il [[Giappone]], dopo la [[Rinnovamento Meiji|Restaurazione Meiji]], acquisì la tecnologia militare occidentale e costrinse Joseon a firmare il [[Trattato Giappone-Corea del 1876|Trattato di Ganghwa]] nel 1876, aprendo tre porti al commercio e garantendo l'extraterritorialità ai giapponesi. [[Incidente di Port Hamilton|Port Hamilton fu occupata]] dalla [[Naval Service|marina britannica]] nel 1885.

As the dynasty declined, the king began to rely on newer, rifle-using armies. They were treated well and the old army who used spears and old [[matchlock]]s began to become treated less well. The anger of the old army exploded when they were given their long-waited wages. Sand and stones were added to the [[rice]] they received. The old army revolted and after a short time, got control of the dynasty for a short while.

Molti coreani disprezzavano le influenze giapponesi e straniere sulla loro terra e il governo corrotto e opprimente della dinastia Joseon. Nel 1881, Byeolgigun, un'unità militare d'élite, fu costituita con istruttori giapponesi. Il salario degli altri soldati fu trattenuto e nel 1882 i soldati attaccarono gli ufficiali giapponesi e costrinsero persino la regina a rifugiarsi sul campo. Nel 1894, la rivoluzione contadina di Donghak vide gli agricoltori sollevarsi in una ribellione di massa, con il leader contadino Jeon Bong-jun che sconfisse le forze del sovrano locale Jo Byong-gap nella battaglia di Go-bu l'11 gennaio 1894; dopo la battaglia, le proprietà di Jo furono cedute ai contadini. A maggio, l'esercito contadino aveva raggiunto Jeonju e il governo Joseon chiese aiuto al governo della dinastia Qing per porre fine alla rivolta. I Qing inviarono 3.000 soldati e i ribelli negoziarono una tregua, ma i giapponesi considerarono la presenza Qing una minaccia e inviarono 8.000 truppe giapponesi, presero il Palazzo Reale a Seul e installarono un governo filo-giapponese l'8 giugno 1894. Questo presto degenerò nella [[prima guerra sino-giapponese]] (1894-1895) tra il Giappone e la Cina Qing, combattuta principalmente in Corea.[[File:Emper Kojong.jpg|miniatura|Imperatore [[Gojong di Corea|Gojong]]|alt=|sinistra]]La regina Min aveva cercato di contrastare l'interferenza giapponese in Corea e stava valutando la possibilità di rivolgersi all'[[Impero russo]] o alla Cina per ottenere supporto. Nel 1895, un gruppo di 26 agenti giapponesi entrò nel palazzo reale di Gyeongbokgung a Seul, che era sotto il controllo giapponese, uccise la regina e ne profanò il corpo nell'ala nord del palazzo.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html|titolo=Japanese Document Sheds New Light on Korean Queen's Murder|lingua=en|accesso=2023-12-01|urlarchivio=https://web.archive.org/web/20050113191703/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html}}</ref>

In 1884, 5 revolutionaries led a small anti-government army to [[Empress Myeongseong of Korea|Empress Myeongseong]]'s brother's house and initiated a [[coup d'etat]]. It failed in 3 days.

I Qing riconobbero la sconfitta nel Trattato di Shimonoseki, firmato il 17 aprile 1895, che garantiva ufficialmente l'indipendenza della Corea dalla Cina. Fu un passo importante per il Giappone che conquistò l'egemonia regionale in Corea. La corte Joseon, sotto pressione dall'invasione di grandi potenze, sentì la necessità di rafforzare l'integrità nazionale e dichiarò l'[[Impero coreano|Impero Coreano]], insieme alla Riforma Gwangmu nel 1897. Re Gojong assunse il titolo di Imperatore per affermare l'indipendenza della Corea. Inoltre, la Corea guardò ad altre potenze straniere per la tecnologia militare, in particolare la [[Russia]], per difendersi dai giapponesi. Tecnicamente, il 1897 segnò la fine del periodo Joseon, poiché il nome ufficiale dell'impero fu cambiato; tuttavia, la dinastia Joseon avrebbe continuato a regnare, anche se disturbata dal Giappone e dalla Russia.

==== Donghak Peasant Revolution ====

{{Main|Donghak Peasant Revolution}}

In una complicata serie di manovre e contro manovre, il Giappone respinse la flotta russa nella battaglia di Port Arthur nel 1905. Con la conclusione della guerra russo-giapponese del 1904-1905 con il Trattato di Portsmouth, la strada fu aperta e il Giappone prende il controllo della Corea. Dopo la firma del Trattato di protettorato nel 1905, la Corea divenne un protettorato del Giappone. Il principe Itō fu il primo residente generale della Corea, sebbene fu assassinato dall'attivista per l'indipendenza coreana An Jung-geun nel 1909 alla stazione ferroviaria di Harbin. Nel 1910, l'impero giapponese annesse infine la Corea.

The [[Donghak Peasant Revolution]] was an anti-government, anti-[[yangban]] and anti-foreign campaign.

