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{{Short description|Branch of Eastern Christianity}}
{{Distinguish|Eastern Orthodox Church}}
{{Infobox Christian denomination
| name = Oriental Orthodox Churches
| image = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| total_width = 270
| image_style = border:1;
| perrow = 1/2/2/1
| image1 = Etchmiadzin 2025-3.jpg
| image2 = Asmara, cattedrale ortodossa 04.JPG
| image3 = CairoAbbasiyaMarkEntrance-Cropped.jpg
| image4 = S. George Syr Orth Cathedral Damascus.jpg
| image5 = Devalokam Aramana, Kottayam.jpg
| image6 = Addis abeba, chiesa della trinità, esterno 02.jpg
}}
| caption = Clockwise from top:<br>[[Etchmiadzin Armenian Apostolic Cathedral]];<br>[[Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral]];<br>[[Catholicate Aramana Chapel| Malankara Orthodox Catholicate Palace]];<br>[[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Ethiopian Orthodox Cathedral]];<br>[[Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus|Saint George Syriac Orthodox Cathedral]];<br>[[Enda Mariam Cathedral, Asmara|Enda Mariam Eritrean Orthodox Cathedral]].
| type =
| main_classification = [[Non-Chalcedonianism|Non-Chalcedonian]]
| orientation = [[Eastern Christianity]]
| scripture =
| theology = [[Oriental Orthodox theology]]
| polity = [[Episcopal polity|Episcopal]]
| structure = [[Communion (religion)|Communion]]
| division_type = Autocephalous churches
| division = [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] <br /> [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] <br /> [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] <br /> [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] <br />[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] <br /> [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]
| language = [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Classical Syriac]], [[Geʽez]], [[Classical Armenian|Armenian]], [[Malayalam]], [[Koine Greek]], local languages
| liturgy = [[Alexandrian Rite|Alexandrian]], [[West Syriac Rite|West Syriac]] and [[Armenian Rite|Armenian]]
| origin_link =
| founder = [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]], according to [[Sacred tradition#In the Catholic and Orthodox churches|sacred tradition]]
| branched_from =
| separations =
| members = 50 million
| other_names = ''Oriental Orthodoxy'', ''Miaphysite churches'', ''Oriental Orthodox Communion''
| website =
}}
{{Oriental Orthodox sidebar}}
{{Christianity}}
The '''Oriental Orthodox Churches''' are [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] churches adhering to [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite Christology]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Orthodox Christian Churches |url=https://pluralism.org/orthodox-christian-churches |access-date=2020-11-25 |website=The Pluralism Project |publisher=Harvard University |language=en}}</ref> with approximately 50 million members worldwide.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lamport |first1=Mark A. |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-7157-9 |page=601 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6xVDwAAQBAJ&q=oriental+orthodox+50+million&pg=PA601 |language=en |quote=Today these churches are also referred to as the Oriental Orthodox Churches and are made up of 50 million Christians.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century |journal=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=8 November 2017 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/08/orthodox-christianity-in-the-21st-century/ |quote=Oriental Orthodoxy has separate self-governing jurisdictions in Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, India, Armenia and Syria, and it accounts for roughly 20% of the worldwide Orthodox population.}}</ref> The Oriental Orthodox Churches adhere to the [[Nicene Christianity|Nicene Christian]] tradition. Oriental Orthodoxy is one of the oldest branches in [[Christianity]].<ref name="oikoumene.org">{{Cite web |title=Orthodox churches (Oriental) |url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/orthodox-churches-oriental |website=World Council of Churches |language=en}}</ref>
As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of countries and regions such as [[Armenia]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Nubia#Christian Nubia|Sudan]], the [[Levant]], [[Iraq]] and the [[Malabar Coast|Malabar]] region of southern [[India]]. As [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] churches, their [[bishop]]s are equal by virtue of [[Consecration#Ordination of bishops|episcopal ordination]]. Their doctrines recognize the validity of only the first three [[ecumenical council]]s.{{sfn|Hindson|Mitchell|2013|p=108}}<ref name=":0" />
The Oriental Orthodox communion is composed of six autocephalous [[national church]]es: the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]]; the [[Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch]]; the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] comprising the autocephalous [[Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin|Catholicosate of Etchmiadzin]] in Armenia and the [[Holy See of Cilicia|Catholicosate of Cilicia]] in the [[Levant]] and of diaspora; the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], and the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].<ref name="Christian Unity">{{Cite web|url=http://www.christianunity.va/content/unitacristiani/en/dialoghi/sezione-orientale/chiese-ortodosse-orientali.html/|title=Dicastery For Promoting Christian Unity|access-date=2024-06-24|website=christianunity.va|publisher=Dicastery For Promoting Christian Unity|language=en}}</ref><ref name="oikoumene.org"/>
The [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]]—based in India—and the [[British Orthodox Church]] in the [[UK]] are independent Oriental Orthodox churches, having formerly been part of one of the mainstream Oriental Orthodox churches.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=The Syriac Church Denominations: An Overview|last=Winkler|first=Dietmar|author-link=Dietmar W. Winkler|title=The Syriac World|editor-first=Daniel|editor-last=King|year=2019|page=119|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781138899018}}</ref>
Oriental Orthodox Christians consider themselves to be the [[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic, and apostolic Church]] founded by [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]] in his [[Great Commission]], and its bishops as the [[Apostolic succession|successors]] of Christ's [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]]. Three primary rites are practiced by the churches: the western-influenced [[Armenian Rite]], the [[West Syriac Rite]] of the Syriac Church (including its [[Malankara Rite]]) and the [[Alexandrian Rite]] of the [[Copts]], [[Ethiopians]] and [[Eritreans]].
