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{{short description|Discussions and claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines}}
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<noinclude>{{Race}}</noinclude>
Discussions of '''race and intelligence'''—specifically regarding claims of differences in intelligence along racial lines—have appeared in both [[popular science]] and [[academic research]] since the modern concept of [[Race (human categorization)|race]] was first introduced. With the inception of [[intelligence quotient|IQ testing]] in the early 20th century, differences in average test performance between racial groups have been observed, though these differences have fluctuated and in many cases steadily decreased over time. Complicating the issue, modern science has concluded that race is a [[Social construct|socially constructed]] phenomenon rather than a biological reality, and there exist various conflicting definitions of [[intelligence]]. In particular, the [[validity of IQ testing]] as a metric for [[human intelligence]] is disputed. Today, the scientific consensus is that [[genetics]] does not explain differences in IQ test performance between groups, and that observed differences are environmental in origin.
[[Pseudoscientific]] claims of inherent differences in intelligence between races have played a central role in the history of [[scientific racism]]. The first tests showing differences in IQ scores between different population groups in the United States were those of [[United States Army]] recruits in [[World War I]]. In the 1920s, groups of [[eugenics]] lobbyists argued that these results demonstrated that [[African Americans]] and certain immigrant groups were of inferior intellect to [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] [[white people]], and that this was due to innate biological differences. In turn, they used such beliefs to justify policies of [[racial segregation]]. However, other studies soon appeared, contesting these conclusions and arguing that the Army tests had not adequately controlled for environmental factors, such as socioeconomic and educational [[social inequality#Racial and ethnic inequality|inequality between the groups]].
Later observations of phenomena such as the [[Flynn effect]] and disparities in access to [[prenatal care]] highlighted ways in which environmental factors affect group IQ differences. In recent decades, as understanding of [[human genome|human genetics]] has advanced, claims of inherent differences in intelligence between races have been broadly rejected by scientists on both [[Theory|theoretical]] and [[Empirical evidence|empirical]] grounds.
== History of the controversy ==
{{Main|History of the race and intelligence controversy}}
{{See also|Scientific racism}}
[[File:Frederick Douglass ambrotype (1856).jpg|thumb|300x300px|[[Autodidacticism|Autodidact]] and abolitionist [[Frederick Douglass]] (1817–1895) served as a high-profile counterexample to myths of black intellectual inferiority.]]
Claims of differences in intelligence between races have been used to justify [[colonialism]], [[slavery]], [[racism]], [[social Darwinism]], and racial [[eugenic]]s. Claims of intellectual inferiority were used to justify British wars and colonial campaigns in Asia.<ref name="Mercer-2023">{{Cite web |last=Mercer |first=Jonathan |date=October 1, 2023 |title=Racism, Stereotypes, and War |url=https://direct.mit.edu/isec/article/48/2/7/118111/Racism-Stereotypes-and-War |access-date=2024-02-04 |website=direct.mit.edu |publisher=Journal of International Security}}</ref> Racial thinkers such as [[Arthur de Gobineau]] in France relied crucially on the assumption that black people were innately inferior to white people in developing their ideologies of [[white supremacy]]. Even [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers such as [[Thomas Jefferson]], a slave owner, believed black people to be innately inferior to white people in physique and intellect.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|p=23}} At the same time in the United States, prominent examples of African-American genius such the [[Autodidacticism|autodidact]] and abolitionist [[Frederick Douglass]], the pioneering sociologist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], and the poet [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] stood as high-profile counterexamples to widespread stereotypes of black intellectual inferiority.<ref name="LawsonKirkland1999">Stewart, Roderick M. 1999. "The Claims of Frederick Douglass Philosophically Considered." Pp. 155–56 in ''Frederick Douglass: A Critical Reader'', edited by B. E. Lawson and F. M. Kirkland. Wiley-Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-20578-4}}. "Moreover, though he does not make the point explicitly, again the very fact that Douglass is ably disputing this argument on this occasion celebrating a select few's intellect and will (or moral character)—this fact constitutes a living counterexample to the narrowness of the pro-slavery definition of humans."</ref><ref>Marable, Manning (2011), ''Living Black History: How Reimagining the African-American Past Can Remake America's Racial Future'', p. 96. {{ISBN|978-0-465-04395-8}}.</ref> In Britain, Japan's military victory over Russia in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] began to reverse negative stereotypes of "oriental" inferiority.<ref name="Mercer-2023" /><ref name="Tonooka-2017">{{Cite journal |last=Tonooka |first=Chika |date=2017 |title=Reverse Emulation and the Cult of Japanese Efficiency in Edwardian Britain |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26343378 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=95–119 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X15000539 |jstor=26343378 |s2cid=162698331 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref> [[File:Alfred Binet.jpg|244x244px|thumb|[[Alfred Binet]] (1857–1911), inventor of the first intelligence test|alt=|left]]
=== Early IQ testing ===
The first practical intelligence test, the [[Binet-Simon Intelligence Test]], was developed between 1905 and 1908 by [[Alfred Binet]] and [[Théodore Simon]] in France for school placement of children. Binet warned that results from his test should not be assumed to measure innate intelligence or used to label individuals permanently.{{sfn|Plotnik|Kouyoumdjian|2011}} Binet's test was translated into English and revised in 1916 by [[Lewis Terman]] (who introduced IQ scoring for the test results) and published under the name [[Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales]]. In 1916 Terman wrote that Mexican-Americans, African-Americans, and Native Americans have a mental "dullness [that] seems to be racial, or at least inherent in the family stocks from which they come."<ref>{{cite book |last=Terman |first=Lewis |title=The Measurement Of Intelligence |publisher=Houghton, Mifflin and Company |year=1916 |page=91 |oclc=557712625}}</ref>
The US Army used a different set of tests developed by [[Robert Yerkes]] to evaluate draftees for World War I. Based on the Army's data, prominent psychologists and eugenicists such as [[Henry H. Goddard]], [[Harry H. Laughlin]], and Princeton professor [[Carl Brigham]] wrote that people from southern and eastern Europe were less intelligent than native-born Americans or immigrants from the Nordic countries, and that black Americans were less intelligent than white Americans.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|page=116}} The results were widely publicized by a lobby of anti-immigration activists, including the conservationist and theorist of [[scientific racism]] [[Madison Grant]], who considered the so-called [[Nordic race]] to be superior, but under threat because of immigration by "inferior breeds." In his influential work, ''A Study of American Intelligence,'' psychologist [[Carl Brigham]] used the results of the Army tests to argue for a stricter immigration policy, limiting immigration to countries considered to belong to the "Nordic race".{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|pages=116, 309}}
In the 1920s, some US states enacted [[eugenic]] laws, such as Virginia's [[Racial Integrity Act of 1924|1924 Racial Integrity Act]], which established the [[one-drop rule]] (of '[[racial purity]]') as law. Many scientists reacted negatively to eugenicist claims linking abilities and moral character to racial or genetic ancestry. They pointed to the contribution of environment (such as speaking English as a second language) to test results.{{sfn|Pickren|Rutherford|2010|p=163}} By the mid-1930s, many psychologists in the US had adopted the view that environmental and cultural factors played a dominant role in IQ test results. The psychologist Carl Brigham repudiated his own earlier arguments, explaining that he had come to realize that the tests were not a measure of innate intelligence.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|page=145}}
Discussions of the issue in the United States, especially in the writings of Madison Grant, influenced [[Germans|German]] [[Nazi]] claims that the "Nordics" were a "[[master race]]".{{sfn|Spiro|2009}} As American public sentiment shifted against the Germans, claims of racial differences in intelligence increasingly came to be regarded as problematic.<ref name="Ludy 2006">{{harvnb|Ludy|2006}}</ref> Anthropologists such as [[Franz Boas]], [[Ruth Benedict]], and [[Gene Weltfish]] did much to demonstrate that claims about racial hierarchies of intelligence were unscientific.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|pages=130–32}} Nonetheless, a powerful eugenics and segregation lobby funded largely by textile-magnate [[Wickliffe Draper]] continued to use intelligence studies as an argument for eugenics, segregation, and anti-immigration legislation.{{sfn|Tucker|2002}}
=== Pioneer Fund and ''The Bell Curve'' ===
As the desegregation of the American South gained traction in the 1950s, debate about black intelligence resurfaced. [[Audrey Shuey]], funded by Draper's [[Pioneer Fund]], published a new analysis of Yerkes' tests, concluding that black people really were of inferior intellect to white people. This study was used by segregationists to argue that it was to the advantage of black children to be educated separately from the superior white children.{{sfn|Jackson|2005}} In the 1960s, the debate was revived when [[William Shockley]] publicly defended the view that black children were innately unable to learn as well as white children.{{sfn|Shurkin|2006}} [[Arthur Jensen]] expressed similar opinions in his ''[[Harvard Educational Review]]'' article, "[[How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?]]," which questioned the value of [[compensatory education]] for African-American children.{{sfn|Jensen|1969|pages=1–123}} He suggested that poor educational performance in such cases reflected an underlying genetic cause rather than lack of stimulation at home or other environmental factors.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Panofsky |first1=Aaron |title=Misbehaving Science. Controversy and the Development of Behavior Genetics |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |___location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-05831-3 |date=2014}}</ref>{{sfn|Alland|2002|pages=79–80}}
Another revival of public debate followed the appearance of ''[[The Bell Curve]]'' (1994), a book by [[Richard Herrnstein]] and [[Charles Murray (political scientist)|Charles Murray]] that supported the general viewpoint of Jensen.{{sfn|Herrnstein|Murray|1994}} A statement in support of Herrnstein and Murray titled "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]," was published in ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' with 52 signatures. ''The Bell Curve'' also led to critical responses in a statement titled "[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]" of the American Psychological Association and in several books, including ''[[The Bell Curve Debate]]'' (1995), ''[[Inequality by Design]]'' (1996) and a second edition of ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' (1996) by [[Stephen Jay Gould]].<ref name="Maltby, Day & Macaskill 2007"/><ref name="Mackintosh 1998">{{harvnb|Mackintosh|1998}}</ref>