== Governo ==

The peasants demanded land distribution, tax reduction, democracy, and human rights. Taxes were so high that most farmers were forced to sell their ancestral homesteads to rich landowners at bargain prices. As a result, the peasant class developed intense anti-Japanese and anti-yangban sentiments. The rebellions' immediate cause was [[Jo Byong-gap]], a government official whose rule was viewed by some as tyrannical and corrupt. On January 11, 1894, by peasant leader [[Jeon Bong-jun]] defeated the government forces at the battle of [[Jeongeup|Go-bu]], after the battle Jo's properties were handed out to the peasants. Meantime, the Joseon government army attacked Jeonju and both the Joseon government and the peasant army concluded an agreement. However the urgent Joseon government asked the Chinese [[Qing Dynasty]] government for assistance in ending the revolt. After notifying the Japanese in accordance with the Convention of Tientsin Qing sent troops into Korea. It was the catalyst for the First Sino-Japanese War.

La dinastia Joseon era una monarchia altamente centralizzata e una burocrazia neo-confuciana guidata dal ''daejeon Gyeongguk'', una sorta di costituzione.

=== Re ===

In late June of 1894, the pro-Japanese forces hatched a plan to wipe out the Peasant Army in co-operation with the Japanese troops stationed in [[Incheon]] and [[Seoul]]. On October 16, the Peasant Army moved toward [[Gongju]] for the final battle, which was a trap. The Japanese and the pro-Japanese government troops were in fact waiting for them inside.

[[File:Seoul Gyeongbokgung Throne.jpg|miniatura|Il trono della fenice del re Joseon a [[Gyeongbokgung]]]]

Il re aveva un'autorità assoluta, ma il suo potere effettivo variava a seconda delle circostanze politiche. Era vincolato dalla tradizione, dai precedenti stabiliti dai re precedenti, dal ''daejeon Gyeongguk'' e dagli insegnamenti confuciani. Gli ufficiali e i sudditi dovevano al re una lealtà assoluta, ma ci si aspettava anche che gli ufficiali persuadessero il re a seguire la retta via se si riteneva che quest'ultimo stesse agendo in modo sbagliato. Si pensava che i disastri naturali fossero dovuti ai fallimenti del re. I re di Joseon, quindi, erano molto sensibili a tali eventi: quando si verificava una grave siccità o una serie di disastri, il re spesso sollecitava formalmente le critiche sia dei funzionari che del pubblico. Tutto ciò che si diceva o scriveva in queste circostanze era immune da procedimenti giudiziari, anche se con alcune eccezioni.

La comunicazione diretta tra il re e la gente comune era possibile attraverso il sistema di petizione scritta ''sangeon'' ({{Coreano|상언|hanja=上言}}) e il sistema di petizione orale ''gyeokjaeng'' ({{Coreano|격쟁|hanja=擊 錚}}). Attraverso il sistema di petizione orale ''gyeokjaeng'', la gente comune poteva battere un gong o un tamburo davanti al palazzo reale o durante le processioni pubbliche del re per rivolgergli direttamente denunce o petizioni. Ciò ha permesso anche ai membri analfabeti della società Joseon di presentare una petizione al re. Più di 1300 rotoli sono legati al ''gyeokjaeng'' e sono registrati nell'Ilseongnok.<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.unesco.org/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/mow/nomination_forms/Korea%20Ilseongnok.pdf|titolo=«Ilseongnok: Records of Daily Reflections». Memory of the World Register. UNESCO. Consultado el 6 de diciembre de 2017.}}</ref><ref>{{Cita libro|nome=Michael D.|cognome=Shin|titolo=Korean history in maps: from prehistory to the twenty-first century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=46OTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93#v=onepage&q&f=false|accesso=2023-12-01|data=2014|editore=Cambridge University Press|lingua=en|p=93|ISBN=978-1-107-09846-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?content_id=cp021002840001|titolo=«상언격쟁». 문화콘텐츠닷컴}}</ref>

The Donghak Army was defeated in the [[Battle of Ugeumchi]]. The Japanese had cannons and other modern weapons, whereas the Korean peasants were armed only with bows and arrows, spears, swords, and some [[flintlock]] muskets. A few months later, Jeon was captured and executed.

[[File:Flag of the king of Joseon.svg|miniatura|Stendardo reale del re di Joseon]]

The revolution failed, but many grievances of the peasants would later be addressed through the [[Gabo Reform]].

*[[Taejo di Joseon]] (1392-1398)

*[[Jeongjong di Joseon]] (1398-1400)

*[[Taejong di Joseon]] (1400-1418)

*[[Sejong il Grande]] (1418-1450)

*[[Munjong di Joseon]] (1450-1452)

*[[Danjong di Joseon]] (1452-1455)

*[[Sejo di Joseon]] (1455-1468)

*[[Yejong di Joseon]] (1468-1469)

*[[Seongjong di Joseon]] (1469-1494)

*[[Yeonsangun di Joseon]] (1494-1506)

*[[Jungjong di Joseon]] (1506-1544)

*[[Injong di Joseon]] (1544-1545)

*[[Myeongjong di Joseon]] (1545-1567)

*[[Seonjo di Joseon]] (1567-1608)

*[[Gwanghaegun di Joseon]] (1608-1623)

*[[Injo di Joseon]] (1623-1649)

*[[Hyojong di Joseon]] (1649-1659)

*[[Hyeonjong di Joseon]] (1659-1674)

*[[Sukjong di Joseon]] (1674-1720)

*[[Gyeongjong di Joseon]] (1720-1724)

*[[Yeongjo di Joseon]] (1724-1776)

*[[Jeongjo di Joseon]] (1776-1800)

*[[Sunjo di Joseon]] (1800-1834)

*[[Heonjong di Joseon]] (1834-1849)

*[[Cheoljong di Joseon]] (1849-1863)

*[[Gojong di Corea]] (1863-1897; fu anche [[impero coreano|imperatore di Corea]])

L'ultimo sovrano del casato di Yi, [[Sunjong di Corea]], non fu re di Joseon, bensì imperatore di Corea.