Oriental Orthodox Churches shared [[Communion (Christian)|communion]] with the [[State church of the Roman Empire|imperial Roman church]] before the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in AD 451, and with the [[Church of the East]] until the [[Synod of Beth Lapat]] in AD 484,{{sfn|Brock|1999|p=282}} separating primarily over [[Chalcedonian Definition|differences in]] Christology.
The majority of Oriental Orthodox Christians live in Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, [[Syria]], [[Turkey]] and Armenia, with smaller [[Assyrian people|Syriac]] communities in Western Asia decreasing due to [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]].<ref name="oikoumene.org" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cardin |first=Adele |date=2024-10-05 |title=The Fading Light: Christianity's Struggle in its Middle Eastern Birthplace |url=https://www.riotimesonline.com/the-fading-light-christianitys-persecution-in-its-middle-eastern-birthplace/ |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=The Rio Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Phillip |date=January 25, 2024 |title=Is this the end for Mideast Christianity? |url=https://magazine.web.baylor.edu/news/story/2024/end-mideast-christianity |access-date=November 15, 2024 |website=Baylor University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-11-08 |title=Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2017/11/08/orthodox-christianity-in-the-21st-century/ |access-date=2024-11-16 |website=Pew Research Center |language=en-US}}</ref> There are also many in other parts of the world, formed through [[diaspora]], [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]], and missionary activity.
==Name and characteristics==
The name "Oriental Orthodox Churches" was formally adopted at the [[Conference of Addis Ababa]] in 1965. At the time there were five participating churches, the Eritrean Church not yet being autocephalous.{{sfn|Boutros Ghali|1991|pp=1845b–1846a}}
Other names by which the churches have been known include '''Old Oriental''', '''Ancient Oriental''', '''Lesser Eastern''', '''Anti-Chalcedonian''', '''Non-Chalcedonian''', '''Pre-Chalcedonian''', '''Miaphysite''' or '''Monophysite'''.{{sfn|Keshishian|1994|pp=103–108}}{{sfn|Boutros Ghali|1991|pp=1845b–1846a}} The Catholic Church has referred to these churches as "the Ancient Churches of the East."<ref>{{Cite web |author=II |first=John Paul |date=25 May 1995 |title=Ut Unum Sint: On commitment to Ecumenism |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25051995_ut-unum-sint.html |access-date=2023-02-12 |website=Vatican}}</ref>
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are in [[full communion]] with each other, but not with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] or any other churches. Like the Catholics or Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox Churches includes several self-governing churches. Slow dialogue towards restoring communion between the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox groups was renewed in the mid-20th century;<ref name="orthodoxjointcommission">{{cite web |date=14 December 2013 |title=Joint Commission of the Theological Dialogue between the Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches, First Agreed Statement |url=https://orthodoxjointcommission.wordpress.com/2013/12/14/first-agreed-statement-1989/ |access-date=15 February 2024 |website=Orthodox Joint Commission}}</ref><ref name="sor.cua.edu2">{{Cite web |title=Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration – March 17, 2001 |url=https://syriacorthodoxresources.org/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |website=Syriac Orthodox Resources}}</ref> and dialogue is also underway between Oriental Orthodoxy and the Catholic Church, and others.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lacopts.org/story/dialogue-the-assyrian-church-of-the-east-and-its-effect-the-dialogue-the-roman-catholic/ |title=Dialogue with the Assyrian Church of the East and its Effect on the Dialogue with the Roman Catholic |website=Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Diocese of Los Angeles, Southern California, and Hawaii |access-date=2 June 2016}}</ref> In 2017, for example, the mutual recognition of [[baptism]] was restored between the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergoglio |first=Francis |title=Apostolic Journey to Egypt: Courtesy visit to H.H. Pope Tawadros II (Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate, Cairo – 28 April 2017) |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2017/april/documents/papa-francesco_20170428_egitto-tawadros-ii.html |website=Vatican}}</ref> Also baptism is mutually recognized between the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harden |first=Rachel |date=2007-05-16 |title=Agreed on baptism in Germany |url=https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2007/18-may/news/uk/agreed-on-baptism-in-germany |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625225721/https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2007/18-may/news/uk/agreed-on-baptism-in-germany |archive-date=2022-06-25 |access-date=2019-01-08 |website=Church Times}}</ref>{{sfn|Fanning|1907}}
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are generally considered to be more [[social conservatism|conservative with regard to social issues]]. All mainstream Oriental Orthodox Churches are members of the [[World Council of Churches]].<ref name="Roberson1995">{{cite book |last1=Roberson |first1=Ronald G. |title=Oriental Orthodox-Roman Catholic Interchurch Marriages: And Other Pastoral Relationships |date=1995 |publisher=USCCB Publishing |isbn=978-1-55586-097-4 |page=81 |language=en}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Oriental Orthodoxy}}
=== 1st century–Chalcedon ===
[[Early Christians]] established prominent churches throughout the Middle East and North Africa, most notably [[Antioch]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Constantinople]]. Other prominent sees were established in present-day [[Sudan]] and Ethiopia, according to [[John Chrysostom]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Establishment of the Ethiopian Church |url=https://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/ethiopian/prechristian.html |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church}}</ref> These churches, altogether, formed the [[state church of the Roman Empire]] by 381.