Some of the authors proposing genetic explanations for group differences have received funding from the [[Pioneer Fund]], which was headed by [[J. Philippe Rushton]] until his death in 2012.{{sfn|Tucker|2002}}<ref name="Maltby, Day & Macaskill 2007">{{harvnb|Maltby|Day|Macaskill|2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Graves|2002a}}{{sfn|Graves|2002b}}<ref>{{harvnb|Grossman|Kaufman|2001}}</ref> Arthur Jensen, who jointly with Rushton published a 2005 review article arguing that the difference in average IQs between blacks and whites is partly due to genetics, received $1.1 million in grants from the Pioneer Fund.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adam |first1=Miller |year=1994 |title=The Pioneer Fund: Bankrolling the Professors of Hate |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2962466 |journal=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education |issue=6 |pages=58–61 |doi=10.2307/2962466|jstor=2962466 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Blakemore |first1=Bill |last2=Jennings |first2=Peter |last3=Nissen |first3=Beth |date=November 22, 1994 |title=The Bell Curve and the Pioneer Fund |url=http://www.ferris.edu/isar/tanton/abcnews.htm |work=ABC World News Tonight |publisher=ABC News |access-date=May 1, 2020 |archive-date=March 3, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213542/http://www.ferris.edu/isar/tanton/abcnews.htm |url-status=live }} Vanderbilt Television News Archive : [http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=151406 ABC Evening News for Tuesday, Nov 22, 1994. Headline: American Agenda (Intelligence)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103223437/http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/program.pl?ID=151406 |date=January 3, 2016 }}</ref> According to [[Ashley Montagu]], "The University of California's Arthur Jensen, cited twenty-three times in ''The Bell Curve''{{'}}s bibliography, is the book's principal authority on the intellectual inferiority of blacks."<ref>{{cite book |last=Montagu |first=Ashley |title=Race and IQ |publisher=Oxford University Press |___location=New York |year=2002 |edition=2 |isbn=978-0-19-510221-5}}</ref>
The [[Southern Poverty Law Center]] lists the Pioneer Fund as a [[hate group]], citing the fund's history, its funding of race and intelligence research, and its connections with [[racist]] individuals.{{sfn|Berlet|2003}} Other researchers have criticized the Pioneer Fund for promoting [[scientific racism]], [[eugenics]] and [[white supremacy]].{{sfn|Tucker|2002}}<ref>[http://www.pioneerfund.org/Board.html Pioneer Fund Board] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525150639/http://www.pioneerfund.org/Board.html |date=2011-05-25 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Falk|2008|p=18}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Wroe|2008|p=81}}</ref>
== Conceptual issues ==
=== Intelligence and IQ ===
{{Main|Human intelligence|Intelligence quotient|G factor (psychometrics)}}
The concept of intelligence and the degree to which intelligence is measurable are matters of debate. There is no consensus about how to define intelligence; nor is it universally accepted that it is something that can be meaningfully measured by a single figure.<ref name="Schacter, Gilbert & Wegner 2007, pp 350-1">{{harvnb|Schacter|Gilbert|Wegner|2007|pp=350–1}}</ref> A recurring criticism is that different societies value and promote different kinds of skills and that the concept of intelligence is therefore culturally variable and cannot be measured by the same criteria in different societies.<ref name="Schacter, Gilbert & Wegner 2007, pp 350-1"/> Consequently, some critics argue that it makes no sense to propose relationships between intelligence and other variables.<ref name="Sternberg, Grigorenko & Kidd 2005">{{harvnb|Sternberg|Grigorenko|Kidd|2005}}</ref>
Correlations between scores on various types of IQ tests led English psychologist [[Charles Spearman]] to propose in 1904 the existence of an underlying factor, which he referred to as "''g''" or "[[general intelligence]]", a trait which is supposed to be innate.<ref name="deary2008">{{Cite journal |last1=Deary |first1=I. J. |last2=Lawn |first2=M. |last3=Bartholomew |first3=D. J. |year=2008 |title="A conversation between Charles Spearman, Godfrey Thomson, and Edward L. Thorndike: The International Examinations Inquiry Meetings 1931-1938": Correction to Deary, Lawn, and Bartholomew (2008) |url=https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/8897614/a_conversation_between_charles_spareman.pdf |journal=History of Psychology |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=156–157 |doi=10.1037/1093-4510.11.3.163 |hdl=20.500.11820/5417f3c7-e873-40b9-ad73-19c6acc9e35b |access-date=2020-06-25 |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806163233/https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/8897614/a_conversation_between_charles_spareman.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Another proponent of this view is [[Arthur Jensen]].{{sfn|Jensen|1998||page=[https://archive.org/details/gfactorscienc00jens/page/445 445ff]}} This view, however, has been contradicted by a number of studies showing that education and changes in environment can significantly improve IQ test results.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ceci |first=Stephen J. |date=1991 |title=How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=27 |issue=5 |pages=703–722 |doi=10.1037/0012-1649.27.5.703}}</ref>{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2006}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richie |first1=Stuart J. |last2=Tucker-Drob |first2=Elliot |date=June 2018 |title=How Much Does Education Improve Intelligence? A Meta-Analysis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325832102 |journal=Psychological Science |volume=29 |issue=8}}</ref>
Other psychometricians have argued that, whether or not there is such a thing as a general intelligence factor, performance on tests relies crucially on knowledge acquired through prior exposure to the types of tasks that such tests contain. This means that comparisons of test scores between persons with widely different life experiences and cognitive habits do not reveal their relative innate potentials.{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011|p=359}}
=== Race ===
{{Main|Race (human categorization)|Race and genetics}}
The consensus view among geneticists, biologists and anthropologists is that race is a sociopolitical phenomenon rather than a biological one,<ref name="NASEM-2023">{{Cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/26902/chapter/1 |title=Using Population Descriptors in Genetics and Genomics Research: A New Framework for an Evolving Field (Consensus Study Report) |date=2023 |publisher=[[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] |doi=10.17226/26902 |pmid=36989389 |isbn=978-0-309-70065-8 |quote=In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups.}}</ref>{{sfn|Daley|Onwuegbuzie|2011|p=294}}<ref name="Templeton2016">Templeton, A. (2016). EVOLUTION AND NOTIONS OF HUMAN RACE. In Losos J. & Lenski R. (Eds.), ''How Evolution Shapes Our Lives: Essays on Biology and Society'' (pp. 346–361). Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press. {{doi|10.2307/j.ctv7h0s6j.26}}. That this view reflects the consensus among American anthropologists is stated in: {{cite journal |last1=Wagner |first1=Jennifer K. |last2=Yu |first2=Joon-Ho |last3=Ifekwunigwe |first3=Jayne O. |last4=Harrell |first4=Tanya M. |last5=Bamshad |first5=Michael J. |last6=Royal |first6=Charmaine D. |date=February 2017 |title=Anthropologists' views on race, ancestry, and genetics |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=162 |issue=2 |pages=318–327 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.23120 |pmc=5299519 |pmid=27874171|bibcode=2017AJPA..162..318W }} See also: {{cite web |author=[[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] |date=27 March 2019 |title=AAPA Statement on Race and Racism |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |access-date=19 June 2020 |website=American Association of Physical Anthropologists |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125163036/https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |url-status=live }}</ref> a view supported by considerable genetics research.{{sfn|Smay|Armelagos|2000}}<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Nature Genetics |date=2004 |volume=36 |issue=11 Suppl |pages=43–47 |author1=Rotimi, Charles N. |title=Are medical and nonmedical uses of large-scale genomic markers conflating genetics and 'race'? |doi=10.1038/ng1439 |quote="Two facts are relevant: (i) as a result of different evolutionary forces, including natural selection, there are geographical patterns of genetic variations that correspond, for the most part, to continental origin; and (ii) observed patterns of geographical differences in genetic information do not correspond to our notion of social identities, including 'race' and 'ethnicity" |pmid=15508002 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The current mainstream view is that race is a social construction based on folk ideologies that construct groups based on social disparities and superficial physical characteristics.<ref>{{harvnb|Schaefer|2008}}</ref> A 2023 consensus report from the [[National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine]] stated: "In humans, race is a socially constructed designation, a misleading and harmful surrogate for population genetic differences, and has a long history of being incorrectly identified as the major genetic reason for phenotypic differences between groups."<ref name="NASEM-2023" />
The concept of human "races" as natural and separate divisions within the human species has also been rejected by the [[American Anthropological Association]]. The official position of the AAA, adopted in 1998, is that advances in scientific knowledge have made it "clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups" and that "any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations [is] both arbitrary and subjective."<ref name="AAA">{{harvnb|AAA|1998}}</ref> A more recent statement from the [[American Association of Physical Anthropologists]] (2019) declares that "Race does not provide an accurate representation of human biological variation. It was never accurate in the past, and it remains inaccurate when referencing contemporary human populations. Humans are not divided biologically into distinct continental types or racial genetic clusters."<ref>{{Cite web |title=AAPA Statement on Race & Racism |url=https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |access-date=2020-06-28 |archive-date=2022-01-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125163036/https://physanth.org/about/position-statements/aapa-statement-race-and-racism-2019/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Anthropologists such as [[C. Loring Brace]],<ref name="Brace 2005">{{harvnb|Brace|2005}}</ref> the philosophers Jonathan Kaplan and Rasmus Winther,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kaplan |first1=Jonathan Michael |last2=Winther |first2=Rasmus Grønfeldt |date=2014 |title=Realism, Antirealism, and Conventionalism About Race |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/KAPRAA |journal=[[Philosophy of Science (journal)|Philosophy of Science]] |volume=81 |issue=5 |pages=1039–1052 |doi=10.1086/678314 |s2cid=55148854}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Winther |first=Rasmus Grønfeldt |date=2015 |title=The Genetic Reification of 'Race'?: A Story of Two Mathematical Methods |url=http://philpapers.org/archive/WINTGR.pdf |journal=[[Critical Philosophy of Race]] |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=204–223}}</ref>{{sfnp|Kaplan|Winther|2013}} and the geneticist [[Joseph L. Graves|Joseph Graves]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Graves |first=Joseph |date=7 June 2006 |title=What We Know and What We Don't Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race |url=http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ |website=Race and Genomics |access-date=3 December 2023 |archive-date=3 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603030227/http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> have argued that the cluster structure of genetic data is dependent on the initial hypotheses of the researcher and the influence of these hypotheses on the choice of populations to sample. When one samples continental groups, the clusters become continental, but if one had chosen other sampling patterns, the clustering would be different. Weiss and Fullerton have noted that if one sampled only Icelanders, Mayans and Maoris, three distinct clusters would form and all other populations could be described as being clinally composed of admixtures of Maori, Icelandic and Mayan genetic materials.