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{{Short description|Country in Oceania}}
{{About|the country|the continent|Australia (continent)|other uses}}
{{Distinguish|Australasia|Austrasia|Austria}}
{{
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
<!-- PLEASE USE AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH THROUGHOUT, i.e. use "centre" instead of "center", "neighbour" rather than "neighbor", etc., and maximise the use of "-is-" and "-ys-" (as in "organise" and "analyse") rather than "-iz-" or "-yz-" ("organize", "analyze"). An exception applies to proper nouns that have standardised non-Australian spellings in their name, such as the "World Trade Organization" and not the "World Trade Organisation". The dash style is a spaced en dash (write {{Ndash}}), and not a spaced or unspaced em dash. The relevant Manual of Style guidelines for this are located at [[MOS:ENGVAR]]. -->
{{Use Australian English|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Commonwealth of Australia
| common_name = Australia
| image_flag = Flag of Australia (converted).svg
| alt_flag = A blue field with the Union Flag in the upper hoist quarter, a large white seven-pointed star in the lower hoist quarter, and constellation of five white stars in the fly – one small five-pointed star and four, larger, seven-pointed stars
| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia.svg
| alt_coat = <!--alt text for coat of arms-->
| national_anthem = "[[Advance Australia Fair]]"{{Lower|0.2em|{{Refn|Australia also has a [[royal anthem]], "[[God Save the King]]", which may be played in place of or alongside the national anthem when members of the [[House of Windsor|royal family]] are present. If not played alongside the royal anthem, the national anthem is instead played at the end of an official event.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian National Anthem |url=https://www.pmc.gov.au/honours-and-symbols/australian-national-symbols/australian-national-anthem |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027193111/https://www.pmc.gov.au/honours-and-symbols/australian-national-symbols/australian-national-anthem |archive-date=27 October 2023 |access-date=9 January 2024 |website=Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet|date=19 January 2022 }}</ref>|name="anthem explanation"|group="N"}}<!--end lower:-->}}<br /> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{Center|[[File:Advance Australia Fair.ogg]]}}</div>
| image_map = Australia with AAT (orthographic projection).svg
| map_caption = {{Legend|#316831|Commonwealth of Australia}}
{{Legend|#8DC78C|[[Australian Antarctic Territory|Australian territorial claim in Antarctica]]}}
| alt_map = A map of the eastern hemisphere centred on Australia, using an orthographic projection
| capital = [[Canberra]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|35|18|29|S|149|07|28|E|type:city_region:AU}}
| largest_city = [[Sydney]] (metropolitan)<br />[[Melbourne]] (urban){{Refn|Sydney is the largest city based on Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (GCCSAs). These represent labour markets and the functional area of Australian capital cities.<ref name="ABS-regional-population-2022">{{cite web |title=Regional population, 2021-22 financial year |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/2021-22 |date=20 April 2023 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=27 May 2023 |archive-date=20 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420020126/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/2021-22 |url-status=live }}</ref> Melbourne is larger based on ABS Significant Urban Areas (SUAs). These represent Urban Centres, or groups of contiguous Urban Centres, that contain a population of 10,000 people or more.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Turnbull |first1=Tiffanie |title=Melbourne overtakes Sydney as Australia's biggest city |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-65261720 |access-date=27 May 2023 |publisher=BBC News |date=17 April 2023 |archive-date=21 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521093900/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-65261720 |url-status=live }}</ref>|group="N"}}<!-- See discussion on the talk page -->
| languages_type = [[National language]]
| languages = [[English language|English]]
| demonym = {{Hlist|[[Australians|Australian]]|Aussie (colloquial){{Refn|Pronounced "Ozzy"|group="N"}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aussie |url=https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/features/word/search/?search_word_type=Dictionary&word=aussie |url-access=subscription |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=[[Macquarie Dictionary]] |date=16 October 2023 |archive-date=10 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240610132406/https://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/?time=1718025846039 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Collins English Dictionary |year=2009 |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |___location=Bishopbriggs, Glasgow |isbn=978-0-0078-6171-2 |page=18 |title-link=Collins English Dictionary }}</ref><!--end hlist:-->}}
| religion = {{Ublist
|title = [[Religion in Australia|Various]]
|43.9% [[Christianity in Australia|Christianity]]
|38.9% [[Irreligion in Australia|no religion]]
|3.2% [[Islam in Australia|Islam]]
|2.7% [[Hinduism in Australia|Hinduism]]
|2.4% [[Buddhism in Australia|Buddhism]]
|1.7% [[Religion in Australia#Other religions|other]]
|7.2% unanswered{{Refn|The religion question is optional in the Australian census.|group="N"}}
}}
| religion_year = [[2021 Australian census|2021]]
| religion_ref = <ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022"/>
| government_type = [[Federalism|Federal]] parliamentary [[constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Australia|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Charles III]]
| leader_title2 = {{Nowrap|[[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]}}
| leader_name2 = [[Sam Mostyn]]
| leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3 = [[Anthony Albanese]]
| legislature = [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[Australian Senate|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
| sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]]
| established_event1 = [[Federation of Australia|Federation]]
| established_date1 = 1 January 1901
| established_event2 = [[Balfour Declaration of 1926|Balfour Declaration]]
| established_date2 = 15 November 1926
| established_event3 = [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|Statute of Westminster Adoption Act]]
| established_date3 = 9 October 1942
| established_event4 = [[Australia Acts]]
| established_date4 = 3 March 1986
| area_km2 = 7,688,287
| area_footnote = <ref name="Organisation-for-Economic-Cooperation-and-Development-OECD">{{Cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Geoscience-Australia-2014">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-___location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories|title=Area of Australia - States and Territories|date=27 June 2014|website=Geoscience Australia|access-date=18 February 2024|archive-date=18 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118174336/https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-___location-information/dimensions/area-of-australia-states-and-territories|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Factbook-Geography">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Australia |section=Geography |access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref>
| area_rank = 6th
| percent_water = 1.79 (2015)<ref name="Organisation-for-Economic-Cooperation-and-Development-OECD"/>
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{Data Australia|poptoday|formatnum}}<ref name="popclock">{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-clock-pyramid|title=Population clock and pyramid|work=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] website|date=5 March 2024|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|access-date=5 March 2024|archive-date=8 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208102513/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-clock-pyramid|url-status=live}} The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.</ref>
| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 25,890,773<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/mar-2022|title=National, state and territory population|publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics|date=26 September 2022|access-date=26 September 2022|archive-date=21 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221121204624/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/mar-2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}}
| population_estimate_rank = 54th
| population_census_year = 2021
| population_density_km2 = {{#expr:{{Data Australia|poptoday}} / 7692024 round 1}}
| population_density_rank = 237th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $1.980 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.AU">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/April/weo-report?c=193,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 Edition. (Australia) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 April 2025 |access-date=26 May 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 20th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $72,138<ref name="IMFWEO.AU" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 20th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.772 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.AU" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 14th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $64,547<ref name="IMFWEO.AU" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 11th
| Gini = 32.4
| Gini_year = 2020
| Gini_change = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia Gini Coefficient, 1995 – 2023 {{!}} CEIC Data |url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/australia/gini-coefficient |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=www.ceicdata.com |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304002624/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/australia/gini-coefficient |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI = 0.958<!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 7th
| currency = [[Australian dollar]] ([[$]])
| currency_code = AUD
| time_zone = [[Time in Australia|AWST, ACST, AEST]]<ref name="time" group="N">There are minor variations from three basic time zones; see [[Time in Australia]].</ref>
| utc_offset = +8; +9.5; +10
| time_zone_DST = [[Time in Australia|ACDT, AEDT]]<ref name="time" group="N"/>
| utc_offset_DST = +10.5; +11
| DST_note = [[Daylight saving time|DST]] not observed in Qld, WA and NT
| date_format = {{Abbr|dd|day}}/{{Abbr|mm|month}}/{{Abbr|yyyy|year}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Australian Government |date=March 2023 |title=Dates and time |url=https://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/numbers-and-measurements/dates-and-time |access-date=6 May 2023 |website=Style Manual |archive-date=29 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529074659/https://www.stylemanual.gov.au/grammar-punctuation-and-conventions/numbers-and-measurements/dates-and-time |url-status=live }}</ref>
| drives_on = left
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Australia|+61]]
| cctld = [[.au]]
}}
'''Australia''', officially the '''Commonwealth of Australia''', is a country comprising [[mainland Australia|the mainland]] of the [[Australia (continent)|Australian continent]], the island of [[Tasmania]] and [[list of islands of Australia|numerous smaller islands]].{{Refn|[[Australian Antarctic Territory|42% of the Antarctic continent is also claimed by the country]]; however this is only recognised by the UK, France, New Zealand and Norway.<ref name="Scott 2021 491">{{Harvnb|Scott|2021|p=491}}</ref>|group="N"}} It has a total area of {{cvt|7,688,287|km2}}, making it the [[list of countries and dependencies by area|sixth-largest country in the world]] and the largest in [[Oceania]]. Australia is the world's flattest and driest inhabited continent.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=The Australian continent |url=https://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/the-australian-continent |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313202829/https://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/the-australian-continent |archive-date=13 March 2020 |access-date=13 August 2018 |website=australia.gov.au}}</ref> It is a [[megadiverse countries|megadiverse country]], and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and [[Climate of Australia|climates]] including [[deserts of Australia|deserts]] in the [[Outback|interior]] and [[forests of Australia|tropical rainforests]] along the [[Eastern states of Australia|coast]].
The ancestors of [[Aboriginal Australians]] began arriving from [[Southeast Asia]] 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the [[Last Glacial Period|last glacial period]].<ref name=":4">{{Harvnb|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=18–19}}</ref><ref name="ClarksonJacobs2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Clarkson |first1=Chris |last2=Jacobs |first2=Zenobia |last3=Marwick |first3=Ben |last4=Fullagar |first4=Richard |last5=Wallis |first5=Lynley |last6=Smith |first6=Mike |last7=Roberts |first7=Richard G. |last8=Hayes |first8=Elspeth |last9=Lowe |first9=Kelsey |last10=Carah |first10=Xavier |last11=Florin |first11=S. Anna |last12=McNeil |first12=Jessica |last13=Cox |first13=Delyth |last14=Arnold |first14=Lee J. |last15=Hua |first15=Quan |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=Human occupation of northern Australia by 65,000 years ago |journal=Nature |volume=547 |issue=7663 |pages=306–310 |bibcode=2017Natur.547..306C |doi=10.1038/nature22968 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=28726833 |s2cid=205257212 |hdl-access=free |last16=Huntley |first16=Jillian |last17=Brand |first17=Helen E. A. |last18=Manne |first18=Tiina |last19=Fairbairn |first19=Andrew |last20=Shulmeister |first20=James |last21=Lyle |first21=Lindsey |last22=Salinas |first22=Makiah |last23=Page |first23=Mara |last24=Connell |first24=Kate |last25=Park |first25=Gayoung |last26=Norman |first26=Kasih |last27=Murphy |first27=Tessa |last28=Pardoe |first28=Colin |hdl=2440/107043|url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/smhpapers/4803 }}</ref><ref name="Williams-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Martin A. J. |last2=Spooner |first2=Nigel A. |last3=McDonnell |first3=Kathryn |last4=O'Connell |first4=James F. |date=January 2021 |title=Identifying disturbance in archaeological sites in tropical northern Australia: Implications for previously proposed 65,000-year continental occupation date |journal=Geoarchaeology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=92–108 |bibcode=2021Gearc..36...92W |doi=10.1002/gea.21822 |issn=0883-6353 |s2cid=225321249 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 October 2023 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004091731/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.21822 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the time of British settlement, Aboriginal Australians spoke 250 distinct languages and had one of the oldest living cultures in the world.<ref name=":3">{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=61, 237}}</ref> [[history of Australia|Australia's written history]] commenced with [[European maritime exploration of Australia|Dutch exploration]] of most of the coastline in the 17th century. British colonisation began in 1788 with the establishment of the penal [[colony of New South Wales]]. By the mid-19th century, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and five additional self-governing [[Crown colony|British colonies]] were established, each gaining [[responsible government]] by 1890. The [[Federation of Australia|colonies federated]] in 1901, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. This continued a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the ''[[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942]]'', and culminating in the [[Australia Acts]] of 1986.<ref name="Contiades Fotiadou 2020 p. 389">{{Cite book | last1=Contiades | first1=X. | last2=Fotiadou | first2=A. | title=Routledge Handbook of Comparative Constitutional Change | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2020 | isbn=978-1-3510-2097-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmoPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 | page=389 | access-date=17 July 2023 | archive-date=19 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230419202011/https://books.google.com/books?id=GmoPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA389 | url-status=live }}</ref>
Australia is a [[federalism in Australia|federal]] [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[constitutional monarchy]] comprising [[states and territories of Australia|six states and ten territories]]. Its population of almost {{#expr:{{Data Australia|poptoday}} / 1000000 round 0}} million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard.<ref name="ABS-regional-population-latest"/> [[Canberra]] is the nation's capital, while [[List of cities in Australia by population|its most populous cities]] are [[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]], both with a population of more than five million.<ref name="ABS-regional-population-latest">{{Cite web |date=20 April 2023 |title=Regional population |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release |access-date=23 April 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |archive-date=10 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010145251/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Culture of Australia|Australia's culture]] is diverse, and the country has one of the [[List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|highest foreign-born populations in the world]]. It has a highly [[developed economy]] and one of the [[List of countries by GNI (PPP) per capita|highest per capita incomes globally]]. Its abundant natural resources and well-developed [[List of the largest trading partners of Australia|international trade relations]] are crucial to [[Economy of Australia|the country's economy]]. It [[International rankings of Australia|ranks highly]] for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.<ref name="Global Australia 2021">{{Cite web | title=Statistics and rankings | website=Global Australia | date=18 May 2021 | url=https://www.globalaustralia.gov.au/why-australia/statistics-and-rankings | access-date=28 March 2023 | archive-date=28 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328003912/https://www.globalaustralia.gov.au/why-australia/statistics-and-rankings | url-status=live }}</ref>
Australia is a [[middle power]], and has the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|thirteenth-highest military expenditure]]. It is a member of international groups including the United Nations; the [[G20]]; the [[OECD]]; the [[World Trade Organization]]; [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]; the [[Pacific Islands Forum]]; the [[Pacific Community]]; the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]; and the defence and security organisations [[ANZUS]], [[AUKUS]], and the [[Five Eyes]]. It is also a [[major non-NATO ally]] of the United States.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rachman |first=Gideon |date=13 March 2023 |title=Aukus, the Anglosphere and the return of great power rivalry |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e4abd866-54cb-4923-9a66-ebb5b5ed67bf |url-access=subscription |access-date=19 March 2023 |work=Financial Times |archive-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320005932/https://www.ft.com/content/e4abd866-54cb-4923-9a66-ebb5b5ed67bf |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Etymology==
{{Main|Name of Australia}}
The name ''Australia'' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|s|t|r|eɪ|l|i|ə}} in [[Australian English]])<ref>{{Harvnb|Bernard|1989|p=61}}</ref> is derived from the Latin {{Lang|la|[[Terra Australis Incognita]]}} ({{Gloss|unknown southern land}}), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=30 April 2024 |title=Where the name 'Australia' came from |url=https://www.library.gov.au/research/research-guides-0/where-name-australia-came |access-date=14 February 2024 |website=National Library of Australia}}</ref> Several 16th-century cartographers used the word ''Australia'' on maps, but not to identify modern Australia.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clarke |first1=Jacqueline |last2=Clarke |first2=Philip |date=10 August 2014 |title=Putting 'Australia' on the map |url=http://theconversation.com/putting-australia-on-the-map-29816 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website=The Conversation |language=en |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302195128/https://theconversation.com/putting-australia-on-the-map-29816 |url-status=live }}</ref>
When the Dutch began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, they called the continent [[New Holland (Australia)|''New Holland'']]. The name ''Australia'' was popularised by the explorer [[Matthew Flinders]], who circumnavigated the continent in 1803. However, when his account of his voyage was published in 1814, the name ''Terra Australis'' was used.<ref name=":2" />
New South Wales Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]] officially recommended the name ''Australia'' to replace ''New Holland'' in December 1817. The [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|British Admiralty]] adopted the name in 1824, and the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] used it in legislation in 1828.<ref name=":2" /> The United Kingdom [[United Kingdom Hydrographic Office|Hydrographic Office]] used the new name in ''The Australia Directory'' of 1830.<ref>{{Harvnb|Coman|2007|p=40}}</ref> The name "Commonwealth of Australia" for the new federation of the six former colonies was formalised in the ''[[Constitution of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900]]'' (UK).<ref name=":2" />
Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz", "Straya" and "[[Down Under]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title="Straya", "Oz", and "Down Under" |url=http://macquariedictionary.com.au/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=[[Macquarie Dictionary]]}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Australia}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Australian history}}
=== Indigenous prehistory ===
{{Main|Prehistory of Australia|Indigenous Australians}}
[[File:Bradshaw rock paintings.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[Aboriginal rock art]] in the [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] region of Western Australia]]
[[Indigenous Australians]] comprise two broad groups:
* [[Aboriginal Australians]], who are the various [[Indigenous peoples]] of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, including [[Aboriginal Tasmanians|Tasmania]]
* [[Torres Strait Islanders]], who are a distinct [[Melanesia]]n people of [[Torres Strait Islands]]
Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago,<ref name=":4" /><ref name="ClarksonJacobs2017" /><ref name="Williams-2021" /> with the migration of people by [[land bridge]]s and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.<ref name=":4" /> It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians.<ref name="Malaspinas Westaway Muller Sousa 2016 pp. 207–214" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Dorey |first=Fran |title=When did modern humans get to Australia? |url=https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia |publisher=Australian Museum |access-date=21 August 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817140725/https://australian.museum/learn/science/human-evolution/the-spread-of-people-to-australia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Madjedbebe]] rock shelter in [[Arnhem Land]] is possibly the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia.<ref name="ClarksonJacobs2017" /><ref name="Williams-2021" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|p=217}}</ref> The oldest human remains found are the [[Lake Mungo remains]], which have been dated to around 42,000 years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=219–220}}</ref>
Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|p=161}}</ref><ref name="Australian Geographic 2011 i652">{{cite web | title=DNA confirms Aboriginal culture one of Earth's oldest | website=Australian Geographic | date=23 September 2011 | url=https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | access-date=9 February 2024 | archive-date=20 January 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120022657/https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/news/2011/09/dna-confirms-aboriginal-culture-one-of-earths-oldest/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Jozuka 2016 i592">{{cite web | last=Jozuka | first=Emiko | title=Aboriginal Australians are Earth's oldest civilization: DNA study | website=CNN | date=22 September 2016 | url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/22/asia/indigenous-australians-earths-oldest-civilization/index.html#:~:text=A%20new%20genomic%20study%20has,stretching%20back%20roughly%2075%2C000%20years. | access-date=9 February 2024 | archive-date=4 March 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304225419/https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/22/asia/indigenous-australians-earths-oldest-civilization/index.html#:~:text=A%20new%20genomic%20study%20has,stretching%20back%20roughly%2075%2C000%20years. | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Malaspinas Westaway Muller Sousa 2016 pp. 207–214">{{cite journal |last1=Malaspinas |first1=Anna-Sapfo |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael C. |last3=Muller |first3=Craig |last4=Sousa |first4=Vitor C. |last5=Lao |first5=Oscar |last6=Alves |first6=Isabel |last7=Bergström |first7=Anders |last8=Athanasiadis |first8=Georgios |last9=Cheng |first9=Jade Y. |last10=Crawford |first10=Jacob E. |last11=Heupink |first11=Tim H. |last12=Macholdt |first12=Enrico |last13=Peischl |first13=Stephan |last14=Rasmussen |first14=Simon |last15=Schiffels |first15=Stephan |display-authors=1 |date=21 September 2016 |title=A genomic history of Aboriginal Australia |journal=Nature |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=538 |issue=7624 |pages=207–214 |bibcode=2016Natur.538..207M |doi=10.1038/nature18299 |issn=0028-0836 |pmid=27654914 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10754/622366 |last16=Subramanian |first16=Sankar |last17=Wright |first17=Joanne L. |last18=Albrechtsen |first18=Anders |last19=Barbieri |first19=Chiara |last20=Dupanloup |first20=Isabelle |last21=Eriksson |first21=Anders |last22=Margaryan |first22=Ashot |last23=Moltke |first23=Ida |last24=Pugach |first24=Irina |last25=Korneliussen |first25=Thorfinn S. |last26=Levkivskyi |first26=Ivan P. |last27=Moreno-Mayar |first27=J. Víctor |last28=Ni |first28=Shengyu |last29=Racimo |first29=Fernando |last30=Sikora |first30=Martin|pmc=7617037 }}</ref> At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians belonged to wide range of societies, with diverse economies spread across at least [[Australian Aboriginal languages|250 different language groups]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Elizabeth |year=2015 |title=Complex hunter-gatherers: a view from Australia |journal=Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=61 |issue=232 |pages=310–321 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00052182 |s2cid=162146349}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Sáenz|Embrick|Rodríguez|2015|p=602}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Estimates of the Aboriginal population before British settlement range from 300,000 to 3 million.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Corey J. A. |last2=Williams |first2=Alan N |last3=Saltré |first3=Frédérik |last4=Norman |first4=Kasih |last5=Ulm |first5=Sean |date=30 April 2021 |title=The First Australians grew to a population of millions, much more than previous estimates |url=https://theconversation.com/the-first-australians-grew-to-a-population-of-millions-much-more-than-previous-estimates-142371 |access-date= |website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]] |language=en-AU}}</ref> Aboriginal Australians cultures were (and remain) deeply connected with the land and the environment, with stories of [[The Dreaming]] maintained through [[oral tradition]], [[Songline|songs]], dance and paintings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mawson |first=Stephanie |date=2021 |title=The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=1483–6 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X20000369 |issn=0018-246X |doi-access=free}}</ref> Certain groups engaged in [[fire-stick farming]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wyrwoll |first=Karl-Heinz |date=11 January 2012 |title=How Aboriginal burning changed Australia's climate |url=http://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715015907/https://theconversation.com/how-aboriginal-burning-changed-australias-climate-4454 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Robbie |date=21 June 2023 |title=Before the colonists came, we burned small and burned often to avoid big fires. It's time to relearn cultural burning |url=http://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308085331/https://theconversation.com/before-the-colonists-came-we-burned-small-and-burned-often-to-avoid-big-fires-its-time-to-relearn-cultural-burning-201475 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[fish farming]],<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Bates |first1=Badger |last2=Westaway |first2=Michael |last3=Jackson |first3=Sue |date=15 December 2022 |title=Aboriginal people have spent centuries building in the Darling River. Now there are plans to demolish these important structures |url=http://theconversation.com/aboriginal-people-have-spent-centuries-building-in-the-darling-river-now-there-are-plans-to-demolish-these-important-structures-195966 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=1 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231101042204/https://theconversation.com/aboriginal-people-have-spent-centuries-building-in-the-darling-river-now-there-are-plans-to-demolish-these-important-structures-195966 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clark |first=Anna |author-link=Anna Clark (Australian historian) |date=31 August 2023 |title=Friday essay: traps, rites and kurrajong twine – the incredible ingenuity of Indigenous fishing knowledge |url=http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240211091555/https://theconversation.com/friday-essay-traps-rites-and-kurrajong-twine-the-incredible-ingenuity-of-indigenous-fishing-knowledge-210467 |archive-date=11 February 2024 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> and built [[Indigenous architecture#Australia|semi-permanent shelters]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=239–240}}</ref> These practices have variously been characterised as "[[hunter-gatherer]]", "[[Agriculture|agricultural]]", "natural cultivation" and "intensification".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mawson |first=Stephanie |date=2021 |title=The Deep Past of Pre-Colonial Australia |journal=The Historical Journal |language=en |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=1486–1491 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X20000369 |issn=0018-246X |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bender |first=Barbara |date=1978 |title=Gatherer-hunter to farmer: A social perspective |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731 |journal=World Archaeology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=204–222 |doi=10.1080/00438243.1978.9979731 |issn=0043-8243 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gammage |first=Bill |date=19 September 2023 |title=Colonists upended Aboriginal farming, growing grain and running sheep on rich yamfields, and cattle on arid grainlands |url=http://theconversation.com/colonists-upended-aboriginal-farming-growing-grain-and-running-sheep-on-rich-yamfields-and-cattle-on-arid-grainlands-207118 |access-date=1 November 2023 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=12 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240212095624/https://theconversation.com/colonists-upended-aboriginal-farming-growing-grain-and-running-sheep-on-rich-yamfields-and-cattle-on-arid-grainlands-207118 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Flood 2019 62, 64–65">{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=62, 64–65}}</ref>
Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands at least 2,500 years ago.<ref name=":5">{{Harvnb|Veth|O'Connor|2013|pp=34–35}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |orig-date=1998 |title=Torres Strait Islands |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Torres-Strait-Islands |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615102021/https://www.britannica.com/place/Torres-Strait-Islands |archive-date=15 June 2024 |access-date=17 November 2024 |website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |quote=Torres Strait Islands, island group in the Torres Strait, north of Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia, and south of the island of New Guinea. [...] They have been inhabited for at least 2,500 years. The present-day inhabitants are primarily of Melanesian origin, with some mixture of Polynesians and Southeast Asians.}}</ref> Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands and villages appeared by the 1300s.<ref name=":5" /> By the mid-18th century in northern Australia, [[Makassan contact with Australia|contact, trade and cross-cultural engagement]] had been established between local Aboriginal groups and [[Makassar people|Makassan]] [[trepanging|trepangers]], visiting from present-day Indonesia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|pp=51–54}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Macknight |first=Charles Campbell |year=2011 |title=The view from Marege': Australian knowledge of Makassar and the impact of the trepangindustry across two centuries |journal=[[Aboriginal History]] |volume=35 |pages=134 |doi=10.22459/AH.35.2011.06 |jstor=24046930 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Russell |first=Denise |date=22 March 2004 |title=Aboriginal-Makassan interactions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in northern Australia and contemporary sea rights claims |url=http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/aasj04.1_%20makassan.pdf |journal=Australian Aboriginal Studies |publisher=Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies |volume=2004 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |issn=0729-4352 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306230858/http://lryb.aiatsis.gov.au/PDFs/aasj04.1_%20makassan.pdf |archive-date=6 March 2019 |access-date=21 April 2019}}</ref>
===European exploration and colonisation===
{{Main|European maritime exploration of Australia|European land exploration of Australia|History of Australia (1788–1850)}}
[[File:Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770 (painting by E Phillips Fox).jpg|alt=Landing of Lieutenant James Cook at Botany Bay, 29 April 1770|left|thumb|Landing of [[James Cook]] at [[Botany Bay]] on 29 April 1770]]
The [[Dutch East India Company]] ship, ''[[Duyfken]]'', captained by [[Willem Janszoon]], made the first documented European landing in Australia in 1606.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|p=47}}</ref> Later that year, [[Luís Vaz de Torres]] sailed to the north of Australia through [[Torres Strait]], along New Guinea's southern coast.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1967 |title=Torres, Luis Vaez de (?–?) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/torres-luis-vaez-de-2741 |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University}}</ref> [[Abel Tasman]]'s voyage of 1642 was the first known European expedition to reach [[Van Diemen's Land]]. On his second voyage of 1644, he mapped the north coast of Australia south of New Guinea. Following Tasman's voyages, the Dutch were able to make almost complete maps of Australia's northern and western coasts and much of its southern and south-eastern Tasmanian coasts. They named the continent [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|p=49}}</ref>''
In 1770, Captain [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "[[New South Wales]]" and claimed for Great Britain.<ref>{{Harvnb|Konishi|Nugent|2013|pp=55–59}}</ref> in 1786, the British government announced its intention to establish a [[penal colony]] in New South Wales.<ref>{{Harvnb|Christopher|Maxwell-Stewart|2013|pp=77–78}}</ref> On 26 January 1788, the [[First Fleet]] commanded by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]], arrived at [[Sydney Cove]], [[Port Jackson]]. A camp was established and the [[Union Jack|Union Flag]] raised. The date later became [[Australia Day|Australia's national day]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=21–22}}</ref>
Most early settlers were [[convicts in Australia|convicts]], [[penal transportation|transported]] for petty crimes and [[convict assignment|assigned]] as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (willing immigrants). Once [[emancipist|emancipated]], convicts tended to integrate into colonial society. Aboriginal resistance, convict rebellions and [[Bushranger|bushranging]] were sometimes suppressed under martial law.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kercher|2020|pp=26–27}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Finnane|2013|pp=391–399}}</ref> The 1808 [[Rum Rebellion]], carried out by officers of the [[New South Wales Corps|New South Wales Corp]], led to a temporary [[military junta]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=53–54}}</ref> During the next two decades, social and economic reforms, together with the establishment of a [[New South Wales Legislative Council|Legislative Council]] and [[Supreme Court of New South Wales|Supreme Court]], saw the penal colony transition to a civil society.<ref>{{Harvnb|Karskens|2013|pp=115–120}}</ref>
<!-- Please take note of talk page discussion (archive 21, Colonial expansion, treaties and land rights) before editing -->The indigenous population declined for 150 years following European settlement, mainly due to infectious disease.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=82–83, 147–159}}</ref> British colonial authorities did not sign any treaties with [[Aboriginal Australians#Groups and sub-groups|Aboriginal groups]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=42, 111, 147–159, 300}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Rule of Law Education Centre |title=European Settlement and Terra Nullius |url=https://www.ruleoflaw.org.au/education/australian-colonies/terra-nullius/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126110348/https://www.ruleoflaw.org.au/education/australian-colonies/terra-nullius/ |url-status=live }}</ref> As settlement expanded, tens of thousands of Indigenous people and thousands of settlers were killed in [[Australian frontier wars|frontier conflicts]], which many historians argue included acts of [[Genocide of Indigenous Australians|genocide]] by settlers. Settlers dispossessed surviving Indigenous peoples of most of their land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reynolds|2022|pp=103–104, 134, 138–141, 182–192, 241–242}}</ref>
===Colonial expansion===
{{Main|History of Australia (1788–1850)|History of Australia (1851–1900)}}
[[File:PortArthurPenitentiary.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|alt=A calm body of water is in the foreground. The shoreline is about 200 metres away. To the left, close to the shore, are three tall [[Eucalyptus|gum trees]]; behind them on an incline are ruins, including walls and watchtowers of light-coloured stone and brick, what appear to be the foundations of walls, and grassed areas. To the right lie the outer walls of a large rectangular four-storey building dotted with regularly spaced windows. Forested land rises gently to a peak several kilometres back from the shore.|Tasmania's [[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]] penal settlement is one of eleven UNESCO World Heritage-listed [[Australian Convict Sites]].]]
In 1803, a settlement was established in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (present-day [[Tasmania]]),<ref name="Davison pp464-5">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=464–465, 628–629}}</ref> and in 1813, [[Gregory Blaxland]], [[William Lawson (explorer)|William Lawson]] and [[William Wentworth]] [[1813 crossing of the Blue Mountains|crossed]] the [[Blue Mountains (New South Wales)|Blue Mountains]] west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conway |first=Jill |title=Biography – Gregory Blaxland – Australian Dictionary of Biography |publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University |chapter=Blaxland, Gregory (1778–1853) |access-date=14 July 2011 |chapter-url=http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010109b.htm?hilite=blaxland |archive-date=8 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408201858/http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A010109b.htm?hilite=blaxland |url-status=live }}</ref> The British claim was extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major [[Edmund Lockyer]] established a settlement on [[King George Sound]] (modern-day [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]]).<ref>{{Cite web |date=1967 |title=Lockyer, Edmund (1784–1860) |url=https://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lockyer-edmund-2366 |access-date=16 February 2025 |website=Australian Dictionary of Biography, National Centre of Biography, Australian National University}}</ref> The [[Swan River Colony]] (present-day [[Perth]]) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, [[History of Western Australia|Western Australia]].<ref name="Davison p678">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=678}}</ref> Separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, [[British colonisation of South Australia|South Australia]] in 1836, [[Colony of Victoria|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Colony of Queensland|Queensland]] in 1859.<ref name="Davison p464">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=464}}</ref> South Australia and Victoria were founded as free colonies—they never accepted transported convicts.<ref name="Davison p598">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=598}}</ref> Growing [[Australasian Anti-Transportation League|opposition to the convict system]] culminated in its abolition in the eastern colonies by the 1850s. Initially a free colony, Western Australia accepted convicts from 1850 to 1868.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=79–83, 113}}</ref>
The six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]] between 1855 and 1890, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]].<ref name="Davison p556">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=556}}</ref> The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs.<ref name="Davison p138-9679">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=138–39}}</ref> The colonial parliaments progressively extended voting rights to adult men from 1856, with [[women's suffrage]] on equal terms following between the 1890s and 1900s. Some colonies introduced racial restrictions on voting from 1885.<ref>{{Harvnb|Curthoys|Mitchell|2013|pp=164–169}}</ref>
In the mid-19th century, explorers such as [[Burke and Wills expedition|Burke and Wills]] charted Australia's interior.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=109–110}}</ref> A [[Australian gold rushes|series of gold rushes]] beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from [[Chinese Australians|China]], North America and continental Europe,<ref name="JuppJupp2001">{{Harvnb|Jupp|2001|pp=35–36}}</ref> as well as outbreaks of [[bushranger|bushranging]] and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when [[Ballarat]] miners launched the [[Eureka Rebellion]] against gold licence fees.<ref name="Davison pp227-9">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998 |pages=227–29}}</ref> The 1860s saw the rise of [[blackbirding]], where [[South Sea Islanders]] were coerced or abducted into [[indentured labour]], mainly by Queensland colonists.<ref>[https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/australian-south-sea-islanders "Australian South Sea Islanders"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231210065156/https://www.slq.qld.gov.au/discover/exhibitions/australian-south-sea-islanders |date=10 December 2023 }}, State Library of Queensland. Retrieved 21 February 2024.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Higginbotham |first=Will |date=17 September 2017 |title=Blackbirding: Australia's history of luring, tricking and kidnapping Pacific Islanders |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126044712/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-17/blackbirding-australias-history-of-kidnapping-pacific-islanders/8860754 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |website=ABC News}}</ref>
From 1886, Australian colonial governments began [[Stolen Generations|removing many Aboriginal children]] from their families and communities, justified on the grounds of child protection and [[forced assimilation]] policies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Banivanua Mar|Edmonds|2013|pp=355–358, 363–364}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Marlow |first=Karina |date=1 December 2016 |title=Explainer: the Stolen Generations |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/explainer-the-stolen-generations/5ust2jtjy |access-date= |website=NITV |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Loughlin |first=Michael |date=22 June 2020 |title=The Stolen Generation |url=https://australian.museum/learn/first-nations/stolen-generation/ |website=[[Australian Museum]]}}</ref> The [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902) marked the largest overseas deployment of [[colonial forces of Australia|Australia's colonial forces]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2021 |title=Australia and the Boer War, 1899–1902 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/boer |access-date= |website=Australian War Memorial |archive-date=24 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180324185402/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/boer |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|p=149}}</ref>
===Federation to the World Wars===
{{Main|
{{See also|Federation of Australia|Military history of Australia during World War I|Military history of Australia during World War II}}
[[File:Opening of the first parliament.jpg|thumb|''[[The Big Picture (painting)|The Big Picture]]'', a painting by [[Tom Roberts]], depicts the opening of the first Australian Parliament in 1901.]]