After [[Christological]] controversies denouncing [[Arianism]] and [[Nestorianism]] was proclaimed through the imperial Roman church from the [[ecumenical council]]s of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and [[Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]],<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Arius and the Council of Nicaea |url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/arius-and-the-council-of-nicaea-10686 |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=EWTN Global Catholic Television Network |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=The Creed |url=https://mosc.in/the_church/the-ecumenical-council-of-nicea-and-nicene-creed/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=stjohn |date=2023-06-23 |title=Ecumenical Council of Ephesus |url=https://www.stjohnarmenianchurch.org/ecumenical-council-of-ephesus/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=St. John Armenian Church |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-08-03 |title=Theological Throw-Down |url=https://armenianchurch.us/theological-throw-down-5/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=The Armenian Church |language=en-US}}</ref> the churches comprising the state-sanctioned and recognized Roman church would then [[Schism in Christianity|schism]] over [[Miaphysitism]] and [[Chalcedonianism]]. Amongst those accepting the [[Chalcedonian Definition]] at the [[Council of Chalcedon]], those now-[[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and Roman Catholic churches believed that Christ is "one person in two natures."<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=The Chalcedonian Creed |url=https://thewestminsterstandard.org/the-chalcedonian-creed/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=The Westminster Standard |language=en-US}}</ref>
To the hierarchs who would lead Oriental Orthodoxy, the description of Christ as "one person in two natures" was tantamount to accepting the once-condemned Nestorianism, which expressed itself in a terminology incompatible with their understanding of Christology. Nestorianism was understood as seeing Christ in two separate natures—human and divine—each with different actions and experiences; in contrast [[Cyril of Alexandria]] advocated the formula "one nature of God the Incarnate Logos"<ref name="Shenouda1999">{{Cite web |last=III |first=Shenouda |author-link=Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria |year=1999 |title=Nature of Christ |url=https://www.copticchurch.net/pdf/theology/nature_of_christ.pdf |access-date=30 November 2014 |website=copticchurch.net |publisher=St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church}}</ref> (or as others translate, "one Incarnate nature of the Word").<ref name="CyrilTransPusey">{{Cite web |last2=Pusey |first2=P. E. (Trans.) |title=From His Second Book Against the Words of Theodore |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/cyril_against_theodore_01_text.htm |access-date=30 November 2014 |publisher=The Tertullian Project}}</ref>
=== Post-Chalcedonian schism ===
Following the Chalcedonian council, the majority of the early [[Church of Alexandria]], [[Church of Antioch|Antioch]], and Armenia rejected the terms of the council.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Phillip |date=2017-07-05 |title=More than 60 million Christians belong to churches that rejected the Chalcedonian Creed |url=https://www.christiancentury.org/article/the-other-eastern-churches |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=The Christian Century |language=en |quote=Chalcedon was widely rejected in those ancient Eastern churches that had the best claim to direct continuity from the apostolic age. In Egypt, Syria, and Armenia, hatred of Chalcedon sparked protests, riots, and even civil war. Dissident churches rejected the empire’s official position, and these anti-Chalcedonian bodies claimed the support of large majorities of the population. The divisions fatally weakened the Roman Empire in the East, making possible the Muslim conquests of the seventh century.}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Haddon |first=Hazel |date=2012-03-24 |title=Egypt's other Christians |url=https://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/37550/Egypt/Politics-/Egypts-otherChristians.aspx |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Ahram Online |quote=In 451 AD, theological disagreements led the Egyptian Church to split from most of the other churches of the time. The Egyptian church, which went on to become the Coptic Orthodox Church and to represent the majority of Egyptian Christians, disagreed with the decisions of the Chalcedon church council.}}</ref> This would later cause the predominantly-Greek, Chalcedonian minority to establish the [[Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria]], separate from the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.<ref name=":1" /> It would also lead to schisms in Antioch, resulting in the separate Syriac Orthodox, [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite Catholic]], and [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Louth |first=Andrew |title=Why Did the Syrians reject the Council of Chalcedon? |date=2011 |work=Chalcedon in Context: Church Councils 400-700 |pages=107–116 |editor-last=Whitby |editor-first=Mary |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/chalcedon-in-context/why-did-the-syrians-reject-the-council-of-chalcedon/F8444743D81BDB39578B8ABA5CFAC524 |access-date=2025-06-06 |series=Translated Texts for Historians, Contexts |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-84631-177-2 |editor2-last=Price |editor2-first=Richard}}</ref>