<ref name="evolutionary">{{cite journal |last1=Weiss |first1=K. M. |last2=Fullerton |first2=S. M. |date=2005 |title=Racing around, getting nowhere |journal=Evolutionary Anthropology |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=165–169 |doi=10.1002/evan.20079 |s2cid=84927946}}</ref> Kaplan and Winther conclude that while racial groups are characterized by different allele frequencies, this does not mean that racial classification is a natural taxonomy of the human species, because multiple other genetic patterns can be found in human populations that crosscut racial distinctions. Moreover, the genomic data underdetermines whether one [[Lumpers and splitters|wishes to see subdivisions (i.e., splitters) or a continuum (i.e., lumpers)]]. Under Kaplan and Winther's view, racial groupings are objective social constructions (see Mills 1998<ref>{{cite book |last=Mills |first=C. W. |title=Blackness visible: essays on philosophy and race |date=1988 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |___location=Ithaca, New York |pages=41–66 |chapter=But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race |author-link=C. Wright Mills}}</ref>) that have conventional biological reality only insofar as the categories are chosen and constructed for pragmatic scientific reasons. {{harvp|Sternberg|Grigorenko|Kidd|2005}} argue that the social construction of race derives not from any valid scientific basis but rather "from people's desire to classify."<ref name="Sternberg, Grigorenko & Kidd 2005" />
In studies of human intelligence, race is almost always determined using self-reports rather than analyses of genetic characteristics. According to psychologist David Rowe, self-report is the preferred method for racial classification in studies of racial differences because classification based on genetic markers alone ignore the "cultural, behavioral, sociological, psychological, and epidemiological variables" that distinguish racial groups.<ref name="Rowe 2005">{{harvnb|Rowe|2005}}</ref> Hunt and Carlson disagreed, writing that "Nevertheless, self-identification is a surprisingly reliable guide to genetic composition," citing a study by {{harvp|Tang et al.|2005}}.<ref name="Hunt & Carlson 2007">{{harvnb|Hunt|Carlson|2007}}</ref> Sternberg and Grigorenko disputed Hunt and Carlson's interpretation of Tang's results as supporting the view that racial divisions are biological; rather, "Tang et al.'s point was that ancient geographic ancestry rather than current residence is associated with self-identification and not that such self-identification provides evidence for the existence of biological race."<ref>{{harvnb|Sternberg|Grigorenko|2007}}</ref>
== Group differences ==
The study of human intelligence is one of the most controversial topics in psychology, in part because of difficulty reaching agreement about the meaning of ''intelligence'' and objections to the assumption that intelligence can be meaningfully measured by IQ tests. Claims that there are innate differences in intelligence between racial and ethnic groups—which go back at least to the 19th century—have been criticized for relying on specious assumptions and research methods and for serving as an ideological framework for discrimination and racism.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}}{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|p=222}}
In a 2012 study of tests of different components of intelligence, Hampshire et al. expressed disagreement with the view of Jensen and Rushton that genetic factors must play a role in IQ differences between races, stating that "it remains unclear ... whether population differences in intelligence test scores are driven by heritable factors or by other correlated demographic variables such as socioeconomic status, education level, and motivation. More relevantly, it is questionable whether [population differences in intelligence test scores] relate to a unitary intelligence factor, as opposed to a bias in testing paradigms toward particular components of a more complex intelligence construct."<ref name=":1">{{Harvnb|Hampshire|Highfield|Parkin|Owen|2012}}.</ref> According to Jackson and Weidman,
{{blockquote|There are a number of reasons why the genetic argument for race differences in intelligence has not won many adherents in the scientific community. First, even taken on its own terms, the case made by Jensen and his followers did not hold up to scrutiny. Second, the rise of population genetics undercut the claims for a genetic cause of intelligence. Third, the new understanding of [[institutional racism]] offered a better explanation for the existence of differences in IQ scores between the races.{{sfn|Jackson|Weidman|2004|p=222}}}}
=== Test scores ===
{{main|Achievement gap in the United States}}
In the United States, Asians on average score higher than White people, who tend to score higher than Hispanics, who tend to score higher than African Americans.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} Much greater variation in IQ scores exists within each ethnic group than between them.{{Clarify|reason=The prose here should be clarified. Is it saying that the recorded IQ range within each race is greater than any differences of averages between races?|date=December 2023}}<ref name="Reynolds-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Reynolds |first1=Cecil R. |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-59455-8_15 |title=Mastering Modern Psychological Testing |last2=Altmann |first2=Robert A. |last3=Allen |first3=Daniel N. |publisher=Springer |year=2021 |pages=573–613, 582 |chapter=The Problem of Bias in Psychological Assessment|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-59455-8_15 |isbn=978-3-030-59454-1 |s2cid=236660997 }}</ref><ref name=SAGE>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yDDqLBBk7BcC |title=Encyclopedia of Diversity in Education |date=2012 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4129-8152-1 |page=1209 |language=en |access-date=2018-01-20 |archive-date=2023-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320043631/https://books.google.com/books?id=yDDqLBBk7BcC |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2001 [[meta-analysis]] of the results of 6,246,729 participants tested for cognitive ability or aptitude found a difference in average scores between black people and white people of 1.1 [[standard deviations]]. Consistent results were found for college and university application tests such as the [[Scholastic Aptitude Test]] (N = 2.4 million) and [[Graduate Record Examination]] (N = 2.3 million), as well as for tests of job applicants in corporate settings (N = 0.5 million) and in the military (N = 0.4 million).<ref name="Roth et al. 2001">{{harvnb|Roth et al.|2001}}</ref>
In response to the controversial 1994 book ''[[The Bell Curve]]'', the [[American Psychological Association]] (APA) formed a task-force of eleven experts, which issued a report "[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]" in 1996.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} Regarding group differences, the report reaffirmed the consensus that differences within groups are much wider than differences between groups, and that claims of ethnic differences in intelligence should be scrutinized carefully, as such claims had been used to justify racial discrimination. The report also acknowledged problems with the racial categories used, as these categories are neither consistently applied, nor homogeneous {{xref|(see [[Race and ethnicity in the United States]])}}.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}}
In the UK, some African groups have higher average educational attainment and standardized test scores than the overall population.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Feyisa |last1=Demie |first2=Christabel |last2=McLean |title=Raising the achievement of African heritage pupils: a case study of good practice in British schools |journal=Educational Studies |date=1 December 2007 |issn=0305-5698 |pages=415–434 |volume=33 |issue=4 |doi=10.1080/03055690701423606 |s2cid=144579288}}</ref> In 2010–2011, white British pupils were 2.3% less likely to have gained 5 A*–C grades at [[General Certificate of Secondary Education|GCSE]] than the national average, whereas the likelihood was 21.8% above average for those of [[British Nigerian|Nigerian]] origin, 5.5% above average for those of [[Ghanaians in the United Kingdom|Ghanaian]] origin, and 1.4% above average for those of [[Sierra Leone|Sierra Leonian]] origin. For the two other African ethnic groups on which data was available, the likelihood was 23.7% below average for those of [[Somalis|Somali]] origin and 35.3% below average for those of [[Congo Basin|Congolese]] origin.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rutter |first=Jill |title=Back to basics: Towards a successful and cost-effective integration policy |publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research |year=2013 |url=https://www.ippr.org/articles/back-to-basics-towards-a-successful-and-cost-effective-integration-policy |page=43 |access-date=2020-05-23 |archive-date=2020-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413214928/https://www.ippr.org/publications/back-to-basics-towards-a-successful-and-cost-effective-integration-policy |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, Black-African pupils of 11 language groups were more likely to pass [[Key Stage 2]] Maths 4+ in England than the national average. Overall, the average pass rate by ethnicity was 86.5% for white British (N = 395,787), whereas it was 85.6% for Black-Africans (N = 18,497). Nevertheless, several Black-African language groups, including [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Akan language|Akan]], [[Ga language|Ga]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Edo language|Edo]], [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Amharic]] speakers, and English-speaking Africans, each had an average pass rate above the white British average (total N = 9,314), with the Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, and Amhara having averages above 90% (N = 2,071).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Feyisa Demie |first=Andrew Hau |title=Language Diversity and Attainment in Primary Schools in England |publisher=Lambeth Research And Statistics Unit |year=2016 |url=https://www.lambeth.gov.uk/rsu/sites/www.lambeth.gov.uk.rsu/files/language_diversity_and_attainment_in_primary_schools_in_england_2017.pdf |page=18 |access-date=2020-05-24 |archive-date=2020-08-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806165229/https://www.lambeth.gov.uk/rsu/sites/www.lambeth.gov.uk.rsu/files/language_diversity_and_attainment_in_primary_schools_in_england_2017.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017–2018, the percentage of pupils getting a strong pass (grade 5 or above) in the English and maths GCSE (in [[Key Stage 4]]) was 42.7% for whites (N = 396,680) and 44.3% for Black-Africans (N = 18,358).<ref>{{Cite web |title=GCSE English and maths results |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/education-skills-and-training/11-to-16-years-old/a-to-c-in-english-and-maths-gcse-attainment-for-children-aged-14-to-16-key-stage-4/3.0 |date=2019 |website=Gov.UK |access-date=2022-09-20 |archive-date=2022-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920173733/https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/education-skills-and-training/11-to-16-years-old/a-to-c-in-english-and-maths-gcse-attainment-for-children-aged-14-to-16-key-stage-4/3.0 |url-status=live }}</ref>