On 1 January 1901, [[Federation of Australia|federation of the colonies]] was achieved after a decade of planning, [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)|constitutional conventions]] and [[1898–1900 Australian constitutional referendums|referendums]], resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation under the new [[Constitution of Australia|Australian Constitution]].<ref name="Davison pp243-4">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998 |pages=243–44}}</ref>
From 1901, Australia was a self-governing [[dominion]] within the British Empire.<ref name="dominionstatus">{{Cite web|title=History of the Commonwealth|url=http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|website=Commonwealth Network|publisher=Commonwealth of Nations|access-date=16 February 2015|archive-date=25 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425043631/http://www.commonwealthofnations.org/commonwealth/history/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was one of the founding members of the [[League of Nations]] in 1920,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Covenant of the League of Nations |url=https://www.ungeneva.org/en/about/league-of-nations/covenant |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127003532/https://www.ungeneva.org/en/about/league-of-nations/covenant |archive-date=27 January 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=The United Nations Office at Geneva |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Member states of the United Nations|United Nations]] in 1945.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Growth in United Nations membership |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201204200/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/growth-in-un-membership |archive-date=1 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> The ''[[Statute of Westminster 1931]]'' ended the ability of the UK to legislate for Australia at the federal level without Australia's consent. Australia [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopted it]] in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed during World War II.<ref name="Davison p609">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=609}}</ref>
The [[Australian Capital Territory]] was formed in 1911 as the ___location for the future federal capital of [[Canberra]]. While it was being constructed, [[Melbourne]] served as the temporary capital from 1901 to 1927.<ref>{{Harvnb|Souter|2000|pp=206–217}}</ref> The [[Northern Territory]] was transferred from the control of South Australia to the Commonwealth in 1911.<ref>{{Harvnb|Souter|2000|pp=|p=230}}</ref> Australia took over the administration of the [[Territory of Papua]] (which had previously been a British colony) in 1905 and of the [[Territory of New Guinea]] (formerly [[German New Guinea]]) in 1920. The two were unified as the [[Territory of Papua and New Guinea]] in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.<ref name="McDermott">{{Cite journal |last=McDermott |first=Peter M |date=2009 |title=Australian Citizenship and the Independence of Papua New Guinea |url=https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2009/3.html |url-status=live |journal=UNSW Law Journal |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=50–2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208072215/https://austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/viewdoc/au/journals/UNSWLawJl/2009/3.html |archive-date=8 February 2024 |access-date=8 February 2024 |via=[[Austlii]]}}</ref>
[[File:Darwin 42.jpg|thumb|The 1942 [[Bombing of Darwin]], the first of more than 100 [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–1943|Japanese air raids on Australia]] during [[World War II]]]]
In 1914, Australia joined the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] in the First World War, and took part in the fighting on several fronts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2021 |title=First World War 1914–18 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/first-world-war |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120020555/https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/atwar/first-world-war |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date= |website=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Of the 324,000 men who served overseas, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded.<ref>{{Harvnb|Garton|Stanley|2013|p=40}}</ref> Many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC) at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] in 1915 as the "baptism of fire" that forged the [[Anzac spirit|new nation's identity]].<ref name=":6">{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=168–170}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2024 |title=The Anzac legend |url=https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/personnel/anzac-legend |website=Department of Veterans' Affairs |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304225421/https://anzacportal.dva.gov.au/wars-and-missions/ww1/personnel/anzac-legend |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Landing at Anzac Cove|beginning of the campaign]] is commemorated annually on [[Anzac Day]], a date which rivals [[Australia Day]] as the nation's most important.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Dennis|Grey|Morris|Prior|2008|pp=32, 38}}</ref>
From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in fighting the Second World War. Australia's [[Australian Defence Force|armed forces]] fought in the [[Pacific War|Pacific]], [[European Theatre of World War II|European]] and [[Mediterranean and Middle East theatre of World War II|Mediterranean and Middle East]] [[List of theaters and campaigns of World War II|theatres]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=198–205}}</ref> The shock of Britain's [[fall of Singapore|defeat in Singapore]] in 1942, followed soon after by the [[bombing of Darwin]] and [[Air raids on Australia, 1942–43|other Japanese attacks on Australian soil]], led to a widespread belief in Australia that [[Proposed Japanese invasion of Australia during World War II|a Japanese invasion was imminent]], and a shift from the United Kingdom to the [[Australia–United States relations|United States]] as Australia's principal ally and security partner.<ref name="Davison pp22-3">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=22–23}}</ref> Since 1951, Australia has been allied with the United States under the [[ANZUS]] treaty.<ref name="Davison p30">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|p=30}}</ref>
===Post-war and contemporary eras===
{{Main|History of Australia (1945–present)}}
[[File:Dutch Migrant 1954 MariaScholte=50000thToAustraliaPostWW2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Post-war immigration to Australia|Postwar migrants]] from Europe arriving in Australia in 1954]]
In the three decades following World War II, Australia experienced significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=208–209, 228–229}}</ref> Governments encouraged a [[Post-war immigration to Australia|large wave of immigration from across Europe]] and called these migrants "[[New Australians]]". High immigration was justified to Australians using the slogan "populate or perish,"<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=210–212}}</ref> and from the 1960s the [[white Australia policy]] was gradually relaxed.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=237–238}}</ref>
A member of the [[Western Bloc]] during the [[Cold War]], Australia participated in the [[Australia in the Korean War|Korean War]] and the [[Military history of Australia during the Malayan Emergency|Malayan Emergency]] during the 1950s and the [[Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]] from 1962 to 1973.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dean|Moss|2021|pp=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2023 |title=Vietnam War 1962–75 |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/event/vietnam |access-date=17 February 2025 |website=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> Tensions over communist influence in society led to [[1951 Australian Communist Party ban referendum|unsuccessful attempts]] by the [[Menzies Government (1949–1966)|Menzies Government]] to ban the [[Communist Party of Australia]], and a [[Australian Labor Party split of 1955|bitter split]] in the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] in 1955.<ref>{{Harvnb|Macintyre|2020|pp=223–225}}</ref>
As a result of a [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the federal government gained the power to legislate with regard to Aboriginal Australians, and Aboriginal Australians were fully included in the [[Census in Australia|census]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Broome|2019|pp=221–222}}</ref> [[Aboriginal title|Pre-colonial land interests]] (referred to as [[Native title in Australia|native title]] in Australia) was recognised in law for the first time when the [[High Court of Australia]] held in ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' that Australia was not ''[[terra nullius]]'' ({{Gloss|land belonging to no one}}) at the time of European settlement.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Galloway |first=Kate |date=26 April 2017 |title=Australian politics explainer: the Mabo decision and native title |url=http://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-mabo-decision-and-native-title-74147 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125000636/http://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-the-mabo-decision-and-native-title-74147 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Davison pp. 5-7, 402">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=5–7, 402}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Secher|2004|pp=703–709}}</ref>
Following the abolition of the last vestiges of the [[White Australia policy]] in 1973,<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |title= Fact Sheet – Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy|___location= Commonwealth of Australia|publisher= National Communications Branch, Department of Immigration and Citizenship|work= Australian Immigration |access-date= 27 March 2013 |archive-date= 19 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150919131355/http://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/08abolition |url-status= dead}}</ref> Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia.<ref name="Davison pp338-6, 681-2">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=338–39, 442–43, 681–82}}</ref> The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other [[Asia–Pacific|Asia{{En dash}}Pacific]] nations.<ref>{{Harvnb|Akami|Milner|2013|pp=552–560}}</ref> The [[Australia Acts]] of 1986 severed the remaining constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom while maintaining the monarch in her independent capacity as [[Queen of Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html|title=Australia Act 1986 (Cth)|access-date=25 July 2020|work=Documenting a Democracy|publisher=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House|archive-date=22 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422204352/https://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-32.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Twomey |first=Anne |date=January 2008 |title=The States, the Commonwealth and the Crown—the Battle for Sovereignty |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop48/battlesovereignty |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |series=Papers on Parliament No. 48 |language=en-AU |quote= |archive-date=9 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909014023/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Senate/Powers_practice_n_procedures/pops/pop48/battlesovereignty |url-status=live }}</ref> In a [[1999 Australian republic referendum|1999 constitutional referendum]], 55% of voters rejected [[Republicanism in Australia|abolishing the monarchy]] and becoming a republic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1999: Republic referendum: Queen and/or Country |url=https://moadoph.gov.au/explore/democracy/1999-republic-referendum |access-date=10 February 2024 |website=Museum of Australian Democracy at Old Parliament House |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117083033/https://www.moadoph.gov.au/explore/democracy/1999-republic-referendum |url-status=live }}</ref>
Following the [[September 11 attacks]] on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the [[Military history of Australia during the War in Afghanistan|Afghanistan War]] from 2001 to 2021 and the [[Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq War]] from 2003 to 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |date=24 September 2024 |title=Post 9/11, Afghanistan and Iraq |url=https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/event/afghanistan |access-date=18 February 2025 |website=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's [[List of the largest trading partners of Australia|largest trading partner]] by a large margin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/fifty-years-of-Australias-trade.pdf |title=Fifty years of Australia's trade |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-date=6 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206235853/http://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/fifty-years-of-Australias-trade.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
In response to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Australia|COVID-19 pandemic]], from March 2020 [[COVID-19 lockdowns|lockdowns]] and other restrictions on public gatherings and movement across the national and state borders were implemented by the Federal, state and territory governments. Following the rollout of vaccines in 2021, these restrictions were gradually eased. In October 2023, Australia declared that COVID-19 was no longer a communicable disease incident of national significance.<ref>{{Harvnb|COVID 19 Response Inquiry Panel|2024|pp=50–56}}</ref>
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Australia|Environment of Australia}}
{{See also|Environmental issues in Australia}}
===General characteristics===
[[File:Reliefmap of Australia.png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|alt=Map showing the topography of Australia, showing some elevation in the west and very high elevation in mountains in the south-east|Topographic map of Australia (Dark green represents the lowest elevation and dark brown the highest.)]]
Australia consists of the mainland Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, numerous smaller offshore islands, and the remote offshore territories of [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], [[Coral Sea Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]], and [[Norfolk Island]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2024 |title=Remote Offshore Territories |url=https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-___location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250220230344/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-___location-information/dimensions/remote-offshore-territories |archive-date=20 February 2025 |access-date=21 February 2025 |website=Australian Government, Geoscience Australia}}</ref> Australia also claims about 42% of Antarctica as the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]], but this claim is only recognised by four other countries.<ref name="Scott 2021 491">{{Harvnb|Scott|2021|p=491}}</ref>
Mainland Australia lies between latitudes [[9th parallel south|9°]] and [[44th parallel south|44° south]], and longitudes [[112th meridian east|112°]] and [[154th meridian east|154° east]].<ref name="Geoscience-Australia-2014" /> Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas, with the [[Coral Sea]] lying off the Queensland coast, and the [[Tasman Sea]] lying between Australia and New Zealand. The [[Great Barrier Reef]], the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for more than {{Cvt|2300|km}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=58}}</ref>
The mainland is the world's smallest continent and the country is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|sixth-largest by total area]].<ref name="Blewett 2012 17">{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=17}}</ref> Australia is sometimes considered the world's [[List of islands by area|largest island]]<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=1}}</ref> and is often dubbed the "island continent".<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=1, 10, 27}}</ref> It has {{Cvt|35877|km}} of coastline (excluding all offshore islands),<ref name="Blewett 2012 17"/> and claims an [[Exclusive economic zone of Australia|exclusive economic zone]] of {{Convert|8148250|km2|sqmi}}. This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oceans and Seas – Geoscience Australia |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620022412/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/dimensions/oceans-seas.jsp |archive-date=20 June 2009 |publisher=Geoscience Australia}}</ref>
[[File:Fitzroy Island.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|[[Fitzroy Island (Queensland)|Fitzroy Island]], one of the 600 islands within the main archipelago of the [[Great Barrier Reef]]]]Most of Australia is arid or semi-arid.<ref name=":112">{{Harvardnb|Blewett|2012|p=|pp=28-30}}</ref> In 2021, Australia had 10% of the global permanent meadows and pastureland.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |title=World Food and Agriculture: Statistical Yearbook 2023 |date=2023 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] |isbn=978-92-5-138262-2 |language=en |doi=10.4060/cc8166en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231215161116/https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en |archive-date=15 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Forest cover]] is around 17% of Australia's land area.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Australia |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/AUS/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref> The Australian mainland is relatively flat, with an average height of {{Convert|325|m|ft}} compared with {{Convert|870|m|ft}} for all continents.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=234}}</ref> The [[Great Dividing Range]] runs along most of eastern Australia, dividing the central lowlands from the eastern highlands.<ref name=":16">{{Cite web |date=15 May 2014 |title=Highest Mountains |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321184228/http://ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/highest-mountains.html |archive-date=21 March 2012 |access-date=2 February 2012 |publisher=Geoscience Australia}}</ref> At {{Cvt|2228|m}}, [[Mount Kosciuszko]] is the highest mountain on the mainland. Taller are [[Mawson Peak]], at {{Cvt|2745|m}}, on Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, [[Mount McClintock]] and [[Mount Menzies]], at {{Cvt|3492|m}} and {{Cvt|3355|m}} respectively.<ref name=":16" />[[File:Uluru, helicopter view, cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[Uluru]] in the semi-arid region of Central Australia]]The [[Murray–Darling basin|Murray-Darling]] is the major river system, draining most of inland New South Wales and Southern Queensland towards [[Lake Alexandrina (South Australia)|Lake Alexandrina]] and the sea in South Australia. There are also smaller coastal river systems, inland drainage systems such as the [[Lake Eyre basin|Lake Eyre]] system, and salt lake systems in central and western Australia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=18–19}}</ref> Australia's rivers have the lowest discharge into the sea of any continent. The mainland's flat, arid profile also makes its rivers slow-moving, resulting in a build up of salt on the land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=30, 229}}</ref> Salinisation adversely affects Australia's soil which is, on average, poor in nutrients compared with world standards.<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|pp=229, 253}}</ref>
Australia's population is concentrated on the coastal fringes. About 95% of the population lives within 100 km of the coast; the world average is 39%.<ref name=":17">{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=16}}</ref> Australia's [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|population density]] is 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre,<ref name=":18">{{Cite web |date=26 March 2024 |title=Regional population 2022-2023 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/latest-release |access-date=21 February 2025 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> which is one of the lowest in the world.<ref name=":17" /> However, there is a large concentration of the population in cities along the temperate south-eastern coastline, and population density exceeds 38 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.<ref name=":18" />
===Geology===
{{Main|Geology of Australia}}
[[File:Ausgeolbasic.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Basic geological regions of Australia (by age)]]
Formerly part of the [[Rodinia]] and [[Gondwana]] [[supercontinent]]s,<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=109–110}}</ref> Australia completely separated from Antarctica about 35 million years ago and continued drifting northwards.<ref name=":31">{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=4}}</ref> When the [[last glacial period]] ended, rising sea levels separated the Australian mainland from New Guinea about 8,000 years ago and from [[Tasmania]] about 6,000 years ago.<ref name=":31" />
Australia lies well within the [[Australian plate|Australian tectonic plate]]. The mainland is relatively stable geologically, with no major mountain building, active volcanoes or tectonic faults.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=11}}</ref> However, the Australian plate is moving north-northeast at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm a year and is currently in collision with the [[Eurasian plate]] and [[Pacific plate]].<ref name=":30">{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=6}}</ref> The resulting intratectonic stresses lead to relatively high seismic activity for a geologically stable landmass. There were 18 earthquakes with a [[Moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] of greater than 6 between 1901 and 2017.<ref name=":30" /> The [[1989 Newcastle earthquake|Newcastle earthquake]] of 1989 was Australia's deadliest, killing 13 people.<ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=15}}</ref> There were active volcanoes on the eastern mainland as recently as 4,600 years ago,<ref name=":32">{{Harvnb|Kennett|Chopping|Blewett|2018|p=8}}</ref> and this is reflected in Aboriginal place names and creation stories.<ref>Johnson, Sian (21 March 2020). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-21/indigenous-stories-from-times-of-volcanic-eruptions/12003576 How Gunditjmara words and traditions hold stories of Victoria's rich volcanic history] ''[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]''. Retrieved 25 March 2025.</ref> Currently, [[volcanism]] occurs in the remote [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Blewett|2012|p=22}}</ref>
The Australian continental crust was created in three cycles from the oldest [[Archean|Archaean]] [[craton]]s in the west to the younger [[Orogenic belt|orogenic]] formations in the east (built about 541 million to 252 million years ago).<ref name=":32" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|p=130}}</ref> The oldest Australian surface rocks date to the Archaean period. Some in Western Australia are older than 3.7 billion years and others in South Australia are over 3.1 billion years old. The oldest zircon crystals on Earth, dating back 4.4 billion years, have been found in Western Australia. However, about 80 per cent of Australia is covered by sedimentary rocks and [[regolith]] that are less than 250 million years old.<ref name=":32" />
===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Australia}}
[[File:Australia Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Australia<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beck|first1=Hylke E.|last2=Zimmermann|first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar|first3=Tim R.|last4=Vergopolan|first4=Noemi|last5=Berg|first5=Alexis|last6=Wood|first6=Eric F.|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data|date=30 October 2018|volume=5|issue=1|page=180214|doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988|pmc=6207062|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>]]
The Australian climate ranges from wet tropical in the northeast and northwest to arid in the centre. The coastal south is temperate and humid with winter freezing and snow in the southeastern highlands and Tasmania. The climate is influenced by Australia's position in the "[[horse latitudes]]", which tends to bring arid conditions.<ref name=":36">{{Harvnb|Henderson|Johnson|2016|pp=18–20}}</ref> Overall, the Australian mainland is the driest inhabited continent, with an average annual rainfall of {{Convert|470|mm|in}}.<ref name=":112" /> About 70% of the country is arid or semi-arid,<ref name=":112" /> and about 18% is desert.<ref name=":722">{{Cite web |date=15 May 2014 |title=Deserts |url=http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/national-___location-information/landforms/deserts |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140605132206/http://www.ga.gov.au/education/geoscience-basics/landforms/deserts.html |archive-date=5 June 2014 |access-date=13 August 2018 |work=Geoscience Australia |publisher=Australian Government}}</ref>
The climate is also influenced by various systems such as the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]], the [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] and the [[Antarctic oscillation|Southern Annular Mode]].<ref name=":37">{{Cite web |title=State of the Climate 2024 |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250225033319/http://web.archive.org/screenshot/http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/ |archive-date=25 February 2025 |access-date=25 February 2025 |website=Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology}}</ref> Australia has unusual variability in rainfall within years and between years, leading to frequent droughts and flooding. Cyclones and rain depressions are common in tropical Australia. The summer monsoon brings significant rainfall to northern Australia and low pressure cells bring winter rainfall in the south. The hottest regions are in the northwest of the country and the coolest in the southeast. Bushfire conditions are common in southern Australia.<ref name=":36" />
[[Climate change]] from increased [[greenhouse gas emissions]] has led to a 1.5 °C rise in Australian temperatures since 1910 and an increase in extreme heat and heavy rainfall events. There has been a reduction in rainfall from April to October in southern Australia since 1970 and a longer bushfire season since the 1950s. Rainfall has increased in northern Australia since the 1970s. The number of tropical cyclones has fallen since 1982 and alpine snow has decreased since the late 1950s. Sea levels are rising around Australia and the surrounding oceans are becoming more acidic.<ref name=":37" />
===Biodiversity===
{{See also|Fauna of Australia|Flora of Australia|Fungi of Australia}}
[[File:Koala climbing tree.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|alt=A koala holding onto a eucalyptus tree with its head turned so both eyes are visible|[[Koala]] and ''[[Eucalyptus]]'']]
Australia is one of 17 [[megadiverse countries]].<ref name=":40">{{Cite journal |last1=Evans |first1=Megan C. |last2=Watson |first2=James E. M. |last3=Fuller |first3=Richard A. |last4=Venter |first4=Oscar |last5=Bennett |first5=Simon C. |last6=Marsack |first6=Peter R. |last7=Possingham |first7=Hugh P. |date=April 2011 |title=The Spatial Distribution of Threats to Species in Australia |journal=BioScience |volume=61 |issue=4 |page=282 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.4.8 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Because of its long geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=7–9}}</ref> About 94% of its [[Amphibians of Australia|amphibians]], 93% of its [[List of reptiles of Australia|reptiles]] and [[Flora of Australia|flowering plants]], 69% of its [[Mammals of Australia|mammals]] and 46% of its [[Birds of Australia|birds]] are [[Endemism|endemic]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|p=4}}</ref> Australia has a wide range of [[ecosystem]]s of which 89 regions and 419 subregions are recognised in the Australian bioregion framework.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=55}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=16 June 2023 |title=Australia's bioregion framework |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra/australias-bioregion-framework |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303050656/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs/science/ibra/australias-bioregion-framework |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref>
In January 2025, there were 168,386 named species on the Australian National Species List.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NSL Stats |url=https://test-web.biodiversity.org.au/nsl/stats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228050842/https://test-web.biodiversity.org.au/nsl/stats |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Australian National Species List}}</ref> However, it is estimated that 70% of Australian species have not been discovered and classified and that there may be 600,000 Australian native species. In general, knowledge of [[vertebrate]]s and flowering plants is better than for [[invertebrate]]s and [[Fungus|fungi]]. It is estimated that less that 10% of [[Fungi of Australia|Australia's fungi]] and insects have been named.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|pp=14–15}}</ref>
About 10% of the world's known plant species are found in Australia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=22}}</ref> Many of these have adapted to the arid climate, variable rainfall and nutrient-poor soil. [[Deserts and xeric shrublands|Deserts and xeric shrubland]] cover about 70% of the mainland. [[Acacia]], [[banksia]] and [[eucalypt]]s have spread over much of Australia. Many plants have hard and long-living leaves, and are rich in carbon, poor in nutrients, and well adapted to bushfires.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=9–11}}</ref>
About two-thirds of the world's 330 species of [[marsupial]]s are native to Australia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 November 2018 |title=What is a marsupial? |url=https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-marsupial/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250228055517/https://australian.museum/learn/species-identification/ask-an-expert/what-is-a-marsupial/ |archive-date=28 February 2025 |access-date=28 February 2025 |website=Australan Museum}}</ref> Australian [[placental mammals]] (overwhelmingly bats, rats and mice) also make up almost 47% of the world's land mammal species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|p=9}}</ref> Australia has about 10% of the world's known reptile species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=37}}</ref> There are also about 320,500 invertebrate species, of which insects are the largest class, accounting for more than 75% of all animal species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=45}}</ref> Australia has over 15,000 known species of fungi, although it is possible that tens of thousands more exist.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|p=53}}</ref>