The Oriental Orthodox Churches were therefore often called "monophysite" by the imperial Roman Christians—although they continually reject this label—as it is associated with [[Eutychianism|Eutychian monophysitism]]; they prefer the term "miaphysite."{{sfn|Winkler|1997|p=33-40}}{{sfn|Brock|2016|p=45–52}} The Oriental Orthodox would later be accused of Eutychian monophysitism by [[Evangelical Protestants]] proselytizing in predominantly Eastern and Oriental Orthodox regions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2000-09-01 |title=Egyptian church History |url=https://www.evangelical-times.org/missionary-spotlight-59/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Evangelical Times |language=en |quote=The eastern church, in turn, was further divided. Some followed the Council of Chalcedon’s teaching, which declared that Christ enjoyed distinct divine and human natures. Others embraced the heterodoxy of the Monophysites, who claimed that Christ had only a single, divine nature, albeit clad with his human nature. The Egyptian churches embraced the latter error, rejecting Chalcedon and separating from the Byzantine churches. Gradually all churches, eastern and western, lost their focus on the Bible and the gospel. The biblical tradition of Athanasius gave way to liturgy, formalism and superstition. Those who were true Christians found themselves isolated and persecuted by both Roman and Byzantine churches.}}</ref>
In the years following Chalcedon, the patriarchs of Constantinople intermittently remained in communion with the non-Chalcedonian [[Patriarch of Alexandria|patriarchs of Alexandria]] and [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]] (see [[Henotikon]]), while Rome remained out of communion with the latter and in unstable communion with Constantinople. It was not until 518 that the new Byzantine Emperor, [[Justin I]]—who accepted Chalcedon—demanded that the church in the Roman Empire accept the council's decisions.{{sfn|Kirsch|1910}}
=== Under Islamic conquest ===
During the [[early Muslim conquests]], Egypt was conquered from the Eastern Romans/Byzantines. According to Coptic bishop [[John of Nikiû]], the Muslims "despoiled the Egyptians of their possessions and dealt cruelly with them" whilst also noting [[Amr ibn al-As]] "took none of the property of the Churches, and he committed no act of spoilation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Charles |first1=Robert H |title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, Chapter CXV: paragraph 7 |date=1913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Charles |first1=Robert H |title=The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text, Chapter CXXI: paragraph 3 |date=1913}}</ref> Despite the conquest of Egypt and initial peace between Christians and Muslims, Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93.</ref> Although the Coptic Orthodox Church did not disappear, the Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites.<ref>Jerry Bentley, ''Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Encounters and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93.</ref>
Within [[Roman Syria]] and during the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]], [[John III of the Sedre]] and other Syriac Orthodox bishops were brought before [[Umayr ibn Sa'd al-Ansari|Umayr ibn Sad al-Ansari]] to engage in an open debate regarding Christianity and represent the entire Christian community—including non-Syriac Orthodox communities, such as Greek Orthodox Syrians.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Ginkel |first1=Jan J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1nM57HD6joC&pg=PA91 |title=Redefining Christian Identity: Cultural Interaction in the Middle East Since the Rise of Islam |last2=Berg |first2=Hendrika Lena Murre-van den |last3=Lint |first3=Theo Maarten van |date=2005 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |isbn=978-90-429-1418-6 |page=98 |language=en}}</ref>
Since the early Muslim conquests, Oriental Orthodox Christians have endured moments of peace and persecution between themselves and the [[Arab world|Arab]]-[[Islamic world|Islamic]] communities governing the Middle East and North Africa. The [[Persecution of Copts|Copts have endured persecution]] into the 21st century, with some facing abduction and [[forced conversion]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saleeb |first=Demiana |date=2023-04-12 |title=A Timeless Struggle: Copts in Egypt |url=https://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/a-timeless-struggle-copts-in-egypt/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Geopolitical Monitor |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-03 |title=Celebrating the Freedom of Religion |url=https://editorials.voa.gov/a/celebrating-the-freedom-of-religion/8036239.html |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref> The Armenian and Syriac Orthodox churches also faced persecution and genocide, with the one Syriac scholar stating, "Oriental Christianity was literally decimated finally through the cruel representative of the Mongolian-Islamic fanaticism."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-04-15 |title=The Great Loss of the Armenian Clergy During the Armenian Genocide |url=https://horizonweekly.ca/en/the-great-loss-of-the-armenian-clergy-during-the-armenian-genocide/,%20https://horizonweekly.ca/en/the-great-loss-of-the-armenian-clergy-during-the-armenian-genocide/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=horizonweekly.ca |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Short Overview of the Common History |url=https://syrianorthodoxchurch.org/2010/03/a-short-overview-of-the-common-history/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Syriac Orthodox Archdiocese for the Eastern United States |quote=Oriental Christianity was literally decimated finally through the cruel representative of the Mongolian-Islamic fanaticism.}}</ref>
=== Attempted reunions ===
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 244v 2 Concilium florentinum.jpg|thumb|Council of Florence, from the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' by [[Hartmann Schedel]]]]