==== Assassination of Empress Myeongseong ====

{{main|Empress Myeongseong}}

=== Ufficiali ===

In 1895, [[Empress Myeongseong of Korea|Empress Myeongseong]] was assassinated by Japanese agents. The Japanese minister to Korea, [[Miura Goro]] orchestrated the plot against her. A group of Japanese agents entered the Imperial palace in Seoul, which was under Japanese guard, and Empress Myeongseong (referred to as "''Queen'' Min" by the Japanese) was killed and her body desecrated in the North wing of the palace. The empress had attempted to counter Japanese interference in Korea and was considering turning to Russia or China for support. After the assassination of his consort, [[Gojong of Joseon|Emperor Gojong]] refused to talk with his father, the [[Daewon-gun]], believing him complicit in the assassination.

I funzionari governativi erano classificati in 18 livelli, che andavano dal grado più alto ({{Coreano|1 품|hanja=正 一 品}}) al nono grado, che era il più basso ({{Coreano|종 9 품|hanja=從 九品}}); le posizioni erano ottenute in base all'anzianità e alla promozione, che veniva raggiunta con regio decreto a seguito di un esame o una raccomandazione. I funzionari dei primi quattro livelli indossavano vesti rosse, quelli dal quinto al decimo livello erano vestiti di blu e gli altri indossavano abiti verdi.

Per funzionario del governo si intende qualcuno che ha ricoperto una carica che ha dato al suo titolare lo status di yangban, una nobiltà semi-ereditaria efficace per tre generazioni. Per diventare un funzionario di questo tipo bisognava superare una serie di esami gwageo. C'erano tre tipi di esami gwageo: letterario, militare e vario. Il percorso letterario era il più prestigioso: molti dei messaggi in codice, inclusi tutti i messaggi censurati, erano accessibili solo ai funzionari che avevano superato l'esame letterario. Nel caso del percorso letterario occorreva superare quattro prove per qualificarsi e diventare un ufficiale. 33 candidati dovevano essere scelti in questo modo sostenendo l'esame finale davanti al re per il posizionamento. Il candidato con il punteggio più alto sarebbe stato designato ad una posizione di sesto grado junior (un salto di sei ranghi). I due candidati con i successivi due punteggi più alti sarebbero stati nominati al settimo posto di grado junior. Sette candidati con il successivo punteggio più alto sarebbero stati assegnati all'ottavo grado junior, mentre i restanti 23 candidati avrebbero ottenuto il nono grado junior, il più basso dei 18 gradi.

=== Korean Empire ===

{{Main|Korean Empire}}

I funzionari di primo grado superiore, primo grado inferiore e secondo grado superiore erano appellati col titolo onorifico di "dae-gam" ({{Coreano|대감|hanja=大 監}}), mentre a quelli di secondo grado inferiore e terzo grado superiore spettava il titolo di "Yeong-gam" ({{Coreano|영감|hanja=令 監}}). Questi funzionari vestiti di rosso, chiamati collettivamente "dangsanggwan" ({{Coreano|당상관|hanja=堂上}}), partecipavano alla decisione delle politiche del governo partecipando alle riunioni di gabinetto. Il resto degli ufficiali classificati erano chiamati "danghagwan" ({{Coreano|당하관|hanja=堂下官}}).

The Chinese defeat in the 1894 war led to the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] between [[China]] and [[Japan]], which officially guaranteed Korea's independence from China. It was a step for Japan to hold regional [[hegemony]] in Korea. After that, Korea built the [[Independence Gate]] and stopped paying tributes to the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Joseon court, pressured by encroachment from larger powers, felt the need to reinforce national integrity and declared the '''[[Korean Empire]]''' in 1897. King [[Gojong of Korea|Gojong]] assumed the title of Emperor in order to assert Korea's independence. In addition, other foreign powers were sought for military technology, especially Russia, to fend off the Japanese. Technically, 1897 marks the end of the Joseon period, as the official name of the empire was changed; however the Joseon Dynasty would still reign, albeit perturbed by Japanese interventions. In 1910 Japan annexed the Korean peninsula which effectively ended the Joseon Dynasty rule.

== Note ==

The collapse of Russia's navy in the historic [[Battle of Port Arthur]] (in which Russia's imperial navy was destroyed in a decisive surprise attack), led to a great weakening of Korea's umbrella of protection.