Australia's wildlife show many adaptations to their environments. As the leaves of most plants are poor in nutrients, Australia has a high proportion of birds, insects and marsupials, such as the [[honey possum]], that feed on nectar and pollen. The [[koala]] is an exception, specialising in feeding on eucalyptus leaves.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 July 2018 |title=World-first mapping of complete Koala genome brings hope for the icon's future |url=https://australian.museum/blog/science/world-first-mapping-of-complete-koala-genome-brings-hope-for-the-icons-future/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302071105/https://australian.museum/blog/science/world-first-mapping-of-complete-koala-genome-brings-hope-for-the-icons-future/ |archive-date=2 March 2025 |access-date=2 March 2025 |website=Australian Museum}}</ref><ref name=":55">{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=9–12}}</ref> Nutritionally poor flora and variable rainfall also favour animals with lower energy requirements, including snakes, lizards, and hopping marsupials such as the [[kangaroo]] and [[wallaby]]. There is, however, evidence of [[convergent evolution]] of Australia's marsupials and the placental mammals of other continents living in similar environments. For example, the extinct [[thylacine]] (Tasmanian tiger) had similarities with the placental wolf, [[marsupial mole]]s with the [[golden mole]]s of Africa, and [[Hopping mouse|hopping mice]] with the hopping rodents of other arid regions.<ref name=":55" />
There were major extinctions of Australia's vertebrates, including its [[Australian megafauna|megafauna]], around 46 thousand years ago, and there is an ongoing scientific debate over the role of human activity and climate change in these extinctions. The contraction of the range of the Tasmanian tiger and [[Tasmanian devil]] to that island around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago is also consistent with changes on the mainland including an increasing human population, the introduction of the [[dingo]], and the greater use of fire and new stone tool technologies.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=12–13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Burrell |first1=Sue |last2=Eldridge |first2=Mark |date=11 July 2024 |title=Dingo |url=https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/dingo/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250302234032/https://australian.museum/learn/animals/mammals/dingo/ |archive-date=2 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=The Australian Museum}}</ref>
Over the past two centuries, Australia has lost more mammal species than any other continent. Overall, 100 Australian species are listed as extinct or extinct in the wild. In June 2021, over 1,000 animal and plant species were listed by Australian governments as endangered or critically endangered.<ref>{{Harvnb|Murphy|van Leeuwen|2021|pp=12, 18}}</ref> The major threats to endangered species are landscape change, ecosystem disruption, introduced species such as the [[Cats in Australia|feral cat]] and [[Red foxes in Australia|red fox]], and climate change.<ref>{{Harvnb|Nipperess|2015|pp=16–17}}</ref>
The federal ''[[Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999]]'' is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2025 |title=Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303035240/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/epbc |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref> The [[National Reserve System]] is Australia's network of protected areas. As at 30 June 2022, it covered over 22% of Australia's land mass.<ref>{{Cite web |title=National Reserve System |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303040635/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/land/nrs |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref> ''Australia's Strategy for Nature 2024–2030'' is the national biodiversity plan that aims to reverse biodiversity loss in Australia by 2030 and meet the county's obligations under the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity]] and other international agreements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 September 2024 |title=Australia's Strategy for Nature 2024–2030 |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/publications/australias-strategy-for-nature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303041458/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/conservation/publications/australias-strategy-for-nature |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2025 |title=UN Convention on Biological Diversity |url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250303042129/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/environment/biodiversity/international/un-convention-biological-diversity |archive-date=3 March 2025 |access-date=3 March 2025 |website=Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water}}</ref>
==Government and politics==
{{Main|Australian Government|Politics of Australia|Monarchy of Australia}}
{{Multiple image
| caption_align = center
| total_width = 340
| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg
| caption1 = [[Charles III]],<br />[[Monarchy of Australia|King of Australia]]
| image2 = Sam Mostyn 2024.jpg
| caption2 = [[Sam Mostyn]],<br />[[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]
| image3 = Anthony Albanese portrait (re-crop).jpg
| caption3 = [[Anthony Albanese]],<br />[[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]
}}
Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]], a [[parliamentary democracy]] and a [[federation]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2024 |title=Australian system of government |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/australian-system-of-government |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=14 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240214204120/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/australian-system-of-government |url-status=live }}</ref> The country has maintained its mostly unchanged [[Constitution of Australia|constitution]] alongside a stable [[Liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] political system since [[Federation of Australia|Federation]] in 1901. It is one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and [[States and territories of Australia|state]] governments. The [[Politics of Australia|Australian system of government]] combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a [[Fusion of powers|fused executive]], constitutional monarchy and [[Party discipline|strong party discipline]]) and the United States ([[federalism]], a [[written constitution]] and [[bicameralism|strong bicameralism]] with a Senate in which states have equal representation), resulting in a distinct hybrid.<ref name="Thompson-1980">{{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Elaine |year=1980 |title=The 'Washminster' Mutation |journal=[[Australian Journal of Political Science|Politics]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |page=32 |doi=10.1080/00323268008401755}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=What is the Washminster system? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/what-is-the-washminster-system |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215070719/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice/questions/what-is-the-washminster-system |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Separation of powers in Australia|Federal government power is partially separated]] between three groups:<ref name="Parliamentary Education Office-2023_2">{{Cite web |title=Separation of powers: Parliament, Executive and Judiciary |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031132705/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/separation-of-powers-parliament-executive-and-judiciary/ |archive-date=31 October 2023 |access-date=8 November 2023 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
* Legislature: the bicameral [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]], comprising the [[Monarchy of Australia|monarch]], the [[Australian Senate|Senate]], and the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
* Executive: the [[Australian Government]], led by the prime minister (the leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the House of Representatives), their chosen [[Cabinet of Australia|Cabinet]] and other ministers; formally appointed by the governor-general<ref name="Factbook-Government">{{Cite CIA World Factbook |country=Australia |section=Government |access-date=16 August 2024}}</ref>
* Judiciary: the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] and other [[Australian court hierarchy|federal courts]]
Following elections on 3 May 2025, the prime minister is [[Anthony Albanese]] of the [[Australian Labor Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Worthington |first=Brett |date=3 May 2025 |title=Anthony Albanese and Labor claim landslide election win as Peter Dutton loses seat |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-05-03/federal-election-anthony-albanese-wins/105247712 |website=Australia Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> [[Charles III]] reigns as [[King of Australia]] and is represented in Australia by the [[Governor-General of Australia|governor-general]] at the federal level and by the [[Governors of the Australian states|governors]] at the state level, who by [[Chapter II of the Constitution of Australia#Section 63: Provisions referring to Governor-General|section 63]] of the Constitution and convention act on the advice of their ministers.<ref name="Davison pp287–8">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=287–88}}</ref><ref name="gg">{{Cite web |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804130529/http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 |archive-date=4 August 2008 |title=Governor-General's Role|publisher=Governor-General of Australia |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the [[Prime Minister of Australia|prime minister]] and the Cabinet. The governor-general may in some situations exercise [[reserve power]]s: powers exercisable in the absence or contrary to ministerial advice. When these powers may be exercised is governed by convention and their precise scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the [[Whitlam government]] in the [[1975 Australian constitutional crisis|constitutional crisis of 1975]].<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=Parliament of Australia|date=23 January 1998 |access-date=18 June 2010|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm |title=The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General|author=Downing, Susan |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726170040/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm |archive-date=26 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Canberra (AU), Parliament House -- 2019 -- 1746.jpg|alt=A large white and cream coloured building with grass on its roof. The building is topped with a large flagpole.|right|thumb|[[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]], [[Canberra]]]]
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory).<ref name=sen>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm |title=Senate Summary|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506235552/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/senatecomposition.htm |archive-date=6 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 150 members elected from single-member [[Divisions of the Australian House of Representatives|electoral divisions]], commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each of the current states guaranteed a minimum of five seats.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Muller |first=Damon |date=26 April 2023 |title=The process for, and consequences of, changing the size of the Commonwealth Parliament: a quick guide |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2223/Quick_Guides/ChangingSizeCommonwealthParliament |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230511175801/https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2223/Quick_Guides/ChangingSizeCommonwealthParliament |archive-date=11 May 2023 |access-date= |website=Parliament of Australia |language=en-AU}}</ref> The lower house has a maximum term of three years, but this is not fixed and governments usually dissolve the house early for an election at some point in the 6 months before the maximum.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joint Standing Committee on Electoral Matters |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/report |title=The 2004 Federal Election |date=10 October 2005 |publisher=Parliament of Australia |isbn=978-0-642-78705-7 |at=paras. 7.26–7.27 |language=en-AU |chapter=Parliamentary terms |chapter-url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/chapter7 |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125005940/https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Completed_Inquiries/em/elect04/report |url-status=live }}</ref> Elections for both chambers are generally held simultaneously with senators having overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house. Thus, only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a [[double dissolution]].<ref name="sen" />
Australia's [[electoral system of Australia|electoral system]] uses [[Instant-runoff voting|preferential voting]] for the House of Representatives and all state and territory lower house elections (with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which use the [[Hare-Clark system]]). The Senate and most state upper houses use the [[single transferable vote|proportional system]] which combines preferential voting with [[proportional representation]] for each state. [[Compulsory voting|Voting and enrolment is compulsory]] for all enrolled citizens 18 years and older in every jurisdiction.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf |title=Compulsory Voting in Australia|last=Evans|first=Tim|year=2006|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission|page=4 |access-date=21 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611200653/http://www.aec.gov.au/pdf/voting/compulsory_voting.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://aec.gov.au/FAQs/Enrolment.htm#compulsory |title=Is it compulsory to enrol, regardless of age or disability?|work=Enrolment – Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=Australian Electoral Commission |access-date=11 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524015925/https://aec.gov.au/FAQs/Enrolment.htm |archive-date=24 May 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=Judith |last=Brett |title=From Secret Ballot to Democracy Sausage: How Australia Got Compulsory Voting |publisher=Text Publishing Co |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-9256-0384-2}}</ref> The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes prime minister. The governor-general appoints the prime minister and may dismiss one who has lost the confidence of parliament or acts illegally.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gg.gov.au/content.php/page/id/3/title/governor-generals-role |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014171300/http://www.gg.gov.au/content.php/page/id/3/title/governor-generals-role |archive-date=14 October 2012 |title=Governor-General's Role|publisher=Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia |access-date=13 January 2012}}</ref> As Australia is a [[Westminster system|Westminster]] parliamentary democracy with a powerful and elected upper house, its system has sometimes been called a "Washminster mutation",<ref name="Thompson-1980" /> or semi-parliamentary.<ref name=Ganghof>{{Cite journal |last1=Ganghof |first1=S |title=A new political system model: Semi-parliamentary government |journal=European Journal of Political Research |date=May 2018 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=261–281 |doi=10.1111/1475-6765.12224 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
There are two major political groups that have usually formed government federally: the [[Australian Labor Party]] <!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: The name of the party is spelt "Labor" (i.e., no "u") even though the usual Australian spelling is "labour". --> and the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] which is a grouping of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and its minor partner, the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |title=Glossary of Election Terms |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-date=6 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306034515/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |title=State of the Parties|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418163914/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm |archive-date= 18 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> At the state level of government, the relationship between the Nationals and the Liberal Party differs, with the parties [[Liberal National Party of Queensland|merged in Queensland]] and the [[Country Liberal Party|Northern Territory]] (federal parliamentarians, however, sit in either the Liberal or National party room); in coalition in New South Wales, Victoria and Western Australia; and in competition with the Liberals in South Australia and Tasmania.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 July 2008 |title=The Liberal-National Party – a new model party? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-07-30/the-liberal-national-party---a-new-model-party/457812 |access-date=8 September 2021 |website=ABC News |language=en-AU |archive-date=7 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007033647/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-07-30/the-liberal-national-party---a-new-model-party/457812 |url-status=live }}</ref> Within Australian political culture, the Labor Party is considered [[centre-left]] and the Coalition is considered [[centre-right]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fenna|first1=Alan|last2=Robbins|first2=Jane|last3=Summers|first3=John |title=Government Politics in Australia|publisher=Pearson Higher Education AU|___location=London|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4860-0138-5|page=139}}</ref> Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The [[Australian Greens]] are the third largest party by both vote and membership.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/old-greens-wounds-reopen-as-members-vote-on-directly-electing-leader-20200422-p54m5r.html|title=Old Greens wounds reopen as members vote on directly electing leader|last=Harris|first=Rob|date=22 April 2020|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=22 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422080256/https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/old-greens-wounds-reopen-as-members-vote-on-directly-electing-leader-20200422-p54m5r.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jackson |first1=Stewart |title=The Australian Greens : from activism to Australia's third party |date=2016 |publisher=Melbourne University Press |isbn=978-0-5228-6794-7}}</ref>{{When|date=August 2025}}
===States and territories===
{{Main|States and territories of Australia}}
[[File:Australia states and territories labelled.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Australia's states and territories]]
Australia has six states—[[New South Wales]] (NSW), [[Victoria (state)|Victoria]] (Vic), [[Queensland]] (Qld), [[Western Australia]] (WA), [[South Australia]] (SA) and [[Tasmania]] (Tas)—and two mainland self-governing territories—the [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) and the [[Northern Territory]] (NT).<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 December 2023 |title=What's the difference between a territory and a state parliament? |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice |access-date= |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318145108/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/your-questions-on-notice |url-status=live }}</ref>
The states have the general power to make laws except in the few areas where the constitution grants the Commonwealth (the federal level of government) exclusive powers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |___location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=405–6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2022 |title=Three levels of government: governing Australia |url=https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Parliamentary Education Office |language=en |archive-date=4 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240104073724/https://peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government/three-levels-of-government-governing-australia |url-status=live }}</ref> The Commonwealth can only make laws on topics listed in the constitution but its laws prevail over those of the states to the extent of any inconsistency.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |___location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=528–30, 577–80}}</ref><ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Australian Constitution|109}}. "When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid."</ref> Since Federation, the Commonwealth's power relative to the states [[Australian constitutional law#Growth of federal power|has significantly increased]] due to the increasingly wide interpretation given to listed Commonwealth powers{{snd}}and because of the states' [[Fiscal imbalance in Australia|heavy financial reliance]] on Commonwealth grants.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pyke |first=John |title=Government powers under a Federal Constitution: constitutional law in Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Lawbook Co |isbn=978-0-455-24415-0 |edition=2nd |___location=Pyrmont, NSW |pages=607–9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beck |first=Luke |title=Australian constitutional law: concepts and cases |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge university press |isbn=978-1-108-70103-7 |___location=Port Melbourne, VIC |pages=521–8}}</ref>
Each state and major mainland territory has its own [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|parliament]]—[[unicameralism|unicameral]] in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The lower houses are known as the [[Legislative Assembly]] (the [[House of Assembly]] in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the [[Legislative council|Legislative Council]]. The [[head of government|head of the government]] in each state is the [[Premiers of the Australian states|premier]] and in each territory the [[Chief Minister|chief minister]]. The King is represented in each state by a [[Governors of the Australian states|governor]]. At the Commonwealth level, the King's representative is the governor-general.<ref name="gg"/>
The Commonwealth government directly administers the internal [[Jervis Bay Territory]] and the external territories: the [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], the [[Coral Sea Islands]], the [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]], the [[Australian Indian Ocean Territories|Indian Ocean territories]] (Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands), [[Norfolk Island]],{{Refn|Norfolk Island previously was self-governed, however this was revoked in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080806021653/http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Territories_of_AustraliaNorfolk_IslandAdministrator_of_Norfolk_Island|url=http://ag.gov.au/www/agd/agd.nsf/Page/Territories_of_AustraliaNorfolk_Island|publisher=Australian Government Attorney-General's Department |title=Administrator of Norfolk Island |archive-date=6 August 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/may/12/norfolk-island-loses-its-parliament-as-canberra-takes-control|title=Norfolk Island loses its parliament as Canberra takes control|first1=Monica|last1=Tan|author2=Australian Associated Press|date=12 May 2015|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=21 October 2015|archive-date=28 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151028072820/http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2015/may/12/norfolk-island-loses-its-parliament-as-canberra-takes-control|url-status=live}}</ref>}} and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].{{Refn|This [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|Antarctic claim]] is recognised by only by New Zealand, the United Kingdom, France, and Norway.}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Territories |url=https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions-cities/australian-territories |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts |archive-date=8 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308213252/https://www.infrastructure.gov.au/territories-regions-cities/australian-territories |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Factbook-Government"/> The remote [[Macquarie Island]] and [[Lord Howe Island]] are part of Tasmania and New South Wales respectively.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Macquarie Island research station to be closed in 2017|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-13/macquarie-island-research-station-to-be-closed-in-2017/7839640|work=ABC News|date=13 September 2016|access-date=19 October 2019|archive-date=25 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025034637/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-13/macquarie-island-research-station-to-be-closed-in-2017/7839640|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Southerden |first=Louise |date=8 November 2017 |title=Which island should you visit - Lord Howe or Norfolk? A guide to both |url=https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/inspiration/a-tale-of-two-islands-lord-howe-v-norfolk-20171107-gzg8tz.html |access-date= |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216030715/https://www.smh.com.au/traveller/inspiration/a-tale-of-two-islands-lord-howe-v-norfolk-20171107-gzg8tz.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Australia}}
[[File:Diplomatic missions of Australia.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|[[List of diplomatic missions of Australia|Diplomatic missions of Australia]]]]
Australia is a [[middle power]],<ref name="Lowy">{{Cite report |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/downloads/lowy-institute-2023-asia-power-index-key-findings-report.pdf |title=Lowy Institute Asian Power Index |date=2023 |page=29 |isbn=978-0-6480189-3-3 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220212559/https://power.lowyinstitute.org/downloads/lowy-institute-2023-asia-power-index-key-findings-report.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> whose foreign relations has three core bi-partisan pillars: commitment to the US alliance, engagement with the [[Indo-Pacific]] and support for international institutions, rules and co-operation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gyngell |first=Allan |date=31 July 2022 |title=A new Australian foreign policy agenda under Albanese |url=https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/07/31/a-new-australian-foreign-policy-agenda-under-albanese/ |access-date= |website=East Asia Forum |language=en-AU |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023926/https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/07/31/a-new-australian-foreign-policy-agenda-under-albanese/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Australian-Government-2017">{{Cite report |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-foreign-policy-white-paper.pdf |title=2017 Foreign Policy White Paper |date=2017 |publisher=Australian Government |pages=1–8 |access-date=17 February 2024 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034716/https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/2017-foreign-policy-white-paper.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy |date=2011 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-263-1 |edition=3rd |___location=Crows Nest, NSW |pages=332–8 |language=en-AU}}</ref> Through the [[ANZUS]] pact and its status as a [[major non-NATO ally]], Australia maintains a [[Australia–United States relations|close relationship with the US]], which encompasses strong defence, security and trade ties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia and the United States |url=https://usa.embassy.gov.au/australia-and-united-states |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=Australian Embassy and Consulates |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023926/https://usa.embassy.gov.au/australia-and-united-states |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bureau of Political-Military Affairs |date=20 January 2021 |title=Major Non-NATO Ally Status |url=https://www.state.gov/major-non-nato-ally-status/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |language=en-US |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227062358/https://www.state.gov/major-non-nato-ally-status/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the Indo-Pacific, the country seeks to increase its trade ties through the open flow of trade and capital, while managing the rise of Chinese power by supporting the existing rules-based order.<ref name="Australian-Government-2017" /> Regionally, the country is a member of the [[Pacific Islands Forum]], the [[Pacific Community]], the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations#ASEAN Plus Three and ASEAN Plus Six|ASEAN+6 mechanism]] and the [[East Asia Summit]]. Internationally, the country is a member of the [[United Nations]] (of which it was a founding member), the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[OECD]] and the [[G20]]. This reflects the country's generally strong commitment to [[multilateralism]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Page |first=Mercedes |date=31 May 2022 |title=Multilateralism matters again |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/multilateralism-matters-again |access-date= |website=The Interpreter |publisher=Lowy Institute |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215011829/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/multilateralism-matters-again |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Mark R |date=30 October 2023 |title=Australia and the Quad: A Watering Can or a Hammer? |url=https://www.nbr.org/publication/australia-and-the-quad-a-watering-can-or-a-hammer/ |access-date=15 February 2024 |website=The National Bureau of Asian Research |language=en |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215011829/https://www.nbr.org/publication/australia-and-the-quad-a-watering-can-or-a-hammer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the [[Five Eyes]] intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the [[AUKUS]] security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the [[Quadrilateral Security Dialogue]] with the United States, India and Japan; the [[Five Power Defence Arrangements]] with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the [[Reciprocal Access Agreement|Reciprocal Access]] defence and security agreement with Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Caloca|first=Natalie|url=https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/australias-growing-defense-and-security-role-indo-pacific#:~:text=Beyond%20AUKUS%2C%20Australia%20is%20otherwise%20deeply%20integrated,Philippines%20in%20the%20tumultuous%20South%20China%20Sea|title=Australia's Growing Defense and Security Role in the Indo-Pacific|website=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=1 August 2024|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/japan-australia-sign-defence-cooperation-pact-2022-01-06/|title=Japan, Australia sign defence pact for closer cooperation|website=[[Reuters]]|date=6 January 2022|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=39e900b6-73cb-4a4e-a3fb-19c44fe3fff6|title=The Five Power Defence Arrangement comes into force|website=[[National Library Board]]|access-date=22 January 2025}}</ref>
[[File:P20220524AS-1533 (52245766080).jpg|thumb|Australian Prime Minister [[Anthony Albanese]] with American President [[Joe Biden]] in 2022]]