By 862, the Armenian Apostolic and Syriac Orthodox churches held the [[Council of Shirakavan]] with the Eastern Orthodox Church in efforts to seek Christian unity and clarify Christological positions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kazaryan |first=Gevorg |date=2020-01-01 |title=ԳԵՎՈՐԳ ՂԱԶԱՐՅԱՆ ՇԻՐԱԿԱՎԱՆԻ ԺՈՂՈՎԻ ՊԱՏՄԱԿԱՆ ՆՇԱՆԱԿՈՒԹՅՈՒՆԸ |url=https://www.academia.edu/44712069 |journal=Երևան, Գիտություն}}</ref> By the 12th century, the [[Council of Hromkla]] was held between the Armenians and the Greeks, to finalize an attempted union with the Eastern Orthodox Church.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karekin |first=I. |date=1999 |title=Ecumenical Trends in the Armenian Church |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1758-6623.1999.tb00377.x |journal=The Ecumenical Review |language=en |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |doi=10.1111/j.1758-6623.1999.tb00377.x |issn=1758-6623|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Armenia by Vahan Kurkjian • Chapter 38 |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Asia/Armenia/_Texts/KURARM/38*.html |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>
In the 15th century, during the [[Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence]], the Oriental Orthodox attempted to enter [[full communion]] with the Roman Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438-1445) |url=https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/ecumenical-council-of-florence-1438-1445-1461 |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=EWTN Global Catholic Television Network |language=en}}</ref>
=== 19th–early 20th centuries ===
==== Attempted Western missions and schisms ====
[[File:American Catholic Church.jpg|thumb|Joseph Rene Vilatte (center) with [[Stephen Kaminski]] (left) and [[Paolo Miraglia-Gulotti]] (right), bishops of the [[American Catholic Church (1915)|American Catholic Church]]]]
By the 19th century, French-born former Catholic [[Jules Ferrette]] was allegedly ordained into the episcopacy by [[Ignatius Peter IV]] of Antioch to establish an Oriental Orthodox mission in the [[Western world|West]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Orthodox Church |url=https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/British-Orthodox-Church?fq=;fq-Browse:Browse;L; |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250520223728/https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/British-Orthodox-Church?fq=;fq-Browse:Browse;L; |archive-date=2025-05-20 |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=gedsh.bethmardutho.org |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Anson |first=Peter F. |author-link=Peter Anson |title=Bishops at Large |publisher=Apocryphile press |year=2006 |isbn=0-9771461-8-9 |series=Independent Catholic Heritage |pages= |chapter=Jules Ferrette, Mar Julius, Bishop of Iona, and alleged Patriarchal Legate of the Syrian Jacobite Church for Western Europe |orig-year=1964}}</ref>
[[Joseph Rene Vilatte]] was also ordained into the episcopacy by Malankara bishops [[Antonio Francisco Xavier Alvares]], [[Athanasius Paulose Kadavil]], and [[Gregorios of Parumala]]. Vilatte was named "Mar Timotheos, Metropolitan of North America", with the apparent blessings of Ignatius Peter IV.<ref name="Kiraz2007">{{cite journal |last1=Kiraz |first1=George Anton |author-link1=George Kiraz |date=July 2004 |title=The Credentials of Mar Julius Alvares, Bishop of Ceylon, Goa and India Excluding Malabar |url=http://www.bethmardutho.org/images/hugoye/volume7/hv7n2kiraz.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |volume=7 |issue=2 |page=158 |issn=1097-3702 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040823181903/http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol7No2/HV7N2Kiraz.html |archive-date=2004-08-23 |access-date=2012-11-08}}</ref> There are claims that nobody has ever seen the original [[Syriac language]] form of Vilatte's credentials.<ref name="Appolis19632">{{cite journal |last=Appolis |first=Émile |year=1963 |title=En marge de la Séparation: les associations culturelles schismatiques |trans-title=Margins of Separation: religious associations' schismatics |journal=Revue d'Histoire de l'Église de France |language=fr |volume=49 |issue=146 |pages=47–88 |doi=10.3406/rhef.1963.1719 |issn=2109-9502}}</ref>{{rp|page=67}}<ref name="Kiraz20073">{{cite journal |last1=Kiraz |first1=George Anton |author-link1=George Kiraz |date=July 2004 |title=The Credentials of Mar Julius Alvares, Bishop of Ceylon, Goa and India Excluding Malabar |url=http://www.bethmardutho.org/images/hugoye/volume7/hv7n2kiraz.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies |volume=7 |issue=2 |page=158 |issn=1097-3702 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040823181903/http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol7No2/HV7N2Kiraz.html |archive-date=2004-08-23 |access-date=2012-11-08}}</ref>{{rp|page=159}} According to Brandreth, no Syriac authority had authenticated the signatures depicted in a [[Photostat machine|photostatic copy]] of a purported translation of the Syriac document.<ref name="Brandreth19872">{{cite book |last=Brandreth |first=Henry R. T. |title=Episcopi vagantes and the Anglican Church |publisher=Borgo Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-89370-558-9 |___location=San Bernardino, California |orig-year=First published in 1947}}</ref>{{rp|page=34}}
By the early 20th century, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church re-established the [[Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan|Catholicos of the East]]. Syriac Orthodox Patriarch [[Ignatius Abded Mshiho II]] enthroned Murimattathil Paulose Ivanios as Baselios Paulose I, Catholicos of the East, on the Apostolic Throne of St. Thomas at St. Mary's Church in Niranam on 15 September 1912.<ref>{{cite web |year=2009 |title=About the church |url=http://niranamchurch.com/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127171538/http://niranamchurch.com/ |archive-date=27 January 2010 |access-date=2025-06-06 |publisher=Niranam St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Church}}</ref> The Malankara Orthodox Syrian and Jacobite Syrian Church disputed ecclesiastical authority over the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2024-12-05 |title=Why Kerala's Malankara Christian factions are in a centuries-old power struggle |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/kerala/story/orthodox-jacobite-rivalry-splits-malankara-christians-in-kerala-2645383-2024-12-05 |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