===
{{Main|Flynn effect}}
The '[[Flynn effect]]' — a term coined after researcher [[James Flynn (academic)|James R. Flynn]] — refers to the substantial rise in raw IQ test scores observed in many parts of the world during the 20th century. In the United States, the increase was continuous and approximately linear from the earliest years of testing to about 1998 when the gains stopped and some tests even showed decreasing test scores. For example, the average scores of black people on some IQ tests in 1995 were the same as the scores of white people in 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Mackintosh|1998|p=162}}</ref> As one pair of academics phrased it, "the typical African American today probably has a slightly higher IQ than the grandparents of today's average white American."<ref>{{cite book |last=Swain |first=Carol |title=Contemporary voices of white nationalism in America |publisher=Cambridge University Press |___location=Cambridge, UK New York |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-01693-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/contemporaryvoic00swai/page/70 70] |url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryvoic00swai/page/70}} Note: this quote is from the authors' introductory essay, not from the interviews.</ref>
Flynn himself argued that the dramatic changes having taken place between one just generation and the next pointed strongly at an environmental explanation, and that it is highly unlikely that genetic factors could have accounted for the increasing scores. The Flynn effect, along with Flynn's analysis, continues to hold significance in the context of the black/white IQ gap debate, demonstrating the potential for environmental factors to influence IQ test scores by as much as 1 standard deviation, a scale of change that had previously been doubted.{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2001}}
A distinct but related observation has been the gradual narrowing of the American black-white IQ gap in the last decades of the 20th century, as black test-takers increased their average scores relative to white test-takers. For instance, Vincent reported in 1991 that the black–white IQ gap was decreasing among children, but that it was remaining constant among adults.{{sfn|Vincent|1991}} Similarly, a 2006 study by Dickens and Flynn estimated that the difference between mean scores of black people and white people closed by about 5 or 6 IQ points between 1972 and 2002,{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2006}} a reduction of about one-third. In the same period, the educational achievement disparity also diminished.<ref>Neisser, Ulric (Ed). 1998. The rising curve: Long-term gains in IQ and related measures. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association</ref> Reviews by Flynn and Dickens,{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2006}} Mackintosh,{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011}} and Nisbett ''et al.'' accept the gradual closing of the gap as a fact.{{sfn|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a}} Flynn and Dickens summarize this trend, stating, "The constancy of the Black-White IQ gap is a myth and therefore cannot be cited as evidence that the racial IQ gap is genetic in origin."{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2006}}
==Environmental factors==
===Health and nutrition===
{{Main|Impact of health on intelligence}}
[[File:Lead levels children.png|thumb|Percentage of children aged 1–5 with blood lead levels ''at least'' 10 μg/dL. Black and Hispanic children have much higher levels than white children. A 10 μg/dL increase in blood lead at 24 months is associated with a 5.8-point decline in IQ.<ref name="Bellinger, Stiles & Needleman 1992">{{harvnb|Bellinger|Stiles|Needleman|1992}}</ref> Although the Geometric Mean Blood Lead Levels (GM BLL) are declining, a CDC report (2002) states that: "However, the GM BLL for non-Hispanic black children remains higher than that for Mexican-American and non-Hispanic white children, indicating that differences in risk for exposure still persist."<ref>{{harvnb|MMWR|2005}}</ref>|380x380px]]
Environmental factors including [[Lead poisoning#Effects on children|childhood lead exposure]],<ref name="Bellinger, Stiles & Needleman 1992"/> low rates of [[breast feeding]],<ref name="Campbell et al. 2002">{{harvnb|Campbell et al.|2002}}</ref> and poor [[nutrition]]<ref>{{harvnb|Ivanovic et al.|2004}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Saloojee| Pettifor|2001}}</ref> are significantly correlated with poor cognitive development and functioning. For example, childhood exposure to {{nowrap|lead{{tsp}}{{mdash}}{{tsp}}}}associated with homes in poorer {{nowrap|areas<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/ped_env_health/docs/ped_env_health.pdf |title=Principles of Pediatric Environmental Health, The Child as Susceptible Host: A Developmental Approach to Pediatric Environmental Medicine |last=Agency For Toxic Substances And Disease Registry Case Studies In Environmental Medicine (CSEM) |date=2012-02-15 |website=U.S. Department for Health and Human Services |access-date=2019-01-30 |archive-date=2019-01-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131093309/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/ped_env_health/docs/ped_env_health.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{hsp}}{{mdash}}{{tsp}}}}correlates with an average IQ drop of 7 points,<ref name="Lanphear Hornung Khoury Yolton 2005 pp. 894–899">{{cite journal |last1=Lanphear |first1=Bruce P. |last2=Hornung |first2=Richard |last3=Khoury |first3=Jane |last4=Yolton |first4=Kimberly |last5=Baghurst |first5=Peter |last6=Bellinger |first6=David C. |last7=Canfield |first7=Richard L. |last8=Dietrich |first8=Kim N. |last9=Bornschein |first9=Robert |last10=Greene |first10=Tom |last11=Rothenberg |first11=Stephen J. |last12=Needleman |first12=Herbert L. |last13=Schnaas |first13=Lourdes |last14=Wasserman |first14=Gail |last15=Graziano |first15=Joseph |last16=Roberts |first16=Russell |title=Low-Level Environmental Lead Exposure and Children's Intellectual Function: An International Pooled Analysis |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=113 |issue=7 |date=2005-03-18 |issn=0091-6765 |pmid=16002379 |pmc=1257652 |doi=10.1289/ehp.7688 |pages=894–899|bibcode=2005EnvHP.113..894L }}</ref> and [[Cretinism|iodine deficiency causes a decline]], on average, of 12 IQ points.<ref>{{harvnb|Qian et al.|2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=James |last1=Feyrer |first2=Dimitra |last2=Politi |first3=David N. |last3=Weil |title=The Cognitive Effects of Micronutrient Deficiency: Evidence from Salt Iodization in the United States |year=2017 |journal=Journal of the European Economic Association |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=355–387 |doi=10.1093/jeea/jvw002 |pmid=31853231 |pmc=6919660 |url=http://www.nber.org/papers/w19233.pdf |access-date=2019-07-22 |archive-date=2020-08-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813174601/https://www.nber.org/papers/w19233.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Such impairments may sometimes be permanent, but in some cases they be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth.
The first two years of life are critical for malnutrition, the consequences of which are often irreversible and include poor cognitive development, educability, and future economic productivity.<ref>[http://www.thelancet.com/series/maternal-and-child-undernutrition The Lancet Series on Maternal and Child Undernutrition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717005704/http://www.thelancet.com/series/maternal-and-child-undernutrition |date=2011-07-17 }}, 2008.</ref><!--Which paper? Link points only to to listed series of papers (yes, need more specific, preferably secondary, reference) --> Mackintosh points out that, for American black people, infant mortality is about twice as high as for white people, and low birth weight is twice as prevalent. At the same time, white mothers are twice as likely to breastfeed their infants, and breastfeeding is directly correlated with IQ for low-birth-weight infants. In this way, a wide number of health-related factors which influence IQ are unequally distributed between the two groups.{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011|pages=343–44}}
The [[Copenhagen consensus]] in 2004 stated that lack of both iodine and iron has been implicated in impaired brain development, and this can affect enormous numbers of people: it is estimated that one-third of the total global population is affected by [[iodine deficiency]]. In developing countries, it is estimated that 40% of children aged four and under have [[anaemia]] because of insufficient iron in their diets.<ref>{{harvnb|Behrman|Alderman|Hoddinott|2004}}</ref>
Other scholars have found that simply the standard of nutrition has a significant effect on population intelligence, and that the Flynn effect may be caused by increasing nutrition standards across the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Colom |first1=R. |last2=Lluis-Font |first2=J. M. |last3=Andrés-Pueyo |first3=A. |year=2005 |title=The generational intelligence gains are caused by decreasing variance in the lower half of the distribution: supporting evidence for the nutrition hypothesis |journal=Intelligence |volume=33 |pages=83–91 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2004.07.010}}</ref> James Flynn has himself argued against this view.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Flynn |first1=J. R. |year=2009a |title=Requiem for nutrition as the cause of IQ gains: Raven's gains in Britain 1938 to 2008 |journal=Economics and Human Biology |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=18–27 |doi=10.1016/j.ehb.2009.01.009 |pmid=19251490}}</ref>
Some recent research has argued that the retardation caused in brain development by [[infectious disease]]s, many of which are more prevalent in non-white populations, may be an important factor in explaining the differences in IQ between different regions of the world. The findings of this research, showing the correlation between IQ, race and infectious diseases was also shown to apply to the IQ gap in the US, suggesting that this may be an important environmental factor.<ref name="Eppig 2011">{{harvnb|Eppig|2011}}</ref>