Australia has pursued the cause of international [[trade liberalisation]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Capling|first=Ann |title=Australia and the Global Trade System: From Havana to Seattle|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-5217-8525-9|page=116}}</ref> It led the formation of the [[Cairns Group]] and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]],<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Gallagher, P. W.|title=Setting the agenda for trade negotiations: Australia and the Cairns group|journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs|volume=42|issue=1 April 1988|pages=3–8|doi=10.1080/10357718808444955|year=1988}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.apec2007.org/aa.htm|title=APEC and Australia|publisher=APEC 2007|date=1 June 2007|access-date=23 April 2010|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421170701/http://www.apec2007.org/aa.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and is a member of the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/about/0,3347,en_33873108_33873229_1_1_1_1_1,00.html |title=Australia:About|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100420083545/http://www.oecd.org/about/0%2C3347%2Cen_33873108_33873229_1_1_1_1_1%2C00.html |archive-date=20 April 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htm |title=Australia – Member information|publisher=World Trade Organization |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100525011833/http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/australia_e.htm |archive-date=25 May 2010 |url-status=live}}</ref> Beginning in the 2000s, Australia entered into the [[Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership]] and the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]] multilateral [[free trade agreement]]s as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the [[Australia–United States Free Trade Agreement|United States]], [[China–Australia Free Trade Agreement|China]], [[Japan–Australia Economic Partnership Agreement|Japan]], [[Australia–Korea Free Trade Agreement|South Korea]], [[Indonesia–Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement|Indonesia]], the [[Australia–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement|United Kingdom]] and [[Closer Economic Relations|New Zealand]], with the most recent deal signed in 2023 with the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia's free trade agreements (FTAs) |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/trade-agreements |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119034906/https://www.dfat.gov.au/trade/agreements/trade-agreements |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}}</ref>
Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the [[Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement]] and free trade under the [[Closer Economic Relations]] agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trans-Tasman Roadmap to 2035 |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/trans-tasman-roadmap-2035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230726060824/https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/new-zealand/trans-tasman-roadmap-2035 |archive-date=26 July 2023 |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}}</ref> The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/files/lowyinsitutepoll-2021.pdf|title=2021 Lowy Institute Poll|last=Kassam|first=Natasha|date=2021|publisher=Lowy Institute|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319051732/https://poll.lowyinstitute.org/files/lowyinsitutepoll-2021.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> It also maintains an [[International aid|international aid program]] under which some 75 countries receive assistance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Aid |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/australian-aid |website=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=15 February 2024 |archive-date=15 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215012143/https://www.dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Pages/australian-aid |url-status=live }}</ref> Australia ranked fourth in the [[Center for Global Development]]'s 2021 [[Commitment to Development Index]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cgdev.org/publication/commitment-development-index-2021|title=The Commitment to Development Index 2021|last1=Mitchell|first1=Ian|last2=Robinson|first2=Lee|last3=Cichocka|first3=Beata|last4=Ritchie|first4=Euan|date=13 September 2021|access-date=17 August 2022|publisher=[[Center for Global Development]]|___location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|archive-date=5 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221005091011/https://www.cgdev.org/publication/commitment-development-index-2021|url-status=live}}</ref>
The power over foreign policy is highly concentrated in the prime minister and the [[National Security Committee (Australia)|national security committee]], with major decision such as joining the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] made without prior Cabinet approval.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=David |date=31 December 2023 |title=Cabinet papers 2003: Howard government sends Australia into the Iraq war |url=http://theconversation.com/cabinet-papers-2003-howard-government-sends-australia-into-the-iraq-war-217812 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217023925/http://theconversation.com/cabinet-papers-2003-howard-government-sends-australia-into-the-iraq-war-217812 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Australia in international politics: an introduction to Australian foreign policy |date=2011 |publisher=Allen & Unwin |isbn=978-1-74237-263-1 |edition=3rd |___location=Crows Nest, NSW |pages=78–84 |language=en-AU}}</ref> Similarly, the Parliament does not play a formal role in foreign policy and the power to declare war lies solely with the executive government.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Appleby |first=Gabrielle |date=2 September 2014 |title=Explainer: Australia's war powers and the role of parliament |url=http://theconversation.com/explainer-australias-war-powers-and-the-role-of-parliament-31112 |access-date=17 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=6 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906181159/https://theconversation.com/explainer-australias-war-powers-and-the-role-of-parliament-31112 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] supports the executive in its policy decisions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 2013 |title=Capability review: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |url=https://www.apsc.gov.au/capability-review-department-foreign-affairs-and-trade |access-date=20 December 2024 |website=Australian Public Service Commission |publisher= |page=2}}</ref>
===Military===
{{Main|Australian Defence Force}}
[[File:HMAS Arunta and Canberra sailing in formation with other warships.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|[[HMAS Canberra (L02)|HMAS ''Canberra'']], a [[Canberra-class landing helicopter dock|''Canberra''-class]] [[landing helicopter dock]], and [[HMAS Arunta (FFH 151)|HMAS ''Arunta'']], an [[Anzac-class frigate|''Anzac''-class]] [[frigate]], sailing in formation]]
The two main institutions involved in the management of Australia's armed forces are the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) and the [[Department of Defence (Australia)|Department of Defence]], together known as "[[Australian Defence Organisation|Defence]]".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Organisation structure |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/about/who-we-are/organisation-structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103154937/https://www.defence.gov.au/about/who-we-are/organisation-structure |archive-date=3 November 2023 |access-date=16 February 2024 |website=Australian Government: Defence}}</ref> The Australian Defence Force is the military wing, headed by the [[Chief of the Defence Force (Australia)|chief of the defence force]], and contains three branches: the [[Royal Australian Navy]], the [[Australian Army]] and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]]. In 2021, it had 84,865 currently serving personnel (including 60,286 regulars and 24,581 reservists).<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 June 2022 |title=Australian Defence Force service |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/australian-defence-force-service |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119193626/https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/australian-defence-force-service |archive-date=19 November 2023 |website=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref> The Department of Defence is the civilian wing and is headed by the secretary of defence. These two leaders collective manage Defence as a [[diarchy]], with shared and joint responsibilities.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/Defence-Annual-Report-2022-23.pdf |title=Defence Annual Report 2022–23 |date=18 September 2023 |publisher=Australian Government: Defence |page=23 |isbn=978-1-925890-47-1 |issn=1323-5036 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217203427/https://www.defence.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-10/Defence-Annual-Report-2022-23.pdf |archive-date=17 December 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The titular role of [[Commander-in-Chief|commander-in-chief]] is held by the [[Governor-General of Australia|governor-general]]; however, actual command is vested in the chief of the Defence Force.<ref>{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|da190356|Defence Act 1903|9}}</ref> The executive branch of the Commonwealth government has overall control of the military through the [[Minister for Defence (Australia)|minister of defence]], who is subject to the decisions of Cabinet and its [[National Security Committee (Australia)|National Security Committee]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://ad-aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/import/12_53_35_PM_ASPI_defence_almanac_2011_12.pdf?VersionId=vNzXEQtA5bqdxWO9r60xyDAD45g2_d1H |title=Australian Defence Almanac: 2011–2012 |last=Khosa |first=Raspal |date=July 2011 |publisher=Australian Strategic Policy Institute |pages=2, 12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231002182101/https://ad-aspi.s3.ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/import/12_53_35_PM_ASPI_defence_almanac_2011_12.pdf?VersionId=vNzXEQtA5bqdxWO9r60xyDAD45g2_d1H |archive-date=2 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Major [[Australian intelligence agencies]] include the [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (foreign intelligence), the [[Australian Signals Directorate]] (signals intelligence) and the [[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (domestic security).
In 2022, defence spending was 1.9% of [[GDP]], representing the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|13th-largest defence budget]].<ref>{{cite web |date=April 2023 |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2022 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230423231601/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-04/2304_fs_milex_2022.pdf |archive-date=23 April 2023 |access-date=29 April 2023 |publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2024, the ADF had active operations in the Middle East and the Indo-Pacific (including security and aid provisions); was contributing to UN forces in relation to [[United Nations Mission in South Sudan|South Sudan]], [[United Nations Disengagement Observer Force|Syria–Israel peacekeeping]], and [[Operation Argos|North Korea]]; and domestically was assisting in [[natural disaster]] relief and [[Operation Resolute|assisting in preventing asylum-seekers from entering the country]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Operations |url=https://www.defence.gov.au/defence-activities/operations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130011529/https://www.defence.gov.au/defence-activities/operations |archive-date=30 January 2024 |access-date=25 February 2024 |website=[[Australian Defence Organisation|Defence]] |publisher=[[Australian Government]]}}</ref>
===Human rights===
{{See also|Human rights in Australia}}
Australia has generally strong protections for [[civil and political rights]], and the country has signed up to a wide range of international rights treaties.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australia: Events of 2023 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2024/country-chapters/australia |access-date=30 August 2024 |website=World Report 2024 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> Important documents protecting human rights include the [[Australian Constitution|Constitution]], the ''[[Racial Discrimination Act 1975]]'', the ''[[Sex Discrimination Act 1984]]'', the ''[[Disability Discrimination Act 1992]]'', and the ''[[Age Discrimination Act 2004]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Legal - Legislation |url=https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/legal/legislation |access-date=3 September 2023 |website=Australian Human Rights Commission}}</ref> [[Same-sex marriage in Australia|Same-sex marriage]] has been legal in the nation since 2017.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 June 2013 |title=The 20 most and least gay-friendly countries in the world |url=https://www.pri.org/stories/2013-06-26/20-most-and-least-gay-friendly-countries-world |access-date=31 December 2017 |work=Public Radio International}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Same-Sex Marriage Around the World |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/fact-sheet/gay-marriage-around-the-world/ |access-date=3 September 2023 |website=Pew Research Center}}</ref> Unlike other comparable Western democracies, Australia does not have a single federal [[charter of rights]] in the Constitution or under legislation; however, the ACT, Victoria, and Queensland have state-based ones.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://humanrights.gov.au/sites/default/files/free_equal_hra_2022_-_2_pager_rgb_0.pdf|title=A Human Rights Act for Australia|website=[[Australian Human Rights Commission]]|page=1|access-date=19 May 2025}}</ref>
International organisations such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]] have expressed concerns in areas including [[Immigration detention in Australia|asylum-seeker policy]], [[Indigenous deaths in custody]], the lack of entrenched [[Charter of rights|rights protection]], and [[Laws governing public demonstrations in Australia|laws restricting protesting]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 March 2023 |title=Amnesty International Report 2022/23: The state of the world's human rights |url=https://www.amnesty.org.au/amnesty-international-report-2022-23-the-state-of-the-worlds-human-rights/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=[[Amnesty International Australia]] |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2024 |title=Australia: Setbacks, Inaction on Key Rights Issues |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/01/11/australia-setbacks-inaction-key-rights-issues |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] |language=en-AU}}</ref>
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Australia}}
{{Further|Economic history of Australia|Tourism in Australia}}
[[File:Sydney central business district skyline, August 2021.jpg|thumb|The [[Sydney central business district|central business district of Sydney]] is the [[financial centre]] of Australia.]]
Australia's [[mixed economy|mixed-market economy]] is highly [[Developed economy|developed]] and rich in [[Mining in Australia|natural resources]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Russell|first=Clyde|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-column-russell-commodities-australia-idUKKBN2BM0WC |title=Column: Resource-rich Australia shows vagaries of any commodity supercycle|date=30 March 2021|work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> It is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|fourteenth-largest by nominal terms]], and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|18th-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity|PPP]]. {{As of|2021}}, Australia has the [[List of countries by wealth per adult|second-highest amount of wealth per adult]], after [[Luxembourg]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Wealth Databook 2021|url=https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2021.pdf |access-date=14 August 2022|publisher=[[Credit Suisse]]}}</ref> and the [[List of countries by financial assets per capita|thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita]],<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Carrera|first1=Jordi Bosco|last2=Grimm|first2=Michaela|last3=Halzhausen|first3=Arne|last4=Pelaya|first4=Patricia|url=https://www.allianz.com/content/dam/onemarketing/azcom/Allianz_com/economic-research/publications/specials/en/2021/october/2021_10_07_Global-Wealth-Report.pdf |title=ALLIANZ GLOBAL WEALTH REPORT 2021|date=7 October 2021|publisher=[[Allianz]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> as well as one of the [[List of countries by GNI (PPP) per capita|highest per capita incomes globally]].<ref name=":83">{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=IMF report for selected countries: Gross domestic product per capita, constant prices purchasing power parity; 2021 international dollar |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPRPPPPC,&sy=2024&ey=2024&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |access-date=14 February 2025 |website=International Monetary Fund}}</ref> It has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022.<ref name="ABSLabourForce">{{Cite web|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia/latest-release |title=Labour Force, Australia|date=14 July 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> According to the [[Australian Council of Social Service]], the [[Poverty in Australia|poverty rate of Australia]] exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing over 3.2 million.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2020 |title=Report shows three million people in poverty in Australia and why we must act to support each other |url=https://www.acoss.org.au/media_release/report-shows-three-million-people-in-poverty-in-australia-and-why-we-must-act-to-support-each-other/ |website=ACOSS}}</ref> It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://povertyandinequality.acoss.org.au/poverty/|title=Poverty – Poverty and Inequality}}</ref> The [[Australian dollar]] is the national currency, which is also used by three island states in the Pacific: [[Kiribati]], [[Nauru]], and [[Tuvalu]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30205/ado2013-small-island-economies.pdf |title=Small island economies|year=2013|publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |access-date=14 August 2022|quote=All three countries use the Australian dollar as legal tender.}}</ref>
[[Australian government debt]], about $963 billion in June 2022, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's [[List of countries by government debt|eighth-highest]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dossor|first=Rob|url=https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/BudgetReview202122/CommonwealthDebt |title=Commonwealth debt|publisher=[[Parliament of Australia]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> Australia had the [[List of countries by household debt|second-highest level]] of [[household debt]] in the world in 2020, after Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/HH_LS@GDD/AUS/CHE |title=Household debt, loans and debt securities|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> [[Australian property market|Its house prices]] are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Neubauer|first=Ian|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2022/4/6/australians-home-ownership-dream-turns-soar-as-prices-soar |title='Ridiculous prices': Australians' home ownership dreams turn sour|work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]|date=6 April 2022 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while [[Agriculture in Australia|its agriculture sector]] makes up 3.6% of total GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia |title=Australia. CIA – The World Factbook |work=[[The World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=22 January 2011}}</ref> Australia is the world's [[List of countries by exports|21st-largest exporter]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of importing markets for the product exported by Australia in 2021 |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c036%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 |access-date=14 August 2022 |publisher=[[International Trade Centre]]}}</ref> and [[List of countries by imports|24th-largest importer]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProductCountry.aspx?nvpm=1%7c036%7c%7c%7c%7cTOTAL%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 |title=List of supplying markets for the product imported by Australia in 2021|publisher=[[International Trade Centre]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> China is Australia's [[List of the largest trading partners of Australia|largest trading partner]], accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/12/29/trade-war-with-china-australias-economy-after-covid-19-pandemic.html |title=Australia's growth may 'never return' to its pre-virus path after trade trouble with China, says economist|last=Tan|first=Weizhen|date=29 December 2020|publisher=[[CNBC]] |access-date=10 February 2021}}</ref> Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/publications/trade-and-investment/trade-and-investment-glance-2020 |title=Trade and investment at a glance 2020|publisher=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref>
Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked tenth in the [[Human Development Index]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=United Nations Development Programme |date=September 2022 |title=United Nations Development Programme, The 2021/2022 Human Development Report: Uncertain times, unsettled lives, Shaping our future in a transforming world (p 272) |url=https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2021-22 |access-date=13 August 2023 |website=United Nations}}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, it is ranked twelfth in the [[Index of Economic Freedom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Country Rankings |url=https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430170123/https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |archive-date=30 April 2020 |access-date=14 August 2022 |publisher=[[The Heritage Foundation]]}}</ref> It attracted 9.5 million international tourists in 2019,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://statistics.jnto.go.jp/en/graph/#graph--inbound--travelers--transition |title=Trends in the Visitor Arrivals to Japan by Year|publisher=JNTO |access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref> and was [[World Tourism rankings|ranked thirteenth]] among the countries of [[Asia-Pacific]] in 2019 for inbound tourism.<ref name="WTOB">{{Cite journal|date=August–September 2020|publisher=UNWTO |title=Statistical Annex|journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer|volume=18|issue=5|page=18|doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.5|doi-access=free}}</ref> The 2021 ''[[Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report]]'' ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Development Index 2021 |date=May 2022|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Travel_Tourism_Development_2021.pdf |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.<ref name="WTOB"/>
===Energy===
{{Main|Energy policy of Australia|Renewable energy in Australia}}
In 2021–22, Australia's generation of electricity was sourced from [[Bituminous coal|black coal]] (37.2%), [[brown coal]] (12%), [[natural gas]] (18.8%), [[Hydroelectricity|hydro]] (6.5%), [[Wind power|wind]] (11.1%), [[Solar power|solar]] (13.3%), [[Bioenergy|bio-energy]] (1.2%) and others (1.7%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian electricity generation - fuel mix |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-fuel-mix |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian electricity generation renewable sources |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-electricity-generation-renewable-sources |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref> Total consumption of energy in this period was sourced from coal (28.4%), oil (37.3%), gas (27.4%) and renewables (7%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian energy mix by state and territory 2021-22 |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/data-charts/australian-energy-mix-state-and-territory-2021-22 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref> From 2012 to 2022, the energy sourced from renewables has increased 5.7%, while energy sourced from coal has decreased 2.6%. The use of gas also increased by 1.5% and the use of oil stayed relatively stable with a reduction of only 0.2%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Energy consumption |url=https://www.energy.gov.au/energy-data/australian-energy-statistics/energy-consumption |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=energy.gov.au}}</ref>
In 2020, Australia produced 27.7% of its electricity from renewable sources,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Clean Energy Council Australia |title=Clean Energy Australia Report 2021 |url=https://assets.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/documents/resources/reports/clean-energy-australia/clean-energy-australia-report-2021.pdf |access-date=3 June 2021 |website=Clean Energy Australia}}</ref> exceeding the [[Renewable energy target|target]] set by the Commonwealth government in 2009 of 20% renewable energy by 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Renewable Energy Target Scheme Design |url=http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/pubs/RET-scheme-design.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515035607/http://www.climatechange.gov.au/renewabletarget/pubs/RET-scheme-design.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2009 |access-date=15 May 2009}}</ref> A new target of 82% per cent renewable energy by 2030 was set in 2022<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 August 2023 |title=Australia will fall well short of 82 per cent renewable energy by 2030, analysts predict, as problems mount |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-08-06/australia-likely-to-fall-short-of-82pc-renewable-energy-target/102689392 |access-date=5 February 2024 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU}}</ref> and a target for [[net zero emissions]] by 2050 was set in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Evans |first=Jake |date=26 October 2021 |title=What is the government's plan to get Australia to net zero? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-26/how-will-australia-reach-net-zero-by-2050-and-2030-targets/100565342 |access-date=11 February 2024 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)]] |language=en-AU}}</ref>
===Science and technology===
In 2019, Australia spent $35.6 billion on [[research and development]], allocating about 1.79% of GDP.<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 March 2021 |title=Research and Experimental Development, Businesses, Australia, 2019–20 financial year |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/industry/technology-and-innovation/research-and-experimental-development-businesses-australia/latest-release |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> A 2022 study by [[Accenture]] for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2022 |title=Australia wants a place in ranks of global tech nations |url=https://www.afr.com/technology/australia-wants-a-place-in-ranks-of-global-tech-nations-20220328-p5a8kh |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Australian Financial Review |language=en}}</ref> In addition, recent [[startup ecosystem]]s in Sydney and Melbourne are valued at $34 billion combined.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 September 2021 |title=Sydney's startup ecosystem is worth $24 billion, Melbourne's $10.5bn |url=https://www.startupdaily.net/2021/09/sydneys-startup-ecosystem-is-worth-24-billion-melbournes-10-5bn |access-date=20 May 2022 |website=Startup Daily |language=en-US}}</ref> Australia ranked 23rd in the [[Global Innovation Index]] 2024.<ref>{{Cite book |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=6 October 2024 |page=18 |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2 |author1=World Intellectual Property Organization. |last2=Dutta |first2=Soumitra. |last3=Lanvin |first3=Bruno. |last4=Rivera León |first4=Lorena. |last5=Wunsch-Vincent |first5=Sacha. }}</ref>
With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed over 4% of the world's published research in 2020,<ref name="Berthold-2021">{{Cite web |last=Berthold |first=Emma |date=17 May 2021 |title=Science in Australia |url=https://www.science.org.au/curious/policy-features/science-australia |access-date=24 July 2022 |website=Curious |language=en}}</ref> making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Output {{!}} Australian Innovation System Monitor |url=https://publications.industry.gov.au/publications/australianinnovationsystemmonitor/science-and-research/research-output/index.html |access-date=24 July 2022 |website=publications.industry.gov.au}}</ref> [[CSIRO]], Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities.<ref name="Berthold-2021"/> Its most notable contributions include the invention of [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hannaford |first=Peter |title=Alan Walsh 1916–1998 |url=http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224214248/http://www.science.org.au/academy/memoirs/walsh2.htm |archive-date=24 February 2007 |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=AAS Biographical Memoirs |publisher=[[Australian Academy of Science]]}}</ref> the essential components of [[Wi-Fi]] technology,<ref>{{Cite web |title= Wi-fi |url=https://www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/wi-fi |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=National Museum of Australia |publisher= |language=en}}</ref> and the development of the first commercially successful [[polymer banknote]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 November 2014 |title=Proceeds of crime: how polymer banknotes were invented |url=https://blog.csiro.au/proceeds-of-crime-how-polymer-banknotes-were-invented |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=CSIROscope |language=en-AU}}</ref> {{As of|2024}}, 13 Australian scientists have been awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in physics, chemistry or medicine,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nobel Australians |url=https://www.science.org.au/education/history-australian-science/nobel-australians |access-date=21 December 2024 |website=[[Australian Academy of Science]] |language=}}</ref> and two have been awarded the [[Fields Medal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Watson |first=Laura |date=1 August 2018 |title=AMSI Congratulates Australia's Second Ever Fields Medallist |url=https://amsi.org.au/2018/08/02/amsi-congratulates-australias-second-ever-fields-medallist/ |access-date=21 December 2024 |website=[[Australian Mathematical Sciences Institute]] |language=}}</ref>
Australia is a key player in supporting [[space exploration]]. Facilities such as the [[Square Kilometre Array]] and [[Australia Telescope Compact Array]] radio telescopes, telescopes such as the [[Siding Spring Observatory]], and ground stations such as the [[Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex]] are of great assistance in [[deep space exploration]] missions, primarily by [[NASA]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Dave |title=Australia's part in 50 years of space exploration with NASA |url=http://theconversation.com/australias-part-in-50-years-of-space-exploration-with-nasa-24530 |access-date=13 December 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=19 March 2014 |language=en}}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Australia}}
The population of Australia is estimated to be {{data Australia|poptoday|formatnum}} as of {{CURRENTDAY}} {{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTYEAR}}.<ref name="popclock"/> It is the 54th<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/population-by-country.htm|title=Population Figures for all Countries of the World (latest) - Nations Online Project}}</ref> most populous country in the world and the most populous [[Oceania]]n country.