<references />

== Altri progetti ==

The combined effect on China of the [[Opium Wars]] to the south and Japanese naval strikes in the north increasingly led the Japanese to see Korea as a strategic foothold into north China, just as [[Macau]] and [[Hong Kong]] were Portuguese and British trade enclaves into south China.

{{interprogetto}}

=== JapaneseCollegamenti occupationesterni ===

* [http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4 Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928110202/http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4 |date=28 settembre 2007 }}

* {{cita web | 1 = http://my.dreamwiz.com/insight/elist.htm | 2 = "Click into the Hermit Kingdom" - 100 articles in English on the Joseon Dynasty | accesso = 5 luglio 2008 | urlarchivio = https://web.archive.org/web/20080603225755/http://my.dreamwiz.com/insight/elist.htm | dataarchivio = 3 giugno 2008 | urlmorto = sì }}

In a complicated series of manoeuvres and counter-manoeuvres, Japan pushed back the Russian fleet at the Battle of Port Arthur in 1905. Both the fleets of China and Russia had given Korea sufficient protection to prevent a direct invasion, but this ambuscade of the Russian fleet gave Japan free rein over north China, and Korea was left at the mercy of the new regional naval power: Japan.

* {{cita web|1=http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/choson.html|2=Choson dynasty|accesso=5 luglio 2008|urlarchivio=https://web.archive.org/web/20050313144134/http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/choson.html|dataarchivio=13 marzo 2005|urlmorto=sì}}

* {{cita web|1=http://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm|2="Korean Lee (Yi) Dynasty Granite Sculptures.|accesso=5 luglio 2008|urlarchivio=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604062746/http://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm|dataarchivio=4 giugno 2008|urlmorto=sì}}

With the conclusion of the 1904-1905 [[Russo-Japanese War]] with the [[Treaty of Portsmouth]], the way was open for Japan to take control of Korea. After the signing of the Protectorate Treaty in 1905, Korea became a [[protectorate]] of Japan. [[Itō Hirobumi]] was the first Resident-General of Korea, although he was assassinated in 1909 at the train station at Harbin.

{{Storia di Corea}}

{{Controllo di autorità}}

Japan [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty|annexed]] Korea in 1910.

{{portale|Corea|storia}}

==Social and Population Structure==

[[Immagine:First known photo of Koreans 1871.jpg|thumb|A junk with Korean fishermen in 1871. Photograph taken by [[Felice Beato]] during the [[United States expedition to Korea]].]]

The population of Joseon Korea is controversial. Government records of households is are considered unreliable in this period. <ref>Ch'oe YH, PH Lee & WT de Bary (eds.) (2000), <b>Sources of Korean Tradition: Volume II: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Centuries.</b> Columbia Univ. Press, p. 6 </ref>. One recent estimate gives 6 million at the start of the dynasty, growing irregularly to a peak of as many as 18 million about 1750. Between 1810 and 1850, population declined approximately 10% and remained stable.<ref>Jun SH, JB Lewis & H-R Kang (2008), <i>Korean Expansion and Decline from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century: A View Suggested by Adam Smith</i>. <b>J. Econ. Hist.</b> 68: 244-282</ref>

Joseon Korea initially lacked a landed nobility in the usual sense. However, a centralised administrative system was installed controlled by Confucian scholars who were called yangban. [[Yangban]] By the end of the Eighteenth Century the yangban had acquired most of the traits of a hereditary nobility, except that status was based on a unique mixture of family position, the results of a Confucian-style competitive examination, and a civil service system. The yangban and the king, in an uneasy balance, controlled the central government and military institutions. The proportion of yangban may have reached as high as 30% by 1800, although there was considerable local variation.<ref>Oh SC (2006), <i>Economic growth in P'yongan Province and the development of Pyongyang in the Late Choson Period</i>. <b>Korean Stud.</b> 30: 3-22</ref> As the government was small, a great many yangban were local gentry of high status, but not always high income.<ref>Haboush JHK (1988), <b>A Heritage of Kings: One Man's Monarchy in the Confucian World</b>. Columbia Univ. Press, at pp.88-89</ref>

Another 20-40% of the population were slaves. Slavery was hereditary, as well as a form of legal punishment. There was a slave class with both government and privately owned slaves, and the government occasionally gave slaves to citizens of higher rank. Privately owned slaves could be inherited as personal property. During poor harvests, many sangmin people would voluntarily become slaves in order to survive. In the case of private slaves they could buy their freedom. During the Joseon Dynasty about 30% to 40% of the Korean population consisted of slaves. <ref>[http://ideas.repec.org/p/snu/ioerwp/no26.html Korean Nobi]</ref><ref>[http://muninn.net/blog/2005/04/nobi-rescuing-the-nation-from-slavery.html Nobi: Rescuing the Nation from Slavery]</ref> <ref>Peterson MA (2000), Korean Slavery. Int. Forum Series David M. Kennedy Center Discussion Paper</ref> However Choson slaves could, and often did, own property. <ref> Haboush (1988: 88); Ch'oe et al. (2000: 158)</ref>. Government-owned slaves were all emancipated in 1801, and the institution gradually died out over the next century <ref>Ch'oe et al., 2000:7.</ref>