In 1932, following controversies surrounding Ferrette and Vilatte, and clergy claiming apostolic succession through them, [[Ignatius Aphrem I]] of Antioch issued a notice which stated, amongst other things:<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last=Anson |first=Peter F. |author-link=Peter Anson |title=Bishops at Large |publisher=Apocryphile press |year=2006 |isbn=0-9771461-8-9 |series=Independent Catholic Heritage |pages= |chapter=Churches Claiming the Ferrette Succession |orig-year=1964}}</ref>
* "[T]o all whom it may concern that there are in the [[United States of America]] and in some countries of [[Europe]], particularly in [[England]], a number of [[Schism (Christianity)|schismatic]] bodies which have come into existence after direct expulsion from official Christian communities and have devised for themselves a common [[creed]] and a system of [[Ecclesiastical jurisdiction|jurisdiction]] of their invention."
* "To deceive Christians of the West being a chief objective of the schismatic bodies, they take advantage of their great distance from the [[East]], and from time to time make public statements claiming without truth to derive their origin and apostolic succession from some Apostolic Church of the East, the attractive [[Ritual family|rites]] and ceremonies of which they adopt and with which they claim to have relationship."
* "[W]e deny any and every relationship with these schismatic bodies [...]. Furthermore, our Church forbids any and every relationship and, above all, all [[intercommunion]] with all and any of these schismatic sects and warns the public that their statements and pretentions as above all altogether without truth."
In 1943, a group of clergy descending from Ferrette and Vilatte held the Council of London, which repudiated Aphrem's decree.<ref name=":13" /> These would merge into the [[Catholicate of the West]], which by the end of 20th century became the British Orthodox Church.<ref name=":05322">{{Cite book |last=Anson |first=Peter F. |author-link=Peter Anson |title=Bishops at Large |publisher=Apocryphile press |year=2006 |isbn=0-9771461-8-9 |series=Independent Catholic Heritage |chapter=The Catholicate of the West (Catholic Apostolic Church), otherwise known as The United Orthodox Catholic Rite and The Celtic Catholic Church |orig-year=1964}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=Peter |title=Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-49970-0 |pages=301 |language=en |chapter=Independent episcopal churches |quote=As Mar Georgius (and with tites including Patriarch of Glastonbury, Apostolic Pontiff of Celtia, etc.), he was the leader of the Catholicate of the West, which became the Orthodox Church of the British Isles. Under Newman's nephew and successor, William Newman Norton, this Church was eventually brought under the legitimate jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Cairo in 1994. Following a common schismatic pattern in such Churches, some of its priests rejected this new alliance and split off to form the British Eparchy of the Celtic Orthodox Church, giving their allegiance to a French Primate. Both of these British Churches are tiny. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DouBAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22Catholic+Apostolic+Church+of+Antioch%22&pg=PA301}}</ref>
==== Ethiopian autocephaly and Oriental unity ====
[[File:H.I.M. Haile Selassie I opening the Conference of the Heads of the Oriental Orthodox Churches at the Africa Hall, Addis Ababa.png|thumb|215x215px|[[Haile Selassie]] of Ethiopia opening the Conference of the Heads of the Oriental Orthodox Churches at the [[Africa Hall]], Addis Ababa]]
In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly by Coptic pope [[Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria|Cyril VI]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-16 |title=Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church {{!}} History, Beliefs & Practices |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ethiopian-Orthodox-Tewahedo-Church |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> and by 1965, the [[Addis Ababa Conference]] was held between the autocephalous Oriental Orthodox churches. After the Addis Ababa Conference, the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches was established.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About Addis Ababa |url=http://www.scooch.org/about/about-addis-ababa/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches |language=en}}</ref>
=== Late 20th–early 21st centuries ===
Amongst the Oriental Orthodox, ecumenical dialogue increased with other Christians in the 20th century; and from several meetings between the authorities of the [[Holy See]] and Oriental Orthodoxy, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statement of Syriac patriarch Mar [[Ignatius Zakka I Iwas]] and the Roman pope [[John Paul II]] in 1984:
{{Blockquote|The confusions and schisms that occurred between their Churches in the later centuries, they realize today, in no way affect or touch the substance of their faith, since these arose only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter. Accordingly, we find today no real basis for the sad divisions and schisms that subsequently arose between us concerning the doctrine of Incarnation. In words and life we confess the true doctrine concerning Christ our Lord, notwithstanding the differences in interpretation of such a doctrine which arose at the time of the Council of Chalcedon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1984/june/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19840623_jp-ii-zakka-i.html|title=Common declaration of Pope John Paul II and His Holiness Moran Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Patriarch of Antioch and All the East (June 23, 1984) {{pipe}} John Paul II|website=Vatican}}</ref>|author=|title=|source=}}