Australia has a [[population density]] of 3.4 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the [[List of countries by population density|most sparsely populated countries in the world]]. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between [[South East Queensland]] to the north-east and [[Adelaide]] to the south-west.<ref name="ABS-regional-population-latest"/>
Australia is also highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/3218.0 |title=Main Features – Main Features |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |date=27 March 2019|work=3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2017–18}}</ref> Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth]] and [[Adelaide]].<ref name="ABS-regional-population-latest" />
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the [[median age|average age]] of the population was 39 years.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Population: Census |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/population-census/latest-release |publisher=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]}}</ref>
===Cities===
{{Main|List of cities in Australia by population|List of cities in Australia}}
Australia has five cities (including their suburbs) that have populations larger than one million people. The majority of Australia's population lives near coastlines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226144234/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/beach/ |archive-date=26 February 2010 |title=The Beach |work=Australian Government: Culture Portal |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia |date=17 March 2008 }}</ref>
{{Largest cities of Australia}}
=== Ancestry and immigration ===
{{
[[File:Australian Residents by Country of Birth 2021 Census.svg|thumb|upright=1.2| Australian residents by country of birth (2021 census)]]
Between 1788 and the [[Second World War]], the vast majority of [[settlers]] and [[immigrants]] came from the [[Anglo-Celtic Australians|British Isles]] (principally [[English Australians|England]], [[Irish Australians|Ireland]] and [[Scottish Australians|Scotland]]), although there was significant immigration from [[Chinese Australians|China]] and [[German Australians|Germany]] during the 19th century. Following Federation in 1901, the [[white Australia policy]] was strengthened, restricting further migration from these areas. However, this policy was relaxed following WW2, and in the decades following, Australia received [[Post-war immigration to Australia|a large wave of immigration]] from across [[European Australians|Europe]], with many more immigrants arriving from [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]] than in previous decades. All overt racial discrimination ended in 1973, with [[Multiculturalism in Australia|multiculturalism]] becoming official policy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm |title=The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy |access-date=18 September 2007|year=2005|publisher=Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219130703/http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm |archive-date=19 February 2006}}</ref> Subsequently, there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with [[Asian Australians|Asia]] being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.<ref name="Australian-Government-Department-of-Home-Affairs-2019">{{Cite web |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/report-migration-program-2018-19.pdf |title=2018–19 Migration Program Report|website=Australian Government Department of Home Affairs|date=30 June 2019}}</ref>
Today, Australia has the world's [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|eighth-largest]] immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|highest proportion]] among major [[Western world|Western]] nations.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/migration-australia/2019-20#australia-s-population-by-country-of-birth |title=Main Features – Australia's Population by Country of Birth|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |date=23 April 2021 |work=3412.0 – Migration, Australia, 2019–20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=International migrant stock 2017: maps |website=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1 |access-date=15 January 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209122006/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimatesmaps.shtml?1t1 |archive-date= 9 December 2018 }}</ref> In 2022–23, 212,789 permanent migrants were admitted to Australia, with a net migration population gain of 518,000 people inclusive of non-permanent residents.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 December 2023 |title=Overseas Migration |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/overseas-migration/latest-release |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Australia's Migration Trends 2022–23 |url=https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-stats/files/migration-trends-2022-23.PDF |publisher=Department of Home Affairs}}</ref> Most entered on skilled visas,<ref name="Australian-Government-Department-of-Home-Affairs-2019"/> however the immigration program also offers visas for family members and [[refugee]]s.<ref name="immig">{{Cite web |title=Net Overseas Migration |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main%20Features52018-19?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2018-19&num=&view= |access-date=4 May 2020 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>
The [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two [[ancestry|ancestries]] each [[Census in Australia|census]] and the responses are classified into broad ancestry groups.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Understanding and using Ancestry data |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209190954/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data |archive-date=9 February 2024 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref><ref name="abs">{{Cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/classifications/australian-standard-classification-cultural-and-ethnic-groups-ascceg/latest-release | title=Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups (ASCCEG), 2019 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics | date=18 December 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231121023512/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/classifications/australian-standard-classification-cultural-and-ethnic-groups-ascceg/latest-release |archive-date= 21 November 2023 }}</ref> At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestry groups as a proportion of the total population were:<ref name="abs.gov.au">[https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021/Cultural%20diversity%20data%20summary.xlsx Cultural diversity data summary]. 2021. Australian Bureau of Statistics.</ref> 57.2% [[European Australians|European]] (including 46% [[Northwestern Europe#Ethnographic definitions|North-West European]] and 11.2% [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Eastern Europe]]an), 33.8% [[Demographics of Oceania|Oceanian]],{{Refn|group="N"|Includes those who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry.<ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022"/> The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] [[European Australian|European]] ancestry.<ref name="13010-Year-Book-Australia-1995">{{Cite news|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182!OpenDocument |title=Feature Article – Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article) |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |agency=[[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] |work=1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 1995}}</ref>}} 17.4% [[Asian Australians|Asian]] (including 6.5% [[South Asia|Southern]] and [[Central Asia#Demographics|Central Asian]], 6.4% [[East Asia|North-East Asian]], and 4.5% [[Southeast Asia|South-East Asian]]), 3.2% [[Demographics of the Middle East and North Africa|North African and Middle Eastern]], 1.4% [[Americas#Demography|Peoples of the Americas]], and 1.3% [[Sub-Saharan Africa#Demographics|Sub-Saharan African]]. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:{{Refn|group="N"|Each person may nominate more than one ancestry, so the total may exceed 100%.<ref>{{cite web | title=Understanding and using Ancestry data | website=Australian Bureau of Statistics | date=28 June 2022 | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/detailed-methodology-information/information-papers/understanding-and-using-ancestry-data | access-date=30 May 2024}}</ref>}}<ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022"/> <!-- Only ancestries with >1% are listed. -->
{{Columns-list|colwidth=12em|
* [[English Australian|English]] (33%)
* [[Australians|Australian]] (29.9%){{Refn|group="N"|The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry have at least partial [[Anglo-Celtic Australian|Anglo-Celtic]] [[European Australian|European]] ancestry.<ref name="13010-Year-Book-Australia-1995"/>}}
* [[Irish Australian|Irish]] (9.5%)
* [[Scottish Australian|Scottish]] (8.6%)
* [[Chinese Australian|Chinese]] (5.5%)
* [[Italian Australian|Italian]] (4.4%)
* [[German Australian|German]] (4%)
* [[Indian Australian|Indian]] (3.1%)
* [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] (2.9%){{Refn|group="N"|Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include [[Torres Strait Islanders]]. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander), which is a separate question.}}
* [[Greek Australian|Greek]] (1.7%)
* [[Filipino Australian|Filipino]] (1.6%)
* [[Dutch Australian|Dutch]] (1.5%)
* [[Vietnamese Australian|Vietnamese]] (1.3%)
* [[Lebanese Australian|Lebanese]] (1%)
}}
At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous]]—[[Aboriginal Australians]] and [[Torres Strait Islanders]].{{Refn|group="N"|Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}<ref name="abs"/>
===Language===
{{Main|Languages of Australia}}
Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the ''[[de facto]]'' official and national language.<ref name="language2">{{Cite web |title=Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies? |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220020910/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/confer/04/speech18b.htm |archive-date=20 December 2008 |access-date=11 January 2009 |work=1995 Global Cultural Diversity Conference Proceedings, Sydney |publisher=[[Department of Immigration and Citizenship]]}} "English has no de jure status but it is so entrenched as the common language that it is de facto the official language as well as the national language."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ward |first=Rowena |date=2019 |title='National' and 'Official' Languages Across the Independent Asia-Pacific |journal=Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies |volume=16 |issue=1/2 |pages=83–4 |doi=10.5130/pjmis.v16i1-2.6510 | doi-access=free |quote=The use of English in Australia is one example of both a de facto national and official language: it is widely used and is the language of government and the courts, but has never been legally designated as the country's official language.}}</ref> [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Bruce |title=The Vocabulary Of Australian English |url=http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110320004658/http://www.nma.gov.au/libraries/attachments/exhibitions/vocabulary_of_australian_english/files/5471/Vocabulary%20of%20Australian%20English.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2011 |access-date=5 April 2010 |publisher=National Museum of Australia}}</ref> and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling.<ref>"The Macquarie Dictionary", Fourth Edition. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd, 2005.</ref> [[General Australian]] serves as the standard dialect.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lalande |first=Line |date=4 May 2020 |title=Australian English in a nutshell |url=https://www.noslangues-ourlanguages.gc.ca/en/blogue-blog/australian-english-eng |publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> The Australian [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]] was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census of Population and Housing: Cultural diversity data summary, 2021, TABLE 5. LANGUAGE USED AT HOME BY STATE AND TERRITORY |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021#data-downloads |access-date=7 May 2021 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref>
At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (2.7%), [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (1.4%), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] (1.3%), [[Cantonese]] (1.2%) and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (0.9%).<ref>{{Cite web |title=2021 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315155123/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/AUS |archive-date= 15 March 2024 }}</ref>
More than 250 [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.arts.gov.au/what-we-do/indigenous-arts-and-languages/indigenous-languages-and-arts-program/national-indigenous-languages-report |title=National Indigenous Languages Report |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |year=2020 |___location=Canberra |pages=13}}</ref> The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered.<ref>National Indigenous Language Report (2020). pp. 42, 65</ref> The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians — Yumplatok ([[Torres Strait Creole]]), [[Djambarrpuyngu]] (a [[Yolŋu languages|Yolŋu language]]) and [[Pitjantjatjara dialect|Pitjantjatjara]] (a [[Western Desert language]]) were among the most widely spoken.<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 June 2022 |title=Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: Census |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-peoples/aboriginal-and-torres-strait-islander-people-census/2021 |access-date=7 May 2023 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref> NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.<ref>National Indigenous Languages Report (2020). p. 46</ref>
===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Australia}}
[[File:St Mary's Cathedral as viewed from Hyde Park, Sydney b.jpg|thumb|[[St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney|St Mary's Cathedral]] in Sydney belongs to the [[Catholic Church]], Australia's largest religious denomination.]]
Australia has no [[state religion]]; section 116 of the [[Australian Constitution]] prohibits federal legislation
that would establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Australia: Religious Freedom |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806061716/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/religion.html |archive-date=6 August 2011 |access-date=31 December 2011 |publisher=Dfat.gov.au}}</ref> However, the states still retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Puls |first=Joshua |date=1998 |title=The Wall of Separation: Section 116, the First Amendment and Constitutional Religious Guarantees |url=https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedLRev/1998/6.pdf |journal=Federal Law Review |page=160 |via=Austlii}}</ref>
At the 2021 census, 38.9% of the population identified as having [[Irreligion in Australia|no religion]],<ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=General Community Profile |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/AUS/download/GCP_AUS.xlsx |series=2021 Census of Population and Housing |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |type=[[Excel]] file}}</ref> up from 15.5% in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2001/0 | title=2001 Australia, Census All persons QuickStats |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308064233/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2001/0 |archive-date= 8 March 2024 }}</ref> The largest religion is [[Christianity]] (43.9% of the population).<ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022"/> The largest Christian denominations are the [[Catholic Church in Australia|Catholic Church]] (20% of the population) and the [[Anglican Church of Australia]] (9.8%). Non-British immigration since the [[Second World War]] has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are [[Islam]] (3.2%), [[Hinduism]] (2.7%), [[Buddhism]] (2.4%), [[Sikhism]] (0.8%), and [[Judaism]] (0.4%).<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 April 2022 |title=Religious affiliation in Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/religious-affiliation-australia |access-date= |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022"/>
In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions.<ref name="Australian-Bureau-of-Statistics-2022"/> In [[Australian Aboriginal mythology]] and the [[animist]] framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the [[Dreaming (spirituality)|Dreaming]] is a [[sacred]] era in which ancestral [[totem]]ic spirit beings formed [[Creation myth|The Creation]]. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.<ref>{{Harvnb|Flood|2019|pp=163–169}}</ref>
===Health===
{{See also|Health care in Australia}}
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=AU |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Australia|publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref> is the [[List of countries by life expectancy|fifth-highest in the world]]. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/skincancer/publishing.nsf/Content/fact-2 |title=Skin cancer – key statistics|year=2008|publisher=[[Department of Health and Ageing]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208171642/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/skincancer/publishing.nsf/Content/fact-2 |archive-date=8 February 2014}}</ref> while [[Tobacco smoking|cigarette smoking]] is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is [[hypertension]] at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/hwe/bodaiia03/bodaiia03-c05.pdf |title=Risks to health in Australia|website=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare|date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226105813/http://www.aihw.gov.au/publications/hwe/bodaiia03/bodaiia03-c05.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 February 2011 |title=quitnow – Smoking – A Leading Cause of Death |url=http://quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219073743/http://quitnow.info.au/internet/quitnow/publishing.nsf/Content/warnings-graph |archive-date=19 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women<ref>{{Cite web |title= Global prevalence of adult obesity | date=January 2012 |url=http://www.iaso.org/site_media/uploads/Global_prevalence_of_adult_obesity_Ranking_by_country_2012.pdf |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829014750/http://www.iaso.org/site_media/uploads/Global_prevalence_of_adult_obesity_Ranking_by_country_2012.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and near the top of [[Developed country|developed nations]] for its proportion of [[Obesity in Australia|obese]] adults;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/Publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-hlthwt-obesity.htm |title=About Overweight and Obesity|publisher=Department of Health and Ageing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507033011/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-hlthwt-obesity.htm |archive-date=7 May 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref> 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.<ref name="aihw">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aihw.gov.au/overweight-and-obesity |title=Overweight and obesity|date=25 February 2021 |publisher=Australian Institute of Health and Welfare}}</ref>
Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=AU |title=Current healthcare expenditure (% of GDP) – Australia|publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=17 August 2022}}</ref> It introduced a [[National health insurance|national insurance scheme]] in 1975.<ref name="Biggs-2004">{{Cite web |url=http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |title=Medicare – Background Brief|last=Biggs|first=Amanda|date=29 October 2004|publisher=Commonwealth of Australia|___location=Canberra, ACT|work=Parliament of Australia: Parliamentary Library |access-date=16 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414012007/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/intguide/SP/medicare.htm |archive-date=14 April 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Following a period in which access to the scheme was restricted, the scheme became [[Universal health care|universal]] once more in 1981 under the name of [[Medicare (Australia)|Medicare]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2020 |title=International Health Care System Profiles: Australia |url=https://www.commonwealthfund.org/international-health-policy-center/countries/australia |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=The Commonwealth Fund |language=en}}</ref> The program is nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the [[Medicare levy]], currently at 2%.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Medicare-levy |title=Medicare levy|publisher=Australian Taxation Office|date=18 October 2017 |access-date=9 April 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130629085049/http://www.ato.gov.au/Individuals/Medicare-levy/ |archive-date=29 June 2013}}</ref> The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the [[Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme]] (subsidising the costs of medicines) and [[general practice]].<ref name="Biggs-2004"/>
===Education===
{{Main|Education in Australia}}
[[File:Parkville - University of Melbourne (Ormond College).jpg|thumb|upright|Australia has the highest ratio of international students per capita in the world, with Melbourne ranking fifth among the 2023 ''[[QS World University Rankings#QS Best Student Cities|QS Best Student Cities]]'' ([[University of Melbourne]] pictured).]]