Many of the the remaining 40-50% were surely farmers <ref>Haboush, 1988: 89</ref>, but recent work has raised important issues about the size of other groups: merchants and traders, local government or quasi-governmental clerks (''[[chungin]]''), craftsmen and laborers, textile workers, etc. <ref>Jun SH & JB Lewis (2004), On double-entry bookkeeping in Eighteenth-century Korea: A consideration of the account books from two clan associations and a private academy. http://www.iisg.nl/hpw/korea2.pdf (080626)</ref>. Given the size of the population, it may be that a typical person had more than one role. Most farming was, at any rate, commercial, not subsistence.<ref>Jun et al. (2008).</ref> In addition to generating additional income, a certain amount of occupational dexterity may have been required to avoid the worst effects of an often heavy and corrupt tax system. <ref>Ch'oe et al. (2000: 73).</ref>

During the Late Joseon, the Confucian ideals of propriety and "filial piety" gradually came to be equated with a strict observance to a complex social heirarchy, with many fine gradations. By the early 1700's the social critic Yi Chunghwan (1692-1752) sarcastically complained that "[W]ith so many different ranks and grades separating people from one another, people tend not to have a very large circle of friends." <ref> 이 종환, "총논" in 탱니 치, p. 355, quoted in translation in Choe et al. (2000: 162). </ref> But, even as Yi wrote, the informal social distinctions of the Early Joseon were being reinforced by legal discrimination, such as [[Sumptuary law]] <ref> Haboush (1988: 78)</ref> regulating the dress of different social groups, and laws restricting inheritance and property ownership by women <ref>Haboush JHK (2003), <i>Versions and subversions: Patriarchy and polygamy in Korean narratives</i>, in D Ko, JHK Haboush & JR Piggott (eds.), <b>Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea and Japan<b>. Univ. Calif. Press, pp. 279-304.</ref>.

Yet, these laws may have been announced precisely because social mobility was increasing, particularly during the prosperous century beginning about 1710<ref> Haboush (1988: 88-89); Oh (2006)</ref>. The original social hierarchy of the Joseon Dynasty was developed based on the social hierarchy of the [[Koryo]] era. In the 14th-17th centuries, this hierarchy was strict and stable. Since economic opportunities to change status were limited, no law was needed. But in the 18-19th centuries, new commercial groups emerged, and the old class system was somewhat weakened. The caste system of Joseon was officially banned in 1894.

== Culture ==

The Joseon Dynasty presided over two periods of great cultural growth, during which Joseon culture created the first [[Korean tea ceremony]], [[Korean garden]]s, and extensive historic works. The royal dynasty also built several fortresses, trading harbors, and palaces.

== Architecture ==

The history of Choson architecture would be described in three periods of the early, the middle, and the late period, in accordance with the cultural and architectural development. In the early period, the architecture developed as a succession from the cultural inheritance of the previous dynasty with the new political guiding principles of Confucianism that took the place of Buddhism. Through the influence of Confucianism, a refined aristocratic taste of the previous era was replaced by the characteristics of unsophisticated, simple and humble beauty with the qualities of commonness and steadiness. The intercolumnar bracket set system was used in building the most important edifice on the premises. The columnar bracket set system and the eclectic bracket system, which consists of architectural elements from both columnar and intercolumnar systems, were also used for temples and other important buildings. In the period of the Choson dynasty, Korean architecture developed further with a unique will to manifest the expression of the ideas and values of the period. The bracket cluster system, structurally and visually important elements of the buildings, were developed to follow structural function and to express the unique formal beauty of Korean architecture. Architectural ornaments and their symbolic connotation had more variety and richness. Architects of the period intended to express a strong will to form an indigenous style in architecture, and tried to use decorative elements of all kinds. This achieved a kind of symphonic quality with the methods of architectural organization by strong contrast of light and dark, of simplicity and complexity, and then finally reached the definite climax of architectural ingenuity. This tendency of architectural expression of the later period might remind us somewhat similar impressions of the Western Baroque and Rococo style.

== Science ==

{{See also|Kangnido map}}

Many Korean inventions are from this period, such as the first Asian [[sundial]] and the world's first water-powered clock. Also, King [[Sejong of Joseon|Sejong]] saw the development of the world's first [[rain gauge]], made by court scientist [[Jang Yeong-sil]]. [http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm] During the Joseon period, the metal [[movable type]], invented during the Goryeo dynasty in 1232, supplanted the wood-block printing in China.

== Economy ==

=== Trade and commerce ===

During the Goryeo Dynasty, Korea had a healthy trade relationship with the [[Arabian]]s, Japanese, Chinese, and Manchurians. An example of prosperous, international trade port is [[Pyongnam]]. Koreans offered [[brocades]], jewelries, [[ginseng]], [[silk]], and [[porcelain]], renowned famous worldwide. But, during the Joseon Dynasty, Confucianism was adopted as the national philosophy, and, in process of eliminating certain [[Buddhist]] beliefs, [[Korean pottery and porcelain#Goryeo Dynasty|Goryeo Cheongja]] porcelains were replaced by white [[Baekja]], which lost favour of the Chinese and the Arabians. Additionally, commerce became more restricted during this time in order to promote agriculture. Additionally, constant Chinese request for tribute pushed the Korean policy of ceasing to produce various luxury item elements (i.e. gold, silver), and importing only the necessary amounts from Japan. Because silver was used as currency in China, it played important role in Korea-China trade.