However, despite the progress made in ecumenical dialogue, many Oriental Orthodox authorities like [[Pope Shenouda III]] remained skeptical about the Chalcedonian churches, continuing to view their Christology as [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]].<ref name="Shenouda1999"/>
In 1986, the Copts and Romans created a common formula expressing an official Christological agreement between one another.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Priest in dialogue group thinks Copt decision is temporary |url=https://aleteia.org/2024/03/24/priest-in-dialogue-group-thinks-copt-decision-is-temporary/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture |language=en}}</ref> In 1990, another Christological agreement was formulated between the Malankara Orthodox Syrians and Romans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1990-06-30 |title=Declaration of the Joint International Commission Between the Roman Catholic Church and the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church |url=https://www.christianunity.va/content/unitacristiani/en/dialoghi/sezione-orientale/chiese-ortodosse-orientali/relazioni-bilaterali/chiesa-malankarese-siro-ortodossa/joint-international-commission-between-the-roman-catholic-church/declarations-of-agreement/en.html |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Dicastery for Promoting Christian Unity |language=en}}</ref> In 1996, another common declaration was declared by the Armenians and Romans.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1996-12-13 |title=Common Declaration of Pope John Paul II and Catholicos Karekin I |url=https://www.christianunity.va/content/unitacristiani/it/dialoghi/sezione-orientale/chiese-ortodosse-orientali/relazioni-bilaterali/chiesa-apostolica-armena/chiesa-apostolica-armena--sede-di-etchmiadzin--armenia-/dichiarazioni-comuni/1996-giovanni-paolo-ii-e-karekin-i/testo-in-inglese.html |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Dicastery for Promoting Christian Unity}}</ref> The Oriental Orthodox have also signed similar Christological declarations with the Greek Orthodox churches of Alexandria, Antioch, and Romania; however, the remainder of mainstream Eastern Orthodoxy has either sought further clarification or rejected dialogue.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/wccfops2.194 |title=Growth in Agreement II. Reports and Agreed Statements of Ecumenical Conversations at World Level 1982-1998, ed. Jeffrey Gros, FSC, Harding Meyer, William G. Rusch, WCC and Michigan |date=2000 |others=World Council of Churches}}</ref>
In 1993, the Eritrean Church achieved its autocephaly after independence from Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Eritrean Orthodox Church |url=https://cnewa.org/eastern-christian-churches/oriental-orthodox-churches/the-eritrean-orthodox-church/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=CNEWA |language=en-US |quote=In July 1993, with the support of the government, the Eritrean Orthodox appealed to Pope Shenouda III of the Coptic Orthodox Church for separation from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and autocephalous status. In early September 1993 Ethiopian Patriarch Paulos and Archbishop Philippos of Asmara sanctioned jointly the separation of their churches, while stating their desire to work closely together. On September 28, 1993, the Coptic Holy Synod responded favorably to Eritrea’s request and authorized the training in Coptic monasteries of as many as ten future bishops for the Eritrean Church. In February 1994 the Ethiopian and Eritrean churches signed an agreement in Addis Ababa that reaffirmed the autocephalous status of both churches, and recognized a primacy of honor of the Coptic Church among the Oriental Orthodox churches in Africa. On June 19, 1994, Pope Shenouda ordained five new Eritrean bishops in Cairo.}}</ref> Its autocephaly was granted by Shenouda III. By 2015, the British Orthodox Church departed from the Coptic Church as a non-canonically recognized church.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Joint announcement from the Coptic Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom and the British Orthodox Church of the British Isles {{!}} The British Orthodox Church |url=https://britishorthodox.org/5330/joint-announcement-from-the-coptic-orthodox-church-in-the-united-kingdom-and-the-british-orthodox-church-of-the-british-isles/ |access-date=2025-06-07 |website=britishorthodox.org}}</ref>
By the first quarter of the 21st century, the Supreme Court of India ruled in favor of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church's legitimacy following centuries of administrative dispute amongst Malankara Christians.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ameerudheen |first=T. A. |date=2017-11-19 |title=A century-old church dispute in Kerala flares up again as Supreme Court rejects plea on leadership |url=https://scroll.in/article/858273/a-century-old-church-dispute-in-kerala-flares-up-again-as-supreme-court-rejects-plea-on-leadership |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=Scroll.in |language=en}}</ref> As of 2025, administrative disagreements continued between the two churches. These disagreements extended between the Malankara Orthodox, the Coptic Orthodox, and the Catholicate of Cilicia.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Chandran |first=Abhilash |date=2025-05-20 |title=Oriental Orthodox Churches intervene to mediate Malankara Church dispute |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/kerala/2025/May/20/oriental-orthodox-churches-intervene-to-mediate-malankara-church-dispute |access-date=2025-05-24 |website=The New Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=2025-05-22 |title=Not invited for peace talks: Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/no-invitation-for-peace-talks-malankara-orthodox-syrian-church/article69606574.ece |access-date=2025-05-24 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
==Organization and leadership==<!-- This section is linked from [[Panentheism]] -->