School attendance, or registration for [[Homeschooling in Australia|home schooling]],<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Townsend|first1=Ian |title=Thousands of parents illegally home schooling|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2012-01-28/thousands-of-parents-illegally-home-schooling/3798008 |access-date=2 December 2015|work=ABC News|date=30 January 2012}}</ref> is [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] throughout Australia. Education is primarily the responsibility of the individual states and territories; however, the Commonwealth has significant influence through funding agreements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Australian Education System |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/sites/default/files/australian-education-system-foundation.pdf |access-date=6 February 2024 |publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |pages=7–9}}</ref> Since 2014, [[Australian Curriculum|a national curriculum]] developed by the Commonwealth has been implemented by the states and territories.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ross |first=Emily |date=18 November 2021 |title=Why do Australian states need a national curriculum, and do teachers even use it? |url=http://theconversation.com/why-do-australian-states-need-a-national-curriculum-and-do-teachers-even-use-it-171745 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> Attendance rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/education |title=Education|publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship |access-date=14 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218220904/http://www.immi.gov.au/living-in-australia/settle-in-australia/everyday-life/education |archive-date=18 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/education_in_australia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514101140/http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/education_in_australia.html |archive-date=14 May 2011 |title=Our system of education|publisher=Australian Government: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade |access-date=13 January 2012}}</ref> In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an [[apprenticeship]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/navigation/parents-and-community/schooling/?oid=Category-id-3869597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321204923/http://det.wa.edu.au/schoolsandyou/detcms/navigation/parents-and-community/schooling/?oid=Category-id-3869597 |archive-date=21 March 2012 |title=The Department of Education – Schools and You – Schooling|website=det.wa.edu.au |access-date=31 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Education Act (NT) – Section 20 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/ea104/s20.html|website=austlii.edu.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Education Act 1990 (NSW) – Section 21 |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ea1990104/s21b.html|work=austlii.edu.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Minimum school leaving age jumps to 17|url=http://news.theage.com.au/breaking-news-national/minimum-school-leaving-age-jumps-to-17-20090128-7r4d.html|publisher=The Age |access-date=30 May 2013|date=28 January 2009}}</ref> According to the 2022 [[PISA]] evaluations, Australian 15-year-olds ranked ninth in the OECD for reading and science and tenth for maths. However, less than 60% of Australian students achieved the National Proficiency Standard – 51% in maths, 58% in science and 57% in reading.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 December 2023 |title=PISA 2022 Results (Volume I and II) - Country Notes: Australia |url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2023/11/pisa-2022-results-volume-i-and-ii-country-notes_2fca04b9/australia_aa76963a.html |access-date=31 July 2024 |publisher=OECD |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Long |first=Claudia |date=6 December 2023 |title=Australia is now in the world's top 10 academic performers – but the data paints a complex picture |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-12-05/pisa-international-school-rankings-in-maths-science-reading/103185468 |access-date=31 July 2024 |work=ABC News Australia}}</ref>
Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003.<ref name=cialittab>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 |title=Literacy|work=CIA World Factbook |access-date=10 October 2013 |archive-date=24 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124171442/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2103.html#136 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics found that 44% of the population does not have high literary and numeracy competence levels, interpreted by others as suggesting that they do not have the "skills needed for everyday life".<ref>{{Cite web |date=9 October 2013 |title=Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/education/programme-international-assessment-adult-competencies-australia/latest-release |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/backgroundbriefing/2013-09-22/4962902 |title=A literacy deficit|website=abc.net.au|date=22 September 2013 |access-date=10 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 April 2021 |title=Australia's adult literacy crisis |url=https://ala.asn.au/stories/australias-adult-literacy-crisis/ |access-date=26 January 2024 |website=Adult Learning Australia |language=en-US}}</ref>
Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ausitaleem.com.pk/australian-education-system.shtml |title=Australian Education {{pipe}} Australian Education System {{pipe}} Education {{pipe}} Study in Australia|publisher=Ausitaleem.com.pk |access-date=31 December 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119063252/http://www.ausitaleem.com.pk/australian-education-system.shtml |archive-date=19 January 2012}}</ref> The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university.<ref>[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf Education at a Glance 2006] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102101942/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/44/35/37376068.pdf|date=2 January 2016}} Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</ref> There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as [[Technical and further education|TAFE]], and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |title=About Australian Apprenticeships|publisher=Australian Government |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091111234035/http://www.australianapprenticeships.gov.au/about/default.asp |archive-date=11 November 2009}}</ref> About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications<ref>{{Cite web|website=Australian Bureau of Statistics|url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument |title=Year Book Australia 2005 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409132916/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9%21OpenDocument |archive-date=9 April 2016 |date=21 January 2005 }}</ref> and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html;_ylt=AlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG;_ylu=X3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--;_ylg=X3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--;_ylv=3?page=1 |title=The Most Educated Countries in the World – Yahoo Finance|last=Sauter|first=Michael B.|publisher=Finance.yahoo.com|date=24 September 2012 |access-date=14 November 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204213400/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html%3B_ylt%3DAlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG%3B_ylu%3DX3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--%3B_ylg%3DX3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--%3B_ylv%3D3?page=1 |archive-date=4 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/ |title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is ...|magazine=Time|first=Samantha |last=Grossman|date=27 September 2012 |access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036 |title=2016 Census QuickStats: Australia |website=censusdata.abs.gov.au |access-date=14 February 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620052901/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/quickstat/036 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Australia has the highest ratio of [[International students in Australia|international students]] per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCode=TAWEB_WRE170_a&dest=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fbusiness%2Fproperty%2Fbooming-student-market-a-valuable-property%2Fnews-story%2F6bb3823260aa3443f0c26909406d089b&memtype=anonymous&mode=premium&nk=5cfb870de12779cf853780286e352a51-1587312248 |title=Subscribe to The Australian {{pipe}} Newspaper home delivery, website, iPad, iPhone & Android apps|website=theaustralian.com.au}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.macrobusiness.com.au/2019/11/australian-universities-double-down-on-international-students |title=Australian universities double down on international students|first1=Leith van OnselenLeith van Onselen is Chief Economist at the MB|last1=Fund|first2=MB Super Leith has previously worked at the Australian|last2=Treasury|first3=Victorian |last3=Treasury|first4=Goldman|last4=Sachs|date=31 October 2019|website=MacroBusiness}}</ref> Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-07-27/temporary-graduate-visa-485-boom/10035390 |title=Record number of international students sticking around on work visas|first=political reporter Jackson|last=Gothe-Snape|date=27 July 2018|newspaper=ABC News}}</ref> Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed more than $28 billion to the economy in the 2016–17 financial year.<ref group="N">That is, 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2017.</ref><ref name="Berthold-2021"/>
==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Australia}}
[[File:Sydney Opera House, botanic gardens 1.jpg|thumb|The [[Sydney Opera House]] was completed in 1973 and declared a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] in 2007, making it the youngest building to have received the designation.<ref>''[[Architect Magazine]]'' (August 2007), '''96''' (11), p. 14</ref>]]
Contemporary Australian culture is diverse<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2024 |title=Culturally and linguistically Diverse Australian |url=https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/cald-australians/overview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219224057/https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports-data/population-groups/cald-australians/overview |archive-date=19 February 2024 |access-date=20 February 2024 |website=Australian Government, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare}}</ref> and reflects [[Australian Aboriginal culture|the country's Indigenous traditions]], [[Culture of the United Kingdom|Anglo-Celtic heritage]], and post-1945 history of [[multiculturalism in Australia|multicultural immigration]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Jupp|2001|pp=74–77, 796–802, 808–812}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pp=118–20}}</ref> The [[culture of the United States]] has also been influential.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Richard |date=1 January 1983 |title=A Backwater Awash: The Australian Experience of Americanisation |journal=Theory, Culture and Society |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=108–122 |doi=10.1177/026327648300100309 |s2cid=144339300}}</ref> The evolution of Australian culture since British colonisation has given rise to distinctive cultural traits.<ref name="Davison pp98–92">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=98–99}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Teo|White|2003|pp=125–27}}</ref>
Many Australians identify [[egalitarianism]], [[mateship]], irreverence and a lack of formality as part of their [[national identity]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cultural life |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Australia/Cultural-life |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016 |title=Australian Culture: Core Concepts |url=https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/australian-culture/australian-culture-core-concepts |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=Cultural Atlas |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Australian Citizenship: Our Common Bond |url=https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/citizenship-subsite/files/our-common-bond-testable.pdf |publisher=Australian Government |page=36}}</ref> These find expression in [[Australian slang]], as well as [[Australian comedy|Australian humour]], which is often characterised as dry, irreverent and ironic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Luu |first=Chi |date=7 February 2018 |title=Small Poppy Syndrome: Why are Australians so Obsessed With Nicknaming Things? |url=https://daily.jstor.org/australians-obsessed-nicknaming/ |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=JSTOR Daily |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kidd |first1=Evan |last2=Kemp |first2=Nenagh |author-link2=Nenagh Kemp |last3=Kashima |first3=Emiko S. |last4=Quinn |first4=Sara |date=June 2016 |title=Language, Culture, and Group Membership: An Investigation Into the Social Effects of Colloquial Australian English |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022116638175 |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=713–733 |doi=10.1177/0022022116638175 |issn=0022-0221 |s2cid=147360478 |url-access=subscription |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002E-24A7-F}}</ref> New citizens and visa holders are required to commit to "Australian values", which are identified by the [[Department of Home Affairs (Australia)|Department of Home Affairs]] as including: a respect for the freedom of the individual; recognition of the rule of law; opposition to racial, gender and religious discrimination; and an understanding of the "[[:wikt:fair go|fair go]]", which is said to encompass the equality of opportunity for all and compassion for those in need.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Meeting our requirements: Australian values |url=https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/help-support/meeting-our-requirements/australian-values |access-date=6 February 2024 |publisher=Department of Home Affairs}}</ref> What these values mean, and whether Australians uphold them, has been debated since before Federation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Snow |first=Deborah |date=18 January 2019 |title=Australian values: what the bloody hell are they? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/australian-values-what-the-bloody-hell-are-they-20190118-p50s76.html |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dyrenfurth |first=Nick |date=June 2007 |title=John Howard's Hegemony of Values: The Politics of 'Mateship' in the Howard Decade |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10361140701319994 |journal=Australian Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=211–230 |doi=10.1080/10361140701319994 |s2cid=154041199 |issn=1036-1146 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Crowe |first=Shaun |date=14 January 2015 |title=Book review: Mateship – A Very Australian History |url=http://theconversation.com/book-review-mateship-a-very-australian-history-35858 |access-date=6 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Zhuang |first=Yan |date=19 November 2021 |title=What Does Mateship Mean to You? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/19/world/asia/what-does-mateship-mean-to-you.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
===Arts===
{{Main|Australian art|Australian literature|Theatre of Australia|Dance in Australia|Music of Australia}}
[[File:Sidney Nolan Snake.jpg|thumb|Held at the [[Museum of Old and New Art]] in Hobart, Tasmania, [[Sidney Nolan]]'s ''[[Snake (Nolan)|Snake]]'' mural (1970) is inspired by the Aboriginal creation myth of the [[Rainbow Serpent]], as well as desert flowers in bloom after a drought.<ref>"Sidney Nolan's Rainbow Serpent is larger than life" (16 June 2012), ''The Australasian''.</ref>]]
Australia has more than 100,000 [[Indigenous Australian art#Stone art|Aboriginal rock art]] sites,<ref>Tacon, Paul S. C.; Ouzman, Sven (2004). "Worlds within stone: the inner and outer rock-art landscapes of northern Australia and southern Africa". In Nash, George; Chippindale, Christopher (ed.). ''The Figured Landscapes of Rock-Art: Looking at Pictures in Place''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–68. 9780521524247.</ref> and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse [[contemporary Indigenous Australian art]], "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic [[Robert Hughes (critic)|Robert Hughes]];<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html |title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art |last=Henly |first=Susan Gough |date=6 November 2005 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> its exponents include [[Emily Kame Kngwarreye]].<ref>Smith, Terry (1996). "Kngwarreye Woman, Abstract Painter", p. 24 in ''Emily Kngwarreye – Paintings'', North Ryde NSW: Craftsman House / G + B Arts International. {{ISBN|978-90-5703-681-1}}.</ref> Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land.<ref name="wwwartgallerynswgovau"/> The [[impressionism|impressionistic]] works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Tom Roberts]] and other members of the 19th-century [[Heidelberg School]]—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation.<ref name="wwwartgallerynswgovau">{{Cite web |title=Collection {{pipe}} Art Gallery of NSW|url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/collection/ |access-date=15 January 2022|website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}}</ref> While the school remained influential into the 1900s, [[modern art|modernists]] such as [[Margaret Preston]] and [[Clarice Beckett]], and, later, [[Sidney Nolan]], explored new artistic trends.<ref name="wwwartgallerynswgovau"/> The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist [[Albert Namatjira]],<ref>Sayers, Andrew (2001). ''Australian Art''. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. pp. 78–88. {{ISBN|978-0-19-284214-5}}.</ref> as well as [[Fred Williams (artist)|Fred Williams]], [[Brett Whiteley]] and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the [[figurative art|figurative]] and the [[abstract art|abstract]].<ref name="wwwartgallerynswgovau"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Brett Whiteley: nature :: Art Gallery NSW|url=https://www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/brett-whiteley-nature/ |access-date=15 January 2022|website=www.artgallery.nsw.gov.au}}</ref>
Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous [[oral tradition]]s, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older.<ref>Sarwal, Amit; Sarwal, Reema (2009). ''Reading Down Under: Australian Literary Studies Reader''. SSS Publications. p. xii. {{ISBN|978-8-1902-2821-3}}.</ref> In the 19th century, [[Henry Lawson]] and [[Banjo Paterson]] captured the experience of [[Australian bush|the bush]] using a distinctive Australian vocabulary.<ref>Mulligan, Martin; Hill, Stuart (2001). ''Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5210-0956-0}}, p. 72.</ref> Their works are still popular; Paterson's [[bush poetry|bush poem]] "[[Waltzing Matilda]]" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem.<ref>O'Keeffe, Dennis (2012). ''Waltzing Matilda: The Secret History of Australia's Favourite Song''. [[Allen & Unwin]]. p. back cover. {{ISBN|978-1-7423-7706-3}}.</ref> [[Miles Franklin]] is the namesake of Australia's [[Miles Franklin Award|most prestigious literary prize]], awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 February 2012 |title=The Miles Franklin Literary Award – australia.gov.au |url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/miles-franklin-literary-award |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227135804/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/miles-franklin-literary-award |archive-date=27 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Its first recipient, [[Patrick White]], went on to win the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1973.<ref>[http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-nobel-laureates Australia's Nobel Laureates and the Nobel Prize] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819205739/http://www.australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/australias-nobel-laureates |date=19 August 2016 }}, australia.gov.au. Retrieved 17 April 2015.</ref> Australian [[Booker Prize]] winners include [[Peter Carey (novelist)|Peter Carey]], [[Thomas Keneally]] and [[Richard Flanagan]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hughes-d'Aeth|first=Tony |title=Australia's Booker prize record suggests others will come in Flanagan's wake|url=http://theconversation.com/australias-booker-prize-record-suggests-others-will-come-in-flanagans-wake-33025 |access-date=15 January 2022|website=The Conversation |date=15 October 2014 |language=en}}</ref> Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist [[Germaine Greer]] and philosopher [[Peter Singer]].<ref>Williams, Robyn (12 November 2016). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-11-12/three-books-australian-authors-changed-20th-century/8008380 "Three Australian books that changed history"], ABC Radio National. Retrieved 12 November 2016.</ref>
[[File:ACDC-Hughes-long ago.jpg|thumb|upright|Arising from the [[Pub rock (Australia)|Australian pub rock]] scene, [[AC/DC]] ranks among the world's [[List of best-selling music artists|best-selling music acts]].]]