== The family today ==

{{Main article|Korean Imperial Household}}

After the invasion and ''de facto'' annexation of Korea by Japanese in 1910, the Princes and Princesses of the Imperial Family were forced to leave for Japan to be re-educated and married. [[Immagine:Choseon Imperial family.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This photo, taken about 1915 (is actually a compilation of individual photographs taken since the Japanese did not allow them to all be in the same room at the same time, and some were forced to leave Korea), shows the following royal family members, from left: Prince Uichin, the sixth son of Gojong; King Sunjong, the second son and the last monarch of Joseon; Prince Yeongchin, the seventh son; then former King Gojong; Queen Yundaebi, wife of Sunjong; Deogindang Gimbi, wife of Uichin; and Yi Geon, the eldest son of Uichin. The seated child in the front row is Princess Deokhye, Gojong's last child.)]]The Heir to the Throne, [[Yi Un|Imperial Crown Prince Uimin]], married [[Masako Nashimoto|Princess Yi Bang-ja nee Nashimoto]], and had two sons, Princes Yi Jin and [[Yi Gu]]. His elder brother, [[Gang, Prince of Korea|Imperial Prince Ui]] had twelve sons and nine daughters from various wives and concubines.

The Crown Prince lost his status in Japan at the end of World War II and returned to Korea in 1963 after an invitation by the Republican Government. He suffered a stroke as his plane landed in [[Seoul]] and was rushed to a hospital. He never recovered and died in 1970. His brother, Imperial Prince Ui died in 1955 and the Korean people officially considered this to be the end of the Royal line. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Presently His Highness Prince [[Yi Seok]] is one of two [[pretender]]s{{Fact|date=May 2007}} to the throne of [[Korea]]. He is a son of [[Gang, Prince of Korea|Prince Gang of Korea]], a fifth son of Gojong of Korea and currently a professor of history lecturing at [[Jeonju University]] in the [[Republic of Korea]].

Furthermore, many descendants live throughout the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Brazil]], having settled elsewhere, outside of Korea.

Today, many tombs of the descendants still exist on top of the mountain in Yangju. According to the pedigree written on the tombstone, it is believed that these descendants are from the great king of [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]], [[Seongjong of Joseon|Seongjeong]](The 9th ruler of [[Joseon Dynasty]]). It was discovered that this mountain belongs to the member of the royal family named Yi Won (Born in 1958).

[[House of Yi#Known Descendants Today|More details of current descendants of the House of Yi.]]

== The Imperial Family ==

* [[Gojong of Korea|Emperor Gojong]] (1852-1919) - 26th head of the Korean Imperial Household, adoptive great-great-great-grandson of [[King Yeongjo of Joseon]]

** [[Sunjong of Korea|Emperor Sunjong]] (1874-1926) - 27th head of the Korean Imperial Household

** [[Prince Imperial Ui|Prince Gang]] (1877-1955)

*** [[Prince Geon]] (1909-1991) - renounced the Imperial title and heritage by becoming a Japanese citizen in 1947

*** [[Wu, Prince of Korea|Prince Wu]] (1912-1945)

**** [[Yi Chung]] (1936-) - ''de jure'' genealogical heir of Emperor Gojong

*** [[Prince Gap]] (1938-)

**** [[Yi Won|Hereditary Prince Imperial Won]] (1962-) - claims to be the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household

***** 1st son (1998-)

***** 2nd son (1999-)

**** [[Yi Jeong]]

*** [[Haewon, Princess of Korea]] (1919-) - claims to be the 30th head of the Korean Imperial Household

*** [[Yi Seok|Prince Seok]] (1941-)

**** [[Yi KiHo]] (1959-)

**** [[Yi Hong]] (1976-)

**** [[Yi Jin]] (1979-)

**** [[Yi Jeonghun]] (1980-)

** [[Yi Un|Crown Prince Uimin]] (1897-1970) - 28th head of the Korean Imperial Household

*** Prince Jin (1921-1922)

*** [[Gu, Prince of Korea|Hereditary Prince Hoeun]] (1931-2005) - 29th head of the Korean Imperial Household

** [[Deokhye, Princess of Korea|Princess Deokhye]] (1912-1989)

*** [[Jong Jeonghye]]

== Titles and styles==

{{Cleanup|date=August 2007}}

===During the Kingdom===

* '''King''' (王 왕 ''wang''), the King, with the style of ''His Majesty'' (殿下 전하 ''jeonha'') or, not as correct but yet still quite commonly, ''His Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama''). Before the style of "jeon ha" were used a variety of titles for the king. For references to late monarchs the title was '''Great Predecessor King''' (先大王 선대왕 ''seondaewang'') or '''Great King''' (大王 대왕 ''daewang''); for foreign envoys the title used was '''State King''' (國王 국왕 ''gugwang''); and for those in the court who needed to mention the king outside his presence, and thus more formality was required in addressing the monarch, the title was '''Current King''' (今上 금상 ''geum-sang''),'''Sovereign''' (主上 주상 ''jusang'' or 上監 상감 ''sanggam''), or '''Grand Palace''' (大殿 대전 ''daejeon''). The style remained the same for all titles with the exception of queen dowagers and the relatively few kings who abdicated, who simply addressed or mentioned the king without using his style.