{{See also|List of Christian denominations#Independent Oriental Orthodox}}[[File:Assouan cathedrale copte.jpg|thumbnail|[[Aswan]] Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in [[Egypt]]|245x245px]]
[[File:Mor Hananyo Monastery 12.jpg|thumb|Mor Hananyo Monastery, former headquarters of the Syriac Orthodox Church until 1932]]
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are a [[Full communion|communion]] or fellowship of six [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] (that is, administratively completely independent) [[national church]]es.{{sfn|Keshishian|1994|pp=103–108}} The Oriental Orthodox Churches maintain an ancient [[apostolic succession]] and the [[Historical episcopate|historic episcopacy]].{{sfn|Krikorian|2010|pp=45, 128, 181, 194, 206}} The various churches are governed by [[Holy Synod|holy synods]], with a {{lang|la|[[primus inter pares]]}} bishop serving as [[Primate (bishop)|primate]]. The primates hold titles such as [[patriarch]], [[catholicos]], and [[Pope (title)|pope]]. The [[Church of Alexandria|Alexandrian Patriarchate]], the [[Church of Antioch|Antiochian Patriarchate]] along with [[Holy See|Patriarchate of Rome]], were some of the most prominent sees of [[Early Christianity|the early Christian Church]], and amongst contemporary Oriental Orthodoxy.
Oriental Orthodoxy does not have a magisterial leader like the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], nor does the communion have a leader who can convene ecumenical synods or have collective honorary primacy like the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. Meanwhile its ecumenical dialogues and internal church relations are led by the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, which acts as the permanent representative council of its member churches.<ref>{{Cite web |title=About SCOOCH |url=http://www.scooch.org/about/about-scooch/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches |language=en}}</ref>
Below is a list of the six autocephalous Oriental Orthodox churches forming the mainstream body of Oriental Orthodox Christianity, and their associated liturgical [[Ritual family|ritual families]]. Based on the definitions, the list is in the alphabetical order, with some of their constituent autonomous churches and exarchates listed as well. Amongst the Oriental Orthodox, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church's autocephaly has been primarily disputed by the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch and its autonomous Jacobite Syrian Church of India;<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" /> the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church is not a recognized member of the Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches, the regional conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches in North America.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Member Churches |url=http://www.scooch.org/member-churches/ |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches |language=en}}</ref>
{{div col}}
*[[Alexandrian Rite]]
**[[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]]
***[[French Coptic Orthodox Church]]
**[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]
**[[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]
*[[West Syriac Rite]]
**[[Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch]]
*[[Malankara Rite]]
**[[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]
**[[Jacobite Syrian Christian Church]]
*[[Armenian Rite]]
**[[Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church]]
***[[Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin]]
****[[Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople]]
****[[Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem]]
***[[Holy See of Cilicia]]
{{div col end}}
There are a number of churches considered [[non-canonical]], but whose members and clergy may or may not be in communion with mainstream Oriental Orthodoxy. Examples include the [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]], the [[Celtic Orthodox Church]], the [[Orthodox Church of the Gauls]], the [[British Orthodox Church]], and the [[Tigrayan Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]. These organizations have passed in and out of official recognition, but members rarely face excommunication when recognition is ended. The primates of these churches are typically referred to as ''[[episcopi vagantes]]'' or ''vagantes'' in short.
===Adherents===
{{main|Oriental Orthodoxy by country}}
[[File:Oriental Orthodoxy by country.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Distribution of Oriental Orthodox Christians in the world by country:
{{legend|#550000|Main religion (more than 75%)}}
{{legend|#d40000|Main religion (50–75%)}}
{{legend|#ff0000|Important minority religion (20–50%)}}
{{legend|#ff5555|Important minority religion (5–20%)}}
{{legend|#ffaaaa|Minority religion (1–5%)}}
{{legend|#ffc8aa|Tiny minority religion (below 1%), but has local [[autocephaly]]}}
]]
According to the [[Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics|Encyclopedia of Religion]], Oriental Orthodoxy is the Christian tradition "most important in terms of the number of faithful living in the Middle East", which, along with other [[Eastern Christianity#Families of churches|Eastern Christian communions]], represent an [[Autochthonous population|autochthonous]] Christian presence whose origins date further back than the birth and spread of [[Islam]] in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Religion |chapter=Christianity: Christianity in the Middle East |publisher=Thomson Gale |year=2005 |edition=2nd |___location=Farmington Hills, MI |pages=1672–1673}}</ref>
{{As of|2011}}, it was the dominant religion in [[Armenia]] (94%) and ethnically [[Armenians|Armenian]] unrecognized [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]] (95%).<ref>[[List of United Nations Security Council resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict|UN Security Council resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.osce.org/mg/49564 |title=Statement of