In the performing arts, Aboriginal peoples have traditions of religious and secular song, dance and rhythmic music often performed in [[corroboree]]s.<ref name="Flood 2019 62, 64–65"/> At the beginning of the 20th century, [[Nellie Melba]] was one of the world's leading opera singers,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.themonthly.com.au/encounters-shane-maloney-nellie-melba-enrico-caruso--160 |title=Nellie Melba & Enrico Caruso |work=[[The Monthly]]|author=Maloney, Shane |date= January 2006 |access-date=23 April 2010}}</ref> and later popular music acts such as the [[Bee Gees]], [[AC/DC]], [[INXS]] and [[Kylie Minogue]] achieved international recognition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Compagnoni |first=Tom |date=4 September 2022 |title=The 43-year-old invention behind 2022's biggest music sensation |url=https://www.smh.com.au/culture/music/the-sydney-invention-that-transformed-the-sound-of-music-20220904-p5bf93.html |website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref> Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the Australian government's [[Australia Council for the Arts|Australia Council]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/13753/Australia_Council_for_the_Arts_-_Funding_Guide_2010.pdf |year=2010 |title=Arts funding guide 2010 |publisher=[[Australia Council]] |access-date=14 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705002654/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0019/13753/Australia_Council_for_the_Arts_-_Funding_Guide_2010.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> There is a symphony orchestra in each state,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/50231/LECG_Orchestras_Review_evaluation_summary.pdf |title=Evaluation of the Orchestras Review 2005 funding package implementation |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Australia Council |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314080534/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/50231/LECG_Orchestras_Review_evaluation_summary.pdf |archive-date=14 March 2011 }}</ref> and a national opera company, [[Opera Australia]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/the_arts/artists_and_orgs/artists/opera_australia |title=Opera Australia |publisher=Australia Council |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723135113/http://www.australiacouncil.gov.au/the_arts/artists_and_orgs/artists/opera_australia |archive-date=23 July 2008 }}</ref> well known for its famous [[soprano]] [[Joan Sutherland]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/music/opera |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406111552/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/music/opera |archive-date=6 April 2011 |title=Opera in Australia |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=5 March 2007}}</ref> Ballet and dance are represented by [[The Australian Ballet]] and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.minister.dbcde.gov.au/brandis/media/media_releases/2007/35_per_cent_increase_in_funding_for_australias_major_performing_arts_companies |title=35 per cent increase in funding for Australia's major performing arts companies |author=Brandis, George |publisher=Department of Communications, Information Technology and the Arts |date=8 May 2007 |access-date=23 April 2010 |author-link=George Brandis |archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20071112025600/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/36698/20071112-1356/www.minister.dcita.gov.au/brandis/media/media_releases/2007/35_per_cent_increase_in_funding_for_australias_major_performing_arts_companies.html |archive-date=12 November 2007}}{{Cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
===Media===
{{Main|Cinema of Australia|Television in Australia|Media of Australia}}
[[File:The Story of the Kelly Gang 1906.jpg|thumb|left|Actor playing the [[bushranger]] and outlaw [[Ned Kelly]] in ''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film]]
''[[The Story of the Kelly Gang]]'' (1906), the world's first [[feature film|feature-length]] narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the [[silent film]] era.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=37899&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Return of the Kelly Gang |work=[[UNESCO Courier]] |author=Chichester, Jo |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |year=2007 |access-date=1 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204220758/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D37899%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |archive-date= 4 February 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> After World War I, [[Hollywood (film industry)|Hollywood]] monopolised the industry,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%20history_final1.pdf |title=The first wave of Australian feature film production |access-date=23 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706104843/http://www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%20history_final1.pdf |archive-date=6 July 2009}}</ref> and by the 1960s, Australian film production had effectively ceased.<ref>{{Cite web |work=Australian Government: Culture Portal |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/film |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110327002350/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/film |archive-date=27 March 2011 |title=Culture.gov.au – "Film in Australia" |publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia |date=22 November 2007}}</ref> With the benefit of government support, the [[Australian New Wave]] of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as ''[[Picnic at Hanging Rock (film)|Picnic at Hanging Rock]]'', ''[[Wake in Fright]]'' and ''[[Gallipoli (1981 film)|Gallipoli]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Krausz |first=Peter |date=2002 |title=Australian Identity: A Cinematic Roll Call |url=http://students.adelaidehs.sa.edu.au/Subjects/Issues/australianidentity.pdf |journal=Australian Screen Education Online |issue=29 |pages=24–29 |issn=1443-1629 |access-date=22 January 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303200657/http://students.adelaidehs.sa.edu.au/Subjects/Issues/australianidentity.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> while ''[[Crocodile Dundee]]'' and the [[Ozploitation]] movement's ''[[Mad Max (franchise)|Mad Max]]'' series became international blockbusters.<ref>Moran, Albert; Vieth, Errol (2009). ''The A to Z of Australian and New Zealand Cinema''. Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-6347-7}}, p. 35.</ref> In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Quinn|first=Karl|date=4 December 2015 |title=Australian film has had its biggest year at the box office ever. Why? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/australian-film-has-had-its-biggest-year-at-the-box-office-ever-why-20151204-glfut3.html |access-date=15 January 2022|website=The Sydney Morning Herald |language=en}}</ref> The [[AACTA Awards|AACTAs]] are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable [[List of Australian Academy Award winners and nominees|Academy Award winners from Australia]] include [[Geoffrey Rush]], [[Nicole Kidman]], [[Cate Blanchett]] and [[Heath Ledger]].<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/awards/ten-great-australian-moments-at-the-oscars/story-e6frfpli-1226841441307 "Ten Great Australian Moments at the Oscars"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308090335/http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/awards/ten-great-australian-moments-at-the-oscars/story-e6frfpli-1226841441307 |date=8 March 2014 }} (26 February 2014), news.com.au. Retrieved 7 February 2016.</ref>
Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] and the multicultural [[Special Broadcasting Service]]), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services,<ref name="BBC-News-2009">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/1250188.stm|publisher=BBC News |title=Country profile: Australia|date=13 October 2009 |access-date=7 April 2010}}</ref> and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper,<ref name="BBC-News-2009"/> and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''.<ref name="BBC-News-2009"/> In 2024, [[Reporters Without Borders]] placed Australia 39th on a list of 180 countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind New Zealand (19th) and the United Kingdom (23rd), but ahead of the United States (55th).<ref>{{Cite web |year=2024 |title=Press Freedom Index 2024 |url=https://rsf.org/en/index |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424043201/https://rsf.org/en/ranking_table |archive-date=24 April 2016 |access-date=30 November 2024 |publisher=[[Reporters Without Borders]]}}</ref> This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Media Ownership In Australia – 1999 {{pipe}} AustralianPolitics.com|url=https://australianpolitics.com/1999/12/01/media-ownership-in-australia.html |access-date=15 January 2022|website=australianpolitics.com}}</ref> most print media are under the control of [[News Corp Australia]] (59%) and [[Nine Entertainment]] (23%).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Minter |first=Elizabeth |date=12 April 2021 |title=Media concentration by Murdoch, Nine and Stokes, and ABC cuts, a danger to democracy – report |url=https://michaelwest.com.au/media-concentration-by-murdoch-nine-and-stokes-and-abc-cuts-a-danger-to-democracy-report/ |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Michael West |language=en}}</ref>
===Cuisine===
{{Main|Australian cuisine}}
[[File:Shiraz Wein.jpg|thumb|[[South Australian wine]]s]]
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called [[bush tucker]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker |title=Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food |publisher=Teachers.ash.org.au |access-date=26 April 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094258/http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/| archive-date= 11 May 2011 | url-status=live}}</ref> It has increased in popularity among non-Indigenous Australians since the 1970s, with examples such as [[Backhousia citriodora|lemon myrtle]], the [[Macadamia|macadamia nut]] and [[kangaroo meat]] now widely available.<ref>Lockhart, Jessica Wynne (4 August 2023). [https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/the-next-superfoods-may-come-from-australia-180982660/ "The Next Superfoods May Come From Australia"], ''[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]]''. Retrieved 5 February 2024.</ref><ref>McCubbing, Gus (4 November 2022). [https://www.afr.com/companies/agriculture/bush-food-industry-worth-80m-but-could-double-by-2025-study-20221104-p5bvn3#:~:text=The%20bush%20food%20industry%2C%20according,potential%20to%20double%20by%202025. "Bush food industry worth $80m but could double by 2025: study"], ''[[Australian Financial Review]]''. Retrieved 5 February 2024.</ref>
The first colonists introduced [[British cuisine|British]] and [[Irish cuisine]] to the continent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326134155/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ |archive-date=26 March 2010 |title=Australian food and drink|publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts |date=23 September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 |title=Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine|publisher=[[Special Broadcasting Service]] |access-date=23 April 2010| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503111747/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383| archive-date= 3 May 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> This influence is seen in dishes such as [[fish and chips]], and in the [[Meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)|Australian meat pie]], which is related to the British [[steak pie]]. Also during the colonial period, Chinese migrants paved the way for a distinctive [[Australian Chinese cuisine]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jonsen|first=Helen |title=Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book|publisher=Hippocrene Books|year=1999|isbn=978-0-7818-0737-1|page=23}}</ref>
Post-war migrants transformed Australian cuisine, bringing with them their culinary traditions and contributing to new [[fusion cuisine|fusion]] dishes.<ref>Newton, John (2018). ''The Getting of Garlic: Australian Food from Bland to Brilliant, with Recipes Old and New''. NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742244365, pp. 32, 230–231.</ref> Italians introduced espresso coffee and, along with Greeks, helped develop Australia's café culture, of which the [[flat white]] and [[avocado toast]] are now considered Australian staples.<ref>Waters, Cara (15 June 2015). [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/australia-food-blog/2015/jun/15/smashed-avo-anyone-five-australian-creations-taking-the-world-by-storm "Smashed avo, anyone? Five Australian creations taking the world by storm"], ''The Guardian''. Retrieved 6 February 2024.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/flat-white-coffee-culture-antipodean-mcdonalds-advert-starbucks-latte-a8246111.html |title=How the flat white conquered the coffee scene|work=[[The Independent]]|date=9 April 2018 |access-date=4 October 2018}}</ref> [[pavlova (food)|Pavlovas]], [[lamington]]s, [[Vegemite]] and [[Anzac biscuits]] are also often called iconic Australian foods.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Santich|first=Barbara |title=Bold Palates: Australia's Gastronomic Heritage|publisher=Wakefield Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1-7430-5094-1|page=290}}</ref>
Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of [[wine]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.wineaustralia.com/report-downloads/08d4027a-e89e-469d-bf9a-a5b548237ea4 |title=Australian wine: Production, sales and inventory report, 2018–19|date=12 February 2020|website=wineaustralia.com|publisher=Wine Australia |access-date=11 April 2020 |archive-date=11 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411112731/https://www.wineaustralia.com/report-downloads/08d4027a-e89e-469d-bf9a-a5b548237ea4 |url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Australian wine]] is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cellarmasters.com.au/discover/wine-regions/australia|publisher=Cellarmasters|title=Wine Regions of Australia|access-date=2 April 2021|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414225154/https://www.cellarmasters.com.au/discover/wine-regions/australia|url-status=dead}}</ref> The nation also ranks highly in [[List of countries by beer consumption per capita|beer consumption]],<ref name="Kirin">[http://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/ir/news_release051215_4.html Per Capita Beer Consumption by Country (2004)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623213209/http://www.kirinholdings.co.jp/english/ir/news_release051215_4.html |date=23 June 2008 }}, Table 3, Kirin Research Institute of Drinking and Lifestyle – Report Vol. 29–15 December 2005, Kirin Holdings Company.</ref> with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries.
===Sport and recreation===
{{Main|Sport in Australia}}
[[File:2017 AFL Grand Final panorama during national anthem.jpg|thumb|The [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] is strongly associated with the history and development of [[cricket]] and [[Australian rules football]], Australia's two most popular spectator sports.<ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2009 |title=National Sports Museum – Heritage Listing |url=http://www.nsm.org.au/The%2520MCG/Heritage%2520Listing.aspx?p=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090914092919/http://www.nsm.org.au/The%20MCG/Heritage%20Listing.aspx?p=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 September 2009 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website= }}</ref>]]
The most popular sports in Australia by adult participation are: swimming, athletics, cycling, soccer, golf, tennis, basketball, surfing, netball and cricket.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 2023 |title=Clearinghouse for sport: Ausplay National Sport and Activity Physical Participation Report 2022-23, p 9 |url=https://www.clearinghouseforsport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/1122754/AusPlay-National-Sport-and-Physical-Activity-Participation-Report-October-2023.pdf |access-date=11 May 2024 |website=Australian Sports Commission}}</ref>
Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every [[Summer Olympics]] of the modern era,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Oxlade |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Oxlade (writer) |url=https://archive.org/details/olympics0000oxla/page/61 |title=Olympics |author2=Ballheimer, David |publisher=DK |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7566-1083-8 |series=DK Eyewitness |page=[https://archive.org/details/olympics0000oxla/page/61 61]}}</ref> and has hosted the Games twice: [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] in Melbourne and [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] in Sydney.<ref name="Davison pp479-80">{{Harvnb|Davison|Hirst|Macintyre|1998|pages=479–80}}</ref> It is also set to host the [[2032 Summer Olympics|2032 Games]] in [[Brisbane]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 July 2021 |title=Brisbane announced as 2032 Olympic Games host city at IOC meeting in Tokyo |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-21/brisbane-queensland-announced-as-2032-olympic-games-host-city/100311320 |access-date=22 July 2021 |work=[[ABC News (Australia)]]}}</ref> Australia has also participated in every [[Commonwealth Games]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flag Bearers |url=http://www.commonwealthgames.org.au/page/65/by-games |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726210627/http://www.commonwealthgames.org.au/page/65/by-games |archive-date=26 July 2014 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Australian Commonwealth Games Association}}</ref> hosting the event in [[1938 British Empire Games|1938]], [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1962]], [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982]], [[2006 Commonwealth Games|2006]] and [[2018 Commonwealth Games|2018]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Past Commonwealth Games |url=http://www.thecgf.com/games/games_index.asp?linkresults=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315102922/http://www.thecgf.com/games/games_index.asp?linkresults=1 |archive-date=15 March 2010 |access-date=23 April 2010 |publisher=Commonwealth Games Federation}}</ref>
The [[Australia national cricket team|Australian national cricket team]] competed against [[England cricket team|England]] in the first [[Test cricket|Test]] match (1877) and the first [[One Day International]] (1971), and against [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] in the first [[Twenty20 International]] (2004), winning all three games.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Harte |first1=Chris |title=The Penguin History of Australian Cricket |last2=Whimpress |first2=Bernard |publisher=Viking |year=2008 |isbn=9780670072880 |edition=3rd |___location=Camberwell, Vic |pages=92–94, 528, 722}}</ref> It has also won the men's [[Cricket World Cup]] a record six times.<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 November 2023 |title=Australia stuns India to claim record-extending sixth Cricket World Cup crown in Ahmedabad |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-11-19/live-updates-cricket-world-cup-final-india-vs-australia/103124084 |access-date=20 November 2023 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref>
Australia has professional leagues for [[football in Australia|four football codes]], whose relative popularity is [[Barassi Line|divided geographically]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fujak |first=Hunter |date=15 July 2022 |title=The Barassi Line: a globally unique divider splitting Australia's footy fans |url=http://theconversation.com/the-barassi-line-a-globally-unique-divider-splitting-australias-footy-fans-185132 |access-date=4 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}</ref> Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, [[Australian rules football]] attracts the most television viewers in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where [[rugby league]] holds sway, followed by [[rugby union]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273772263|date=21 December 2013 |title=The 'Barassi Line': Quantifying Australia's Great Sporting Divide |access-date=16 August 2018}}</ref> [[Association football|Soccer]], while ranked fourth in television viewers and resources, has the highest overall participation rates.<ref>{{Cite book|last1 = Skinner |first1 = James |last2 = Zakus H. |first2 = Dwight | last3 = Edwards |first3 = Allan | editor-first= Brown|editor-last = Adam|title = Football and Community in the Global Context: Studies in Theory and Practice|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|pages = 92–93|chapter = Coming in from the Margins: Ethnicity, Community Support and the Rebranding of Australian Soccer |isbn = 978-1-317-96905-1}}</ref>
The [[surf lifesaving]] movement originated in Australia in the early 20th century, following the relaxation of laws prohibiting daylight bathing on Australian beaches. The volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Booth|first=Douglas|author-link=Doug Booth |title=Australian Beach Cultures: The History of Sun, Sand and Surf|publisher=Routledge|year=2012|isbn=978-0-7146-8178-8|page=39}}</ref><ref name=Aust_SLSC>[http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/surflifesaving/ "Surf Life Saving - Stories from Australia's Culture and Recreation Portal"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060511163956/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/surflifesaving/ |date=11 May 2006 }}. [Online], Commonwealth Government of Australia, 2006.</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Australia|Oceania|Countries
}}
* [[Outline of Australia]]
* [[Index of Australia-related articles]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="N"}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023
| author = FAO
| publisher = FAO
| documentURL = https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en?details=cc8166en
| licence statement URL = https://commons.wikimedia.org/whttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:World_Food_and_Agriculture_-_Statistical_Yearbook_2023.pdf
| license = CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Broome |first=Richard |title=Aboriginal Australians |publisher=Allen and Unwin |year=2019 |isbn=9781760528218 |edition=5th |___location=Crows Nest, NSW}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Christopher |first1=Emma |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=Convict transportation in global context c. 1700–88 |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart|last2=Maxwell-Stewart|first2=Hamish}}
* {{Cite book|last=Coman|first=Brian J.|title=A Loose Canon: Essays on History, Modernity and Tradition|date=2007|publisher=Connor Court Publishing Pty Ltd|isbn=978-0-9802-9362-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=COVID 19 Response Inquiry Panel |title=Commonwealth Government COVID‑19 Response Inquiry Report |date=2024 |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet |isbn=978-1-925365-58-0 |___location=Canberra}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Curthoys |first1=Ann |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=The advent of self-government |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart|last2=Mitchell|first2=Jessie}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian History|publisher=Oxford University Press|___location=Melbourne|year=1998|isbn=978-0-1955-3597-6|last1=Davison|first1=Graeme|last2=Hirst|first2=John|author-link2=John Hirst (historian)|last3=Macintyre|first3=Stuart|author-link3=Stuart Macintyre}}
* {{Cite book |title=Fighting Australia's Cold War |date=2021 |publisher=ANU Press |isbn=978-1-76046-482-0 |editor-last=Dean |editor-first=Peter |___location=Canberra |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Moss |editor-first2=Tristan |chapter-url=https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n9414/pdf/introduction.pdf |access-date=9 February 2024 |archive-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112170033/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/n9414/pdf/introduction.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Dennis |first1=Peter |title=The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History |last2=Grey |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Morris |first3=Ewan |last4=Prior |first4=Robin |last5=Bou |first5=Jean |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-1955-1784-2 |edition=2nd |___location=Melbourne |author2-link=Jeffrey Grey}}
* {{cite book | last = Finnane | first = Mark | year = 2013 | chapter = Law and regulation | editor1-last = Bashford | editor1-first = Alison | editor2-last = Macintyre | editor2-first = Stuart | title = The Cambridge History of Australia | volume = 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 978-1-1070-1153-3}}
* {{cite book | last=Flood | first=Josephine | title=Original Australians | publisher=Allen & Unwin | edition=2 | publication-place=Crows Nest | year=2019 | isbn=978-1-76052-707-5}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781107011540 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |___location=Port Melbourne |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart|last1=Garton|first1=Stephen|chapter=The Great War and its aftermath, 1914-22|last2=Stanley|first2=David}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Henderson |first1=Robert |title=Geology of Australia |last2=Johnson |first2=David |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016 |isbn=9781107432413 |edition=3rd |___location=Port Melbourne}}
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* {{Cite book |last1=Kennett |first1=Brian |title=The Australian Continent: A Geophysical Synthesis |last2=Chopping |first2=Richard |last3=Blewett |first3=Richard |publisher=Australian National University Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781760462468 |___location=Canberra}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kercher |first=Bruce |title=An Unruly Child: A History of Law in Australia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781000248470 |___location=London and New York |publication-date=2020}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Konishi |first1=Shino |title=The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-1070-1153-3 |editor-last=Bashford |editor-first=Alison |chapter=Newcomers, c. 1600-1800 |editor-last2=Macintyre |editor-first2=Stuart |last2=Nugent |first2=Maria}}
* {{Cite book |last=Macintyre |first=Stuart |title=A Concise History of Australia |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108728485 |edition=5th |___location=Port Melbourne}}
* {{cite report |last1=Murphy |first1=H |last2=van Leeuwen |first2=S |date=2021 |title=Australia state of the environment 2021: biodiversity |url=https://soe.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/2022-07/soe2021-biodiversity.pdf |doi=10.26194/ren9-3639|doi-broken-date=1 July 2025 }}
* {{cite book |last=Nipperess |first=David A. |date=2015 |chapter=A separate creation: diversity, distinctiveness and conservation of Australian wildlife |title=Austral Ark: The State of Wildlife in Australia and New Zealand |editor-last1=Stow |editor-first1=Adam |editor-last2=Maclean |editor-first2=Norman |editor-last3=Holwell |editor-first3=Gregory I. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107033542}}
* {{Cite book |last=Reynolds |first=Henry |title=Forgotten War |publisher=NewSouth Publishing |year=2022 |isbn=9781742237596 |edition=2nd |___location=Sydney}}
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* {{Cite book |last=Souter |first=Gavin |title=Lion and Kangaroo: the Initiation of Australia |publisher=Text Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=1876485434 |edition=2nd |___location=Melbourne}}
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{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
{{Further|Bibliography of Australian history}}
{{Refbegin}}
* Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People, Volume 1: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia, Penguin Books Australia Ltd., Vic. {{ISBN|978-0-6700-7871-4}}
* Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). ''A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific''. Oxford: Blackwell. {{ISBN|978-0-631-17962-7}}.
* Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). ''The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture''. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-5218-8857-8}}.
* Hughes, Robert (1986). ''The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding''. Knopf. {{ISBN|978-0-394-50668-5}}.
* {{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Louise C. |title=The Story of Australia: A New History of People and Place |last2=Luckins |first2=Tanja |last3=Walker |first3=David |publisher=Routledge |year=2022 |isbn=9781760297084 |___location=London and New York}}
* [[John Milne|Milne, John (1886)]]. [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69580 Colonial facts and fictions: Humorous sketches]. United Kingdom: Chatto and Windus.
* {{Cite book |last=Kemp |first=David |title=The Land of Dreams: How Australians Won Their Freedom, 1788–1860 |url={{GBurl|id=LUVvDwAAQBAJ}} |year=2018 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-5228-7334-4 |oclc=1088319758}}
* Powell, J.M. (1988). ''An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-25619-3}}
* Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). ''Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment''. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-340-72033-2}} paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-340-72032-5}} hardback.
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=17 January 2006|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg}}
{{Sister project links|voy=Australia|d=Q408|collapsible=collapsed}}
* [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/australia/ Australia profile] on ''[[The World Factbook]]''
* [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15674351 Australia profile] from [[BBC News]]
* [https://www.oecd.org/australia/ Australia profile] from the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Australia}}
* {{Osmrelation-inline|80500}}
'''Government'''
* [https://www.aph.gov.au/ Parliament of Australia]
* [https://www.dfat.gov.au/ Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]
* [https://www.naa.gov.au/ National Archives of Australia]
* [https://www.abs.gov.au/ Australian Bureau of Statistics]
'''Travel'''
* {{official website|https://www.australia.com/}} of Tourism Australia
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