A 2013 meta-analysis by the World Health Organization found that, after controlling for maternal IQ, breastfeeding was associated with IQ gains of 2.19 points. The authors suggest that this relationship is causal but state that the practical significance of this gain is debatable; however, they highlight one study suggesting an association between breastfeeding and academic performance in Brazil, where "breastfeeding duration does not present marked variability by socioeconomic position."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Long-term effects of breastfeeding – a systemic review |first1=Bernardo L. |last1=Horta |first2=Cesar G. |last2=Victoria |publisher=World Health Organization |year=2013 |access-date=18 June 2018 |url=http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/79198/9789241505307_eng.pdf |archive-date=9 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409233115/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/79198/9789241505307_eng.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Colen and Ramey (2014) similarly find that controlling for sibling comparisons within families, rather than between families, reduces the correlation between breastfeeding status and WISC IQ scores by nearly a third, but further find the relationship between breastfeeding duration and WISC IQ scores to be insignificant. They suggest that "much of the beneficial long-term effects typically attributed to breastfeeding, per se, may primarily be due to selection pressures into infant feeding practices along key demographic characteristics such as race and socioeconomic status."<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Cynthia G. |last1=Colen |first2=David M. |last2=Ramey |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=109 |issue=1 |pages=55–65 |year=2014 |pmc=4077166 |title=Is Breast Truly Best? Estimating the Effect of Breastfeeding on Long-term Child Wellbeing in the United States Using Sibling Comparisons |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.027 |pmid=24698713}}</ref> Reichman estimates that no more than 3 to 4% of the black–white IQ gap can be explained by black–white disparities in low birth weight.<ref>{{harvnb|Reichman|2005}}</ref>
===Education===
Several studies have proposed that a large part of the gap in IQ test performance can be attributed to differences in quality of education.<ref>{{harvnb|Manly et al.|2002}} and {{harvnb|Manly et al.|2004}}</ref> [[Racial discrimination]] in education has been proposed as one possible cause of differences in educational quality between races.<ref>{{harvnb|Mickelson|2003}}</ref> According to a paper by Hala Elhoweris, Kagendo Mutua, Negmeldin Alsheikh and Pauline Holloway, teachers' referral decisions for students to participate in [[gifted education|gifted and talented]] educational programs were influenced in part by the students' ethnicity.<ref>{{harvnb|Elhoweris et al.|2005}}</ref>
The [[Abecedarian Early Intervention Project]], an intensive early childhood education project, was also able to bring about an average IQ gain of 4.4 points at age 21 in the black children who participated in it compared to controls.<ref name="Campbell et al. 2002"/> [[Arthur Jensen]] agreed that the Abecedarian project demonstrated that education can have a significant effect on IQ, but also declared his view that no educational program thus far had been able to reduce the black–white IQ gap by more than a third, and that differences in education are thus unlikely to be its only cause.<ref>{{harvnb|Miele|2002|p=133}}</ref>
A series of studies by [[Joseph Fagan]] and Cynthia Holland measured the effect of prior exposure to the kind of cognitive tasks posed in IQ tests on test performance. Assuming that the IQ gap was the result of lower exposure to tasks using the cognitive functions usually found in IQ tests among African American test takers, they prepared a group of African Americans in this type of tasks before taking an IQ test. The researchers found that there was no subsequent difference in performance between the African-Americans and white test takers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fagan |first1=Joseph F |last2=Holland |first2=Cynthia R |year=2002 |title=Equal opportunity and racial differences in IQ |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_intelligence_2002_30_4/page/361 |journal=Intelligence |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=361–387 |doi=10.1016/S0160-2896(02)00080-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fagan |first1=J.F. |last2=Holland |first2=C.R. |year=2007 |title=Racial equality in intelligence: Predictions from a theory of intelligence as processing |journal=Intelligence |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=319–334 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2006.08.009}}</ref> Daley and Onwuegbuzie conclude that Fagan and Holland demonstrate that "differences in knowledge between black people and white people for intelligence test items can be erased when equal opportunity is provided for exposure to the information to be tested".{{sfn|Daley|Onwuegbuzie|2011}} A similar argument is made by [[David Marks (psychologist)|David Marks]] who argues that IQ differences correlate well with differences in literacy suggesting that developing literacy skills through education causes an increase in IQ test performance.<ref name="Marks, D.F. 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=D.F. |year=2010 |title=IQ variations across time, race, and nationality: An artifact of differences in literacy skills |journal=Psychological Reports |volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=643–664 |doi=10.2466/pr0.106.3.643-664 |pmid=20712152 |s2cid=12179547}}</ref><ref name="psychologytoday.com">{{cite magazine |last=Barry |first=Scott |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/201008/the-flynn-effect-and-iq-disparities-among-races-ethnicities-and-nations- |title=The Flynn Effect and IQ Disparities Among Races, Ethnicities, and Nations: Are There Common Links? |magazine=Psychology Today |date=2010-08-23 |access-date=2014-08-22 |archive-date=2023-03-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320043730/https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/beautiful-minds/201008/the-flynn-effect-and-iq-disparities-among-races-ethnicities-and-nations |url-status=live }}</ref>
A 2003 study found that two variables—[[stereotype threat]] and the degree of educational attainment of children's fathers—partially explained the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores, undermining the hereditarian view that they stemmed from immutable genetic factors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McKay |first1=Patrick F. |last2=Doverspike |first2=Dennis |last3=Bowen-Hilton |first3=Doreen |last4=McKay |first4=Quintonia D. |title=The Effects of Demographic Variables and Stereotype Threat on Black/White Differences in Cognitive Ability Test Performance |journal=Journal of Business and Psychology |date=2003 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–14 |doi=10.1023/A:1025062703113 |s2cid=142317051}}</ref>
===Socioeconomic environment===
Different aspects of the socioeconomic environment in which children are raised have been shown to correlate with part of the IQ gap, but they do not account for the entire gap.{{sfn|Hunt|2010|page=428}} According to a 2006 review, these factors account for slightly less than half of one standard deviation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magnuson |first1=Katherine A. |last2=Duncan |first2=Greg J. |title=The role of family socioeconomic resources in the black–white test score gap among young children |journal=[[Developmental Review]] |date=December 2006 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=365–399 |doi=10.1016/j.dr.2006.06.004}}</ref>
Other research has focused on different causes of variation within low socioeconomic status (SES) and high SES groups.<ref name="Scarr-Salapatek1971">{{cite journal |last1=Scarr-Salapatek |first1=S. |year=1971 |title=Race, social class, and IQ. |journal=Science |volume=174 |issue=4016 |pages=1285–95 |doi=10.1126/science.174.4016.1285 |pmid=5167501 |bibcode=1971Sci...174.1285S}}</ref><ref name="Scarr-Salapatek1974">{{cite journal |last1=Scarr-Salapatek |first1=S. |year=1974 |title=Some myths about heritability and IQ. |doi=10.1038/251463b0 |journal=Nature |volume=251 |issue=5475 |pages=463–464 |bibcode=1974Natur.251..463S |s2cid=32437709 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Rowe1994">D. C. Rowe. (1994). ''The Limits of Family Influence: Genes, Experience and Behaviour''. Guilford Press. London</ref>
In the US, among low SES groups, genetic differences account for a smaller proportion of the variance in IQ than among high SES populations.<ref name="Kirkpatrick2015">{{cite journal |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=R. M. |last2=McGue |first2=M. |last3=Iacono |first3=W. G. |year=2015 |title=Replication of a gene-environment interaction Via Multimodel inference: additive-genetic variance in adolescents' general cognitive ability increases with family-of-origin socioeconomic status |doi=10.1007/s10519-014-9698-y |journal=Behav Genet |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=200–14 |pmc=4374354 |pmid=25539975}}</ref> Such effects are predicted by the ''[[Bioecological model|bioecological]]'' hypothesis—that genotypes are transformed into phenotypes through nonadditive synergistic effects of the environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Nature-nuture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. |journal=Psychological Review |pages=568–586 |volume=101 |issue=4 |doi=10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.568 |first1=Urie |last1=Bronfenbrenner |first2=Stephen J. |last2=Ceci |pmid=7984707 |date=October 1994|s2cid=17402964 }}</ref> {{harvp|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a}} suggest that high SES individuals are more likely to be able to develop their full biological potential, whereas low SES individuals are likely to be hindered in their development by adverse environmental conditions. The same review also points out that adoption studies generally are biased towards including only high and high middle SES adoptive families, meaning that they will tend to overestimate average genetic effects. They also note that studies of adoption from lower-class homes to middle-class homes have shown that such children experience a 12 to 18 point gain in IQ relative to children who remain in low SES homes.{{sfn|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a}} A 2015 study found that environmental factors (namely, family income, maternal education, maternal verbal ability/knowledge, learning materials in the home, parenting factors, child birth order, and child birth weight) accounted for the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores.{{sfn|Cottrell|Newman|Roisman|2015}}
===Test bias===
A number of studies have reached the conclusion that IQ tests may be biased against certain groups.<ref>{{harvnb|Cronshaw et al.|2006|p=278}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Verney et al.|2005}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Borsboom|2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Shuttleworth-Edwards et al.|2004}}</ref> The validity and reliability of IQ scores obtained from outside the United States and Europe have been questioned, in part because of the inherent difficulty of comparing IQ scores between cultures.<ref name="Richardson 2004">{{harvnb|Richardson|2004}}</ref><ref name="Hunt & Wittmann 2008">{{harvnb|Hunt|Wittmann|2008}}</ref> Several researchers have argued that cultural differences limit the appropriateness of standard IQ tests in non-industrialized communities.<ref>{{harvnb|Irvine|1983}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Irvine|Berry|1988}} a collection of articles by several authors discussing the limits of assessment by intelligence tests in different communities in the world. In particular, {{harvp|Reuning|1988}} describes the difficulties in devising and administering tests for Kalahari bushmen.</ref>
A 1996 report by the [[American Psychological Association]] states that intelligence can be difficult to compare across cultures, and notes that differing familiarity with test materials can produce substantial differences in test results; it also says that tests are accurate predictors of future achievement for black and white Americans, and are in that sense unbiased.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} The view that tests accurately predict future educational attainment is reinforced by [[Nicholas Mackintosh]] in his 1998 book ''IQ and Human Intelligence'',<ref>{{harvnb|Mackintosh|1998|p=174}}: "Despite widespread belief to the contrary, however, there is ample evidence, both in Britain and the USA, that IQ tests predict educational attainment just about as well in ethnic minorities as in the white majority."</ref> and by a 1999 literature review by {{harvp|Brown|Reynolds|Whitaker|1999}}.