* '''Queen Consort''' (王妃 왕비 ''wangbi''), the Queen Consort, with the style of ''Her Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama''). The title used in the court language was '''Center Palace''' (中宮殿 중궁전 ''junggungjeon'' or 中殿 중전 ''jungjeon''). Queen consorts that remained married to the king until their death were generally given a title consisting of two Hanja in the front and the customary suffix '''Queen''' (王后 왕후 ''wanghu'') in the back.

* '''King Former''' (上王 상왕 ''sangwang''), a king who has voluntarily abdicated for his son to take his place. They usually remained influential or even powerful through the remaining years of their lives. The style of ''His Majesty'' (殿下 전하 ''jeonha'') or, less frequently but yet still quite commonly, ''His Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama'') was used.

* '''Queen Dowager''' (大妃 대비 ''daebi''), the current incumbent of the throne's mother, with the style of ''Her Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama''). Queen dowagers often exercised a great deal of influence on the king's influence through their regencies, which took place when the king was too young to rule in his own name, or simply through their role as the mother or even a senior female relative of the monarch.

* '''Grand King Former''' (太上王 태상왕 ''taesangwang''), an abdicated king whose relinquishment of power precedes that of another former king. The style of ''His Majesty'' (殿下 전하 ''jeonha'') or, less frequently but yet still quite commonly, ''His Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''m-ma'') was used.

* '''Royal Queen Dowager''' (王大妃 왕대비 ''wangdaebi''), a former consort preceding the least senior queen dowager or current King's aunt or grandmother, with the style of ''Her Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama'').

* '''Grand Royal Queen Dowager''' (大王大妃 대왕대비 ''daewangdaebi''), a former consort senior to two other queend dowagers or the current King's great-grandmother, with the style of ''Her Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama'').

* '''Grand Internal Prince''' (大阮君 대원군 ''daewongun''), the father of a king who was unable to take the throne himself as he was not part of the generation following that of the last incumbent of the throne (kings who are honored at the royal Jongmyo Shrine must be senior generation-wise for the current incumbent to pay homage there). There have been cases when grand chief princes acted as regents for their sons, the last person to do so having been the Regent Heungseon.

* '''Grand Internal Princess Consort''' (府大夫人 부대부인 ''budaebuin''), the mother of a king whose father himself never reigned.

* '''Internal Prince''' (府院君 부원군 ''buwongun''), the queen consort's father.

* '''Internal Princess Consort''' (府夫人 부부인 ''bubuin''), the queen consort's mother.

* '''Prince''' (君 군 ''gun''), a son born to the match between the king and a concubine or a descendant of a grand prince. The style used is ''His Young Highness'' (아기씨 ''agissi'') before marriage and the style ''His Excellency'' (大監 대감 ''daegam'') afterward.

* '''Princess Consort''' (郡夫人 군부인 ''gunbuin''), the consort of a prince.

* '''Grand Prince''' (大君 대군 ''daegun''), a prince born to the official match between the king and queen with the style of ''His Young Highness'' (아기씨 ''agissi'') before marriage and the style ''His Excellency'' (大監 대감 ''daegam'') afterward. The title of a grand prince is not inherited and his sons are generally referred to as mere princes.

* '''Grand Princess Consort''' (府夫人 부부인 ''bubuin''), the consort of a grand prince.

* '''Prince Royal''' (元子 원자 ''wonja''), the firstborn son of the king before being formally invested as [[heir apparent]], with the style of ''His Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama''). Generally, Prince Royals were the son who was born first between the king and his official wife, but there were exceptions when the title of Prince Royal was given to the firstborn son of the king through a concubine, the most notable case having occurred in the reign of [[Sukjong of Joseon|King Sukjong]].

* '''Royal Prince Successor''' (王世子 왕세자 ''wangseja'') the heir apparent to the throne, with the eldest son of the king given precedence over his brothers given that there were no major problems with his conduct, with the simplified title '''Prince Successor''' (世子 세자 ''seja'') being frequently used instead of the full name with the style of ''His Royal Highness'' (邸下 저하 ''jeoha''). In less formal but still official court language, the title '''Eastern Palace''' (東宮 동궁 ''donggung'') or '''Spring Palace''' (春宮 춘궁 ''chungung'') and the style ''His Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama'') was used intermittently with "Prince Successor," although the style was frequently dropped by more senior members of the royal family.

* '''Royal Princess Successor Consort''' (王世子嬪 왕세자빈 ''wangsaejabin''), the consort of the heir apparent, or simply Princess Successor Consort (世子嬪 세자빈 ''saejabin''), with the style of ''Her Royal Consort Highness'' (마노라 ''manora'' or 마누라 ''manura''). Later, as the distinction between "Her Royal Highness" and "Her Royal Consort Highness" became unclear due to the influence of the Andong Kim clan, the style ''Her Royal Highness'' (媽媽 마마 ''mama'') also came to apply to the consort of the heir apparent. The style ''~ Royal Highness'' also came to apply to grand princes, princes, and princess as well for the same reason.