James R. Flynn, surveying studies on the topic, notes that the weight and presence of many test questions depends on what sorts of information and modes of thinking are culturally valued.<ref name="FlynnIntelligence">{{cite journal |journal=Intelligence |issue=70 |pages=73–83 |year=2018 |url=https://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/1-s2.0-S0160289618300904-main.pdf |title=Reflections about intelligence over 40 years |access-date=2019-02-02 |archive-date=2019-02-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203030438/https://scottbarrykaufman.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/1-s2.0-S0160289618300904-main.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Stereotype threat and minority status===
{{Main|Stereotype threat}}
[[Stereotype threat]] is the fear that one's behavior will confirm an existing [[stereotype]] of a group with which one identifies or by which one is defined; this fear may in turn lead to an impairment of performance.<ref>{{harvnb|Aronson|Wilson|Akert| 2005}}</ref> Testing situations that highlight the fact that intelligence is being measured tend to lower the scores of individuals from racial-ethnic groups who already score lower on average or are expected to score lower. Stereotype threat conditions cause larger than expected IQ differences among groups.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Steele |first1=Claude M. |title=A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance |journal=American Psychologist |volume=52 |issue=6 |year=1997 |pages=613–629 |issn=0003-066X |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613 |pmid=9174398 |citeseerx=10.1.1.319.8283|s2cid=19952 }}</ref> Psychometrician [[Nicholas Mackintosh]] considers that there is little doubt that the effects of stereotype threat contribute to the IQ gap between black people and white people.{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011|p=348}}
A large number of studies have shown that systemically disadvantaged minorities, such as the African American minority of the United States, generally perform worse in the educational system and in intelligence tests than the majority groups or less disadvantaged minorities such as immigrant or "voluntary" minorities.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} The explanation of these findings may be that children of caste-like minorities, due to the systemic limitations of their prospects of social advancement, do not have "[[effort optimism]]", i.e. they do not have the confidence that acquiring the skills valued by majority society, such as those skills measured by IQ tests, is worthwhile. They may even deliberately reject certain behaviors that are seen as "[[acting white]]."{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}}{{sfn|Ogbu|1978}}{{sfn|Ogbu|1994}} Research published in 1997 indicates that part of the black–white gap in cognitive ability test scores is due to racial differences in test motivation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=D. |last2=Schmitt |first2=N. |last3=DeShon |first3=R. P. |last4=Clause |first4=C. S. |last5=Delbridge |first5=K. |date=April 1997 |title=Reactions to cognitive ability tests: the relationships between race, test performance, face validity perceptions, and test-taking motivation |journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=300–310 |issn=0021-9010 |pmid=9109288 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.300|url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/230 }}</ref>
Some researchers have suggested that stereotype threat should not be interpreted as a factor in real-life performance gaps, and have raised the possibility of [[publication bias]].<ref name="Ganley2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ganley CM, Mingle LA, Ryan AM, Ryan K, Vasilyeva M, Perry M |title=An examination of stereotype threat effects on girls' mathematics performance |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=1886–97 |date=October 2013 |pmid=23356523 |doi=10.1037/a0031412 |url=https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/85192141/2013-ganley.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.353.4436 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140719005546/https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/85192141/2013-ganley.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="Stoet2012">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Stoet G, Geary DC |doi=10.1037/a0026617 |title=Can stereotype threat explain the gender gap in mathematics performance and achievement? |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=16 |pages=93–102 |year=2012 |s2cid=145724069}} [http://volition.gla.ac.uk/~stoet/pdf/Stoet-Geary-RGP2012.pdf Pdf.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112130459/http://volition.gla.ac.uk/~stoet/pdf/Stoet-Geary-RGP2012.pdf |date=2016-01-12 }}</ref><ref name="Flore2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Flore PC, Wicherts JM |title=Does stereotype threat influence performance of girls in stereotyped domains? A meta-analysis |journal=Journal of School Psychology |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=25–44 |date=February 2015 |pmid=25636259 |doi=10.1016/j.jsp.2014.10.002|s2cid=206516995 }}</ref> Other critics have focused on correcting what they claim are misconceptions of early studies showing a large effect.<ref name="Sackett2004a">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sackett PR, Hardison CM, Cullen MJ |title=On interpreting stereotype threat as accounting for African American-White differences on cognitive tests |journal=The American Psychologist |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=7–13 |date=January 2004 |pmid=14736315 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.7 |url=http://www2.uni-jena.de/svw/igc/studies/ss03/sackitt_hardison_cullen_2004.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130404150510/http://www2.uni-jena.de/svw/igc/studies/ss03/sackitt_hardison_cullen_2004.pdf |archive-date=2013-04-04}}</ref> However, numerous [[Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] and systematic reviews have shown significant evidence for the effects of stereotype threat, though the phenomenon defies over-simplistic characterization.<ref name="Pennington-2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pennington CR, Heim D, Levy AR, Larkin DT |date=2016-01-11 |title=Twenty Years of Stereotype Threat Research: A Review of Psychological Mediators |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=e0146487 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1146487P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0146487 |pmc=4713435 |pmid=26752551 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Nguyen-2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen HH, Ryan AM |date=November 2008 |title=Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence |journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=93 |issue=6 |pages=1314–34 |doi=10.1037/a0012702 |pmid=19025250|s2cid=36769821 }}</ref><ref name="Walton-2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Walton |first1=Gregory M. |last2=Spencer |first2=Steven J. |date=2009-09-01 |title=Latent Ability: Grades and Test Scores Systematically Underestimate the Intellectual Ability of Negatively Stereotyped Students |journal=Psychological Science |volume=20 |issue=9 |pages=1132–1139 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02417.x |issn=0956-7976 |pmid=19656335 |s2cid=25810191|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gentile |first1=Ambra |last2=Boca |first2=Stefano |last3=Giammusso |first3=Isabella |date=2018-11-01 |title='You play like a Woman!' Effects of gender stereotype threat on Women's performance in physical and sport activities: A meta-analysis |journal=Psychology of Sport and Exercise |volume=39 |pages=95–103 |doi=10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.07.013 |s2cid=149490634 |issn=1469-0292}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lamont |first1=Ruth A. |last2=Swift |first2=Hannah J. |last3=Abrams |first3=Dominic |year=2015 |title=A Review and Meta-Analysis of Age-Based Stereotype Threat: Negative Stereotypes, Not Facts, Do the Damage. |journal=Psychology and Aging |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=180–193 |doi=10.1037/a0038586 |issn=1939-1498 |pmc=4360754 |pmid=25621742}}</ref><ref name="Picho-2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Picho |first1=Katherine |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Ariel |last3=Finnie |first3=Lauren |date=May 2013 |title=Exploring the Moderating Role of Context on the Mathematics Performance of Females Under Stereotype Threat: A Meta-Analysis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237000996 |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |volume=153 |issue=3 |pages=299–333 |doi=10.1080/00224545.2012.737380 |pmid=23724702 |s2cid=45950675}}</ref><ref name="Liu-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Songqi |last2=Liu |first2=Pei |last3=Wang |first3=Mo |last4=Zhang |first4=Baoshan |date=July 2020 |title=Effectiveness of Stereotype Threat Interventions: A Meta-Analytic Review |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343149798 |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=currently in press |issue=6 |pages=921–949 |doi=10.1037/apl0000770 |pmid=32772526 |s2cid=221098319}}</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=June 2024}} For instance, one meta-analysis found that with female subjects "subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues" while with minorities "moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues".<ref name="Nguyen-2008" />
Some researchers have argued that studies of stereotype threat may in fact systematically under-represent its effects, since such studies measure "only that portion of psychological threat that research has identified and remedied. To the extent that unidentified or unremedied psychological threats further undermine performance, the results underestimate the bias."<ref name="Walton-2009"/>
==Research into possible genetic factors==
{{see also|Heritability of IQ}}
Although IQ differences between individuals have been shown to have a large hereditary component, it does not follow that mean group-level disparities (between-group differences) in IQ necessarily have a genetic basis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nisbett |first1=Richard E. |last2=Aronson |first2=Joshua |last3=Blair |first3=Clancy |last4=Dickens |first4=William |last5=Flynn |first5=James |last6=Halpern |first6=Diane F. |last7=Turkheimer |first7=Eric |date=2012 |title=Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments. |journal=American Psychologist |language=en |volume=67 |issue=2 |pages=130–159 |doi=10.1037/a0026699 |issn=1935-990X |pmid=22233090}}</ref><ref name="Nisbett-2012" /> Today, the scientific consensus is that [[genetics]] does not explain differences in IQ test performance between groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bird |first1=Kevin |last2=Jackson |first2=John P. |last3=Winston |first3=Andrew S. |date=2024 |title=Confronting Scientific Racism in Psychology: Lessons from Evolutionary Biology and Genetics |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Famp0001228 |journal=American Psychologist |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=497–508 |doi=10.1037/amp0001228 |pmid=39037836 |quote=Recent articles claim that the folk categories of race are genetically meaningful divisions, and that evolved genetic differences among races and nations are important for explaining immutable differences in cognitive ability, educational attainment, crime, sexual behavior, and wealth; all claims that are opposed by a strong scientific consensus to the contrary.|url-access= }}</ref>{{sfn|Ceci|Williams|2009|pages=788–789, "There is an emerging consensus about racial and gender equality in genetic determinants of intelligence; most researchers, including ourselves, agree that genes do not explain between-group differences"}}{{sfn|Hunt|2010|page=447|ps= , "It is worth remembering that no genes related to difference in cognitive skills across the various racial and ethnic groups have ever been discovered. The argument for genetic differences has been carried forward largely by circumstantial evidence. Of course, tomorrow afternoon genetic mechanisms producing racial and ethnic differences in intelligence might be discovered, but there have been a lot of investigations, and tomorrow has not come for quite some time now."}}{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011||pages=334–338, 344}}<ref name="Nisbett-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Nisbett |first1=Richard E. |last2=Aronson |first2=Joshua |last3=Blair |first3=Clancy |last4=Dickens |first4=William |last5=Flynn |first5=James |author-link5=Jim Flynn (academic) |last6=Halpern |first6=Diane F. |author-link6=Diane F. Halpern |last7=Turkheimer |first7=Eric |date=2012 |title=Group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-psychologist_2012-09_67_6/page/n80 |journal=American Psychologist |volume=67 |number=6 |pages=503–504 |doi=10.1037/a0029772 |issn=0003-066X |pmid=22963427 |author-link1=Richard E. Nisbett}}</ref><ref name="Kaplan-2015">{{Cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Jonathan Michael |date=January 2015 |title=Race, IQ, and the search for statistical signals associated with so-called "X"-factors: environments, racism, and the "hereditarian hypothesis" |journal=Biology & Philosophy |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1007/s10539-014-9428-0 |s2cid=85351431 |issn=0169-3867}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Panofsky |first1=Aaron |last2=Dasgupta |first2=Kushan |last3=Iturriaga |first3=Nicole |title=How White nationalists mobilize genetics: From genetic ancestry and human biodiversity to counterscience and metapolitics |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |year=2021 |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=387–398 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.24150 |issn=0002-9483 |pmid=32986847 |pmc=9909835 |quote=[T]he claims that genetics defines racial groups and makes them different, that IQ and cultural differences among racial groups are caused by genes, and that racial inequalities within and between nations are the inevitable outcome of long evolutionary processes are neither new nor supported by science (either old or new). |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021AJPA..175..387P }}</ref>{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} Growing evidence indicates that environmental factors, not genetic ones, explain the racial IQ gap.{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2006}}<ref name="Nisbett-2012" />{{sfn|Nevid|2014|page=271}}<ref name="Kaplan-2015" />
===Genetics of race and intelligence===
{{main|Race and genetics}}
Geneticist [[Alan R. Templeton]] argued that the question about the possible genetic effects on the test score gap is muddled by the general focus on "race" rather than on populations defined by gene frequency or by geographical proximity, and by the general insistence on phrasing the question in terms of heritability.<ref name="Templeton 2001">{{harvnb|Templeton|2001}}</ref> Templeton pointed out that racial groups neither represent [[sub-species]] nor distinct [[lineage (evolution)|evolutionary lineages]], and that therefore there is no basis for making claims about the general intelligence of races.<ref name="Templeton 2001"/> He argued that, for these reasons, the search for possible genetic influences on the black–white test score gap is ''a priori'' flawed, because there is no genetic material shared by all Africans or by all Europeans. {{harvp|Mackintosh|2011}}, on the other hand, argued that by using genetic cluster analysis to correlate gene frequencies with continental populations it might be possible to show that African populations have a higher frequency of certain genetic variants that contribute to differences in average intelligence. Such a hypothetical situation could hold without all Africans carrying the same genes or belonging to a single evolutionary lineage. According to Mackintosh, a biological basis for the observed gap in IQ test performance thus cannot be ruled out on ''a priori'' grounds.{{Page needed|date=January 2022}}
{{harvtxt|Hunt|2010|page=447}} noted that "no genes related to difference in cognitive skills across the various racial and ethnic groups have ever been discovered. The argument for genetic differences has been carried forward largely by circumstantial evidence. Of course, tomorrow afternoon genetic mechanisms producing racial and ethnic differences in intelligence might be discovered, but there have been a lot of investigations, and tomorrow has not come for quite some time now." {{harvtxt|Mackintosh|2011|page=344}} concurred, noting that while several environmental factors have been shown to influence the IQ gap, the evidence for a genetic influence has been negligible. A 2012 review by {{harvp|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair| Dickens|2012a}} concluded that the entire IQ gap can be explained by known environmental factors, and Mackintosh found this view to be plausible.
More recent research attempting to identify genetic loci associated with individual-level differences in IQ has yielded promising results, which led the editorial board of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' to issue a statement differentiating this research from the "racist" pseudoscience which it acknowledged has dogged intelligence research since its inception.<ref name="Nature-2017" /> It characterized the idea of genetically determined differences in intelligence between races as definitively false.<ref name="Nature-2017">{{Cite journal |date=25 May 2017 |title=Intelligence research should not be held back by its past |journal=Nature |volume=545 |issue=7655 |pages=385–386 |doi=10.1038/nature.2017.22021 |pmid=28541341 |bibcode=2017Natur.545R.385. |s2cid=4449918|doi-access=free }}</ref> Analysis of polygenic scores sampled from the 1000 Genomes Project has likewise found no evidence that intelligence was under diversifying selection in Africans and Europeans, suggesting that genetic differences make up a negligible component of the observed Black-White gap in IQ.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bird |first=Kevin A. |date=2 February 2021 |title=No support for the hereditarian hypothesis of the Black–White achievement gap using polygenic scores and tests for divergent selection |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.24216 |journal=[[American Journal of Physical Anthropology]] |language=en |volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=465–476 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.24216 |pmid=33529393 |bibcode=2021AJPA..175..465B |issn=0002-9483 |access-date=1 November 2024 |via=Wiley Online Library|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
===Heritability within and between groups===
[[File:Heritability plants.jpeg|thumb| An environmental factor that varies between groups but not within groups can cause group differences in a trait that is otherwise 100 percent [[heritable]].|330x330px]]
[[Twin studies]] of intelligence have reported high heritability values. However, these studies have been criticized for being based on questionable assumptions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Michael |title='Race', IQ and Genes |last2=Beckwith |first2=Jon |date=2001 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |isbn=978-0-470-01590-2 |pages=1–5 |language=en |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0005689.pub3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Beckwith |first1=Jon |last2=Morris |first2=Corey A. |date=December 2008 |title=Twin Studies of Political Behavior: Untenable Assumptions? |journal=Perspectives on Politics |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=785–791 |doi=10.1017/S1537592708081917 |s2cid=55630117 |issn=1541-0986 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamin |first1=Leon J. |last2=Goldberger |first2=Arthur S. |date=February 2002 |title=Twin Studies in Behavioral Research: A Skeptical View |journal=Theoretical Population Biology |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=83–95 |doi=10.1006/tpbi.2001.1555 |pmid=11895384 |bibcode=2002TPBio..61...83K |issn=0040-5809}}</ref> When used in the context of human [[behavior genetics]], the term "heritability" can be misleading, as it does not necessarily convey information about the relative importance of genetic or environmental factors on the development of a given trait, nor does it convey the extent to which that trait is genetically determined.{{sfn|Moore|Shenk|2016}} Arguments in support of a genetic explanation of racial differences in IQ are sometimes fallacious. For instance, hereditarians have sometimes cited the failure of known environmental factors to account for such differences, or the high heritability of intelligence within races, as evidence that racial differences in IQ are genetic.<ref>{{harvnb|Mackenzie|1984}}</ref>
Psychometricians have found that intelligence is substantially heritable within populations, with 30–50% of variance in IQ scores in early childhood being attributable to genetic factors in analyzed US populations, increasing to 75–80% by late adolescence.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}}<ref name="Deary, Johnson & Houlihan 2009">{{harvnb|Deary|Johnson|Houlihan|2009}}</ref> In biology heritability is defined as the ratio of variation attributable to genetic differences in an observable [[trait (biology)|trait]] to the trait's total observable variation. The heritability of a trait describes the proportion of variation in the trait that is attributable to genetic factors within a particular population. A heritability of 1 indicates that variation correlates fully with genetic variation and a heritability of 0 indicates that there is no correlation between the trait and genes at all. In psychological testing, heritability tends to be understood as the degree of correlation between the results of a test taker and those of their biological parents. However, since high heritability is simply a correlation between child and parents, it does not describe the causes of heritability which in humans can be either genetic or environmental.
Therefore, a high heritability measure does not imply that a trait is genetic or unchangeable. In addition, environmental factors that affect all group members equally will not be measured by heritability, and the heritability of a trait may also change over time in response to changes in the distribution of genetic and environmental factors.{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} High heritability does not imply that all of the heritability is genetically determined; rather, it can also be due to environmental differences that affect only a certain genetically defined group (indirect heritability).<ref name="Block 2002">{{harvnb|Block|2002}}</ref>
The figure to the right demonstrates how heritability works. In each of the two gardens the difference between tall and short cornstalks is 100% heritable, as cornstalks that are genetically disposed for growing tall will become taller than those without this disposition. But the difference in height between the cornstalks to the left and those on the right is 100% environmental, as it is due to different nutrients being supplied to the two gardens. Hence, the causes of differences within a group and between groups may not be the same, even when looking at traits that are highly heritable.<ref name="Block 2002" />
=== Spearman's hypothesis ===
{{Main|Spearman's hypothesis}}
Spearman's hypothesis states that the magnitude of the black–white difference in tests of cognitive ability depends entirely or mainly on the extent to which a test measures general mental ability, or ''g''. The hypothesis was first formalized by [[Arthur Jensen]], who devised the statistical "method of correlated vectors" to test it. If Spearman's hypothesis holds true, then the cognitive tasks that have the highest ''g''-load are the tasks in which the gap between black and white test takers are greatest. Jensen and Rushton took this to show that the cause of ''g'' and the cause of the gap are the same—in their view, genetic differences.{{sfn|Rushton|Jensen|2005}}
{{harvtxt|Mackintosh|2011|pages=338–39}} acknowledges that Jensen and Rushton showed a modest correlation between ''g''-loading, heritability, and the test score gap, but does not agree that this demonstrates a genetic origin of the gap. Mackintosh argues that it is exactly those tests that Rushton and Jensen consider to have the highest ''g''-loading and heritability, such as the Wechsler test, that have seen the greatest increases in black performance due to the Flynn effect. This likely suggests that they are also the most sensitive to environmental changes, which undermines Jensen's argument that the black–white gap is most likely caused by genetic factors. {{harvtxt|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a|page=146}} make the same point, noting also that the increase in the IQ scores of black test takers necessarily indicates an increase in ''g''.
James Flynn argued that his findings undermine Spearman's hypothesis.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Flynn |first1=J.R. |year=1999 |title=Searching for justice: the discovery of IQ gains over time |url=http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/stuff_for_blog/flynn.pdf |url-status=live |journal=American Psychologist |volume=54 |pages=5–9 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.54.1.5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625085640/http://www.stat.columbia.edu/~gelman/stuff_for_blog/flynn.pdf |archive-date=25 June 2010 |access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref> In a 2006 study, he and William Dickens found that between 1972 and 2002 "The standard measure of the ''g'' gap between Blacks and Whites declined virtually in tandem with the IQ gap."{{sfn|Dickens|Flynn|2006}} Flynn also criticized Jensen's basic assumption that a correlation between ''g''-loading and test score gap implies a genetic cause for the gap.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Flynn |first=James R. |year=2010 |title=The spectacles through which I see the race and IQ debate |url=http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn2010a.pdf |journal=Intelligence |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=363–366 |doi=10.1016/j.intell.2010.05.001 |access-date=2011-02-18 |archive-date=2020-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207224050/http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/flynn2010a.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In a 2014 suite of meta-analyses, along with co-authors Jan te Nijenhuis and Daniel Metzen, he showed that the same negative correlation between IQ gains and ''g''-loading obtains for cognitive deficits of known environmental cause: [[iodine deficiency]], [[prenatal cocaine exposure]], [[Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder|fetal alcohol syndrome]], and [[traumatic brain injury]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Flynn |first1=James R. |last2=te Nijenhuis |first2=Jan |last3=Metzen |first3=Daniel |date=2014 |title=The g beyond Spearman's g: Flynn's paradoxes resolved using four exploratory meta-analyses |url=https://james-flynn.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/flynn2014-The-g-beyond-Spearmans-g-Flynns-paradoxes-resolved-using-four-exploratory-meta-analyses.pdf |journal=Intelligence |volume=44 |pages=1–10|doi=10.1016/j.intell.2014.01.009 }}</ref>
===Adoption studies===
A number of IQ studies have been done on the effect of similar rearing conditions on children from different races. The hypothesis is that this can be determined by investigating whether black children adopted into white families demonstrated gains in IQ test scores relative to black children reared in black families. Depending on whether their test scores are more similar to their biological or adoptive families, that could be interpreted as supporting either a genetic or an environmental hypothesis. Critiques of such studies question whether the environment of black children—even when raised in white families—is truly comparable to the environment of white children. Several reviews of the [[adoption study]] literature have suggested that it is probably impossible to avoid confounding biological and environmental factors in this type of study.{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011|p=337}} Another criticism by {{harvtxt|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a|pages=134}} is that adoption studies on the whole tend to be carried out in a restricted set of environments, mostly in the medium-high SES range, where heritability is higher than in the low-SES range.