* '''Princess''' (公主 공주 ''gongju''), the daughter of the official match between the king and his official wife, with the style of ''Her Young Highness'' (아기씨 ''agissi'') before marriage and ''Her Excellency'' (자가 ''jaga'') afterward.

* '''Princess''' (翁主 옹주 ''ongju''), the daughter of the king and one of his concubines, with the style of ''Her Young Highness'' (아기씨 ''agissi'') before marriage and ''Her Excellency'' (자가 ''jaga'') afterward.

* '''Royal Prince Successor Brother''' (王世弟 왕세제 ''wangseje''), the younger brother of the king who has been formally invested as heir presumptive as the king has no offspring.

* '''Royal Prince Successor Descendant''' (王世孫 왕세손 ''wangseson''), the son of the Prince Successor and the Princess Successor Consort, and the grandson of the king, with the style of ''His Highness'' (閤下 합하 ''hap-a'').

===During the Empire===

* '''Hwangje''' (皇帝 황제), the Emperor, with the style of His Imperial Majesty (陛下 폐하 ''pyeha'')

* '''Hwanghu''' (皇后 황후), the Empress (consort), with the style of Her Imperial Majesty

* '''Hwangtaehu''' (皇太后 황태후), the Empress Dowager

* '''Taehwangtaehu''' (太皇太后 태황태후), the Empress Dowager, current Emperor's living grandmother

* '''Hwangtaeja''' (皇太子 황태자), the Crown Prince of the Empire, the eldest son of Emperor, with the style of His Imperial Highness (殿下 전하 ''jeonha'')

* '''Hwangtaeja-bi''' (皇太子妃 황태자비), the Crown Princess (consort) of Empire, with the style of Her Imperial Highness

* '''Chinwang''' (親王 친왕), the Prince (Imperial), son of Emperor, with the style of His Imperial Highness

* '''Chinwangbi''' (親王妃 친왕비), the Princess (Imperial) (consort), with the style of Her Imperial Highness

* '''Gongju''' (公主 공주), the Princess of Empire, the daughter of Emperor and his Empress consort, with the style of Her Imperial Highness

* '''Ongju''' (翁主 옹주), the Princess of Empire, the daughter of Emperor and one of his concubines, with the style of Her Imperial Highness

==References==

The Joseon Dynasty recorded its history in the [[Annals of Joseon Dynasty]].

There is presently no official historian of the Korean royal family, and in Korea, the annals of the last two emperors edited with help of Japanese are not included in the Annals of Joseon Dynasty. Occasional references to the Korean Royal Family and its present charities and activities in the arts or in cultural preservation are found on websites on world royalty.

<references/>

* ''A Cultural History of Modern Korea'', Wannae Joe, ed. with intro. by Hongkyu A. Choe, Elizabeth NY, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 2000.

* ''An Introduction to Korean Culture'', ed. Koo & Nahm, Elizabeth NJ, and Seoul Korea: Hollym, 1998. 2nd edition.

* ''Noon Eu Ro Bo Neun Han Gook Yuk Sa #7'' by Jang Pyung Soon. Copyright 1998 Joong Ang Gyo Yook Yun Goo Won, Ltd. Pg. 46-47.

== See also ==

* [[List of Korea-related topics]]

* [[Hangul]]

* [[Joseon Dynasty politics]]

* [[Japanese invasions of Korea]]

* [[Hwaseong Fortress]]

* [[Independence Gate]]

* [[List of monarchs of Korea#Joseon|List of monarchs of Korea]]

* [[History of Korea]]

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== Collegamenti esterni==

{{commons|Category:Joseon Dynasty|Joseon Dynasty}}

* [http://www.instrok.org/instrok/lesson1/page01.html?thisChar=4 Cultural Values of the Choson Dynasty] - from the award-winning website Instrok.org, created by [[East Rock Institute]]

* [http://my.dreamwiz.com/insight/elist.htm "Click into the Hermit Kingdom" - 100 articles in English on the Joseon Dynasty]

* [http://www.royalcity.or.kr/ Korean royal family website] - currently available only in Korean.

* [http://myhome.shinbiro.com/~mss1/choson.html Choson dynasty]

* [http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501120024.html "Japanese Document Sheds New Light on Korean Queen's Murder"] - Ohmynews.com's uncovered document about murder of Queen Minbi

*[http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200601/200601270013.html "E-Annals Bring Chosun History to Everyman"], The Chosun Ilbo, January 27, 2006.

*[http://www.bennettsfineart.com/lee%20dynasty.htm "Korean Lee (Yi) Dynasty Granite Sculptures.]

[[deCategoria:Joseon-Dynastie| ]]

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[[es:Dinastía Chosŏn]]

[[fr:Période Chosŏn]]

[[id:Joseon]]

[[ja:李氏朝鮮]]

[[ka:ჯოსონი (დინასტია)]]

[[ko:조선]]

[[no:Joseon-dynastiet]]

[[pt:Choson]]

[[ru:Династия Чосон]]

[[th:ราชวงศ์โชซอน(ลี)]]

[[vi:Nhà Triều Tiên]]

[[zh:李氏朝鮮]]

[[zh-classical:朝鮮]]