The [[Minnesota Transracial Adoption Study]] (1976) examined the [[intelligence quotient|IQ]] test scores of 122 [[adopted]] children and 143 nonadopted children reared by advantaged white families. The children were restudied ten years later.<ref name="Weinberg 1992">{{harvnb|Weinberg|Scarr|Waldman|1992}}</ref>{{sfn|Scarr|Weinberg|1976}}{{sfn|Loehlin|2000|p=185}} The study found higher IQ for white people compared to black people, both at age 7 and age 17.<ref name="Weinberg 1992"/> Acknowledging the existence of confounding factors, Scarr and Weinberg, the authors of the original study, did not consider that it provided support for either the hereditarian or environmentalist view.{{sfn|Scarr|Weinberg|1990}}
Three other studies lend support to environmental explanations of group IQ differences:
*{{harvp|Eyferth|1961}} studied the out-of-wedlock children of black and white soldiers stationed in Germany after World War II who were then raised by white German mothers in what has become known as the [[Eyferth study]]. He found no significant differences in average IQ between groups.
*{{harvp|Tizard et al.|1972}} studied black (West Indian), white, and mixed-race children raised in British long-stay residential nurseries. Two out of three tests found no significant differences. One test found higher scores for non-white people.
*{{harvp|Moore|1986}} compared black and mixed-race children adopted by either black or white middle-class families in the United States. Moore observed that 23 black and interracial children raised by white parents had a significantly higher mean score than 23 age-matched children raised by black parents (117 vs 104), and argued that differences in early socialization explained these differences.
Frydman and Lynn (1989) showed a mean IQ of 119 for Korean infants adopted by Belgian families. After correcting for the [[Flynn effect]], the IQ of the adopted Korean children was still 10 points higher than that of the Belgian children.{{sfn|Loehlin|2000|p=187}}<ref name="Frydman and Lynn">{{cite journal |author=Frydman and Lynn |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=1323–1325 |year=1989 |title=The intelligence of Korean children adopted in Belgium |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-individual-differences_1989_10_12/page/1323 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(89)90246-8}}</ref>
Reviewing the evidence from adoption studies, Mackintosh finds that environmental and genetic variables remain confounded and considers evidence from adoption studies inconclusive, and fully compatible with a 100% environmental explanation.{{sfn|Mackintosh|2011|page=337}} Similarly, Drew Thomas argues that race differences in IQ that appear in adoption studies are in fact an artifact of methodology, and that East Asian IQ advantages and black IQ disadvantages disappear when this is controlled for.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Drew |year=2017 |title=Racial IQ Differences among Transracial Adoptees: Fact or Artifact? |journal=Journal of Intelligence |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.3390/jintelligence5010001 |pmid=31162392 |pmc=6526420 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Racial admixture studies===
Most people have ancestry from different geographical regions. In particular, African Americans typically have ancestors from both Africa and Europe, with, on average, 20% of their genome inherited from European ancestors.<ref>{{harvnb|Bryc et al.|2009}}</ref> If racial IQ gaps have a partially genetic basis, one might expect black people with a higher degree of European ancestry to score higher on IQ tests than black people with less European ancestry, because the genes inherited from European ancestors would likely include some genes with a positive effect on IQ.{{sfn|Loehlin|2000}} Geneticist [[Alan Templeton]] has argued that an experiment based on the Mendelian "common garden" design, where specimens with different hybrid compositions are subjected to the same environmental influences, are the only way to definitively show a causal relation between genes and group differences in IQ. Summarizing the findings of admixture studies, he concludes that they have shown no significant correlation between any cognitive ability and the degree of African or European ancestry.{{sfn|Templeton|2001}}
Studies have employed different ways of measuring or approximating relative degrees of ancestry from Africa and Europe. Some studies have used skin color as a measure, and others have used blood groups. {{harvp|Loehlin|2000}} surveys the literature and argues that the blood groups studies may be seen as providing some support to the genetic hypothesis, even though the correlation between ancestry and IQ was quite low. He finds that studies by {{harvp|Eyferth|1961}}, Willerman, Naylor & Myrianthopoulos (1970) did not find a correlation between degree of African/European ancestry and IQ. The latter study did find a difference based on the race of the mother, with children of white mothers with black fathers scoring higher than children of black mothers and white fathers. Loehlin considers that such a finding is compatible with either a genetic or an environmental cause. All in all Loehlin finds admixture studies inconclusive and recommends more research.
Reviewing the evidence from admixture studies {{harvp|Hunt|2010}} considers it to be inconclusive because of too many uncontrolled variables. {{harvtxt|Mackintosh|2011|p=338}} quotes a statement by {{harvp|Nisbett|2009}} to the effect that admixture studies have not provided a shred of evidence in favor of a genetic basis for the IQ gap.
===Mental chronometry===
{{Main|Mental chronometry}}
[[Mental chronometry]] measures the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response by the participant. These studies have shown inconsistent results when comparing black and white populations groups, with some studies showing whites outperforming blacks, and others showing blacks outperforming whites.{{sfn|Sheppard|Vernon|2008}}
Arthur Jensen argued that this reaction time (RT) is a measure of the speed and efficiency with which the brain processes information,<ref name="Jensen 2006">{{harvnb|Jensen|2006}}</ref> and that scores on most types of RT tasks tend to correlate with scores on standard IQ tests as well as with ''g''.<ref name="Jensen 2006" /> Nisbett argues that some studies have found correlations closer to 0.2, and that a correlation is not always found.<ref name="Nisbett 2009">{{harvnb|Nisbett|2009}}</ref> Nisbett points to the {{harvp|Jensen|Whang|1993}} study in which a group of Chinese Americans had longer reaction times than a group of European Americans, despite having higher IQs. Nisbett also mentions findings in {{harvp|Flynn|1991}} and {{harvp|Deary|2001}} suggesting that movement time (the measure of how long it takes a person to move a finger after making the decision to do so) correlates with IQ just as strongly as reaction time, and that average movement time is faster for black people than for white people.{{sfn|Nisbett|2009|pp=221–2}} {{harvtxt|Mackintosh|2011|page=339}} considers reaction time evidence unconvincing and comments that other cognitive tests that also correlate well with IQ show no disparity at all, for example the habituation/[[dishabituation]] test. He further comments that studies show that rhesus monkeys have shorter reaction times than American college students, suggesting that different reaction times may not tell us anything useful about intelligence.
===Brain size===
{{main|Brain size}}
A number of studies have reported a moderate statistical correlation between differences in IQ and brain size between individuals in the same group.{{sfn|Deary|Penke|Johnson|2010}}{{sfn|McDaniel|2005}} Some scholars have reported differences in average brain sizes between racial groups,{{sfn|Ho et al.|1980}} although this is unlikely to be a good measure of IQ as brain size also differs between men and women, but without significant differences in IQ.{{sfn|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a}} At the same time newborn black children have the same average brain size as white children, suggesting that the difference in average size could be accounted for by differences in environment.{{sfn|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a}} Several environmental factors that reduce brain size have been demonstrated to disproportionately affect black children.{{sfn|Nisbett|Aronson|Blair|Dickens|2012a}}
===Archaeological data===
Archaeological evidence does not support claims by Rushton and others that black people's cognitive ability was inferior to white people's during prehistoric times.{{sfn|MacEachern|2006}}
==Policy relevance and ethics==
{{Main|Intelligence and public policy}}
The [[ethics]] of research on race and intelligence has long been a subject of debate: in a 1996 report of the [[American Psychological Association]];{{sfn|Neisser|Boodoo|Bouchard|Boykin|1996}} in guidelines proposed by Gray and Thompson and by Hunt and Carlson;<ref name="Hunt & Carlson 2007"/><ref>{{harvnb|Gray|Thompson|2004}}</ref> and in two editorials in [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] in 2009 by [[Steven Rose]] and by [[Stephen J. Ceci]] and [[Wendy M. Williams]].<ref name="Ceci & Williams 2009">{{harvnb|Ceci|Williams|2009}}</ref><ref name="Rose 2009">{{Cite journal |last=Rose |first=Steven |date=2009 |title=Should scientists study race and IQ? NO: Science and society do not benefit |url=https://rdcu.be/dj5uC |journal=Nature |volume=457 |issue=7231 |pages=786–788 |doi=10.1038/457786a |pmid=19212384 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..786R |s2cid=42846614 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
[[Steven Rose]] maintains that the history of [[eugenics]] makes this field of research difficult to reconcile with current ethical standards for science.<ref name="Rose 2009"/>
On the other hand, [[James Flynn (academic)|James R. Flynn]] has argued that had there been a ban on research on possibly poorly conceived ideas, much valuable research on intelligence testing (including his own discovery of the [[Flynn effect]]) would not have occurred.<ref>{{harvnb|Flynn|2009b}}</ref>
Many have argued for increased interventions in order to close the gaps.<ref name="Brookings">{{cite web |last1=Jencks |first1=Christopher |last2=Phillips |first2=Meredith |title=The Black-White Test Score Gap |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/j/jencks-gap.html |website=New York Times |access-date=2 October 2016 |archive-date=8 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008015238/https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/j/jencks-gap.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Flynn writes that "America will have to address all the aspects of black experience that are disadvantageous, beginning with the regeneration of inner city neighborhoods and their schools."<ref name="Flynn 2008">{{harvnb|Flynn|2008}}</ref> Especially in developing nations, society has been urged to take on the prevention of cognitive impairment in children as a high priority. Possible preventable causes include [[malnutrition]], [[infectious diseases]] such as [[meningitis]], [[parasites]], cerebral [[malaria]], [[Uterus|in utero]] [[Drugs in pregnancy|drug]] and [[Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder|alcohol exposure]], newborn [[asphyxia]], [[low birth weight]], head injuries, [[lead poisoning]] and [[endocrine disorders]].<ref name="Olness 2003">{{harvnb|Olness|2003}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Behavioral epigenetics]]
* [[Melanin theory]]
* [[Model minority]]
* [[Nations and IQ]]
* [[Outline of human intelligence]]
== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist}}
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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*{{Cite journal |last=Reichman |first=Nancy E. |date=2005 |title=Low birth weight and school readiness |journal=The Future of Children |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=91–116 |doi=10.1353/foc.2005.0008 |issn=1054-8289 |pmid=16130543 |s2cid=23345980}}
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{{refend}}
{{Human intelligence topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Race And Intelligence}}
[[Category:Race (human categorization)]]
[[Category:Factors related to intelligence]]
[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy| ]]
[[Category:Human population genetics]]
[[Category:Scientific controversies]]
[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Scientific racism|Intelligence]]
[[Category:Eugenics]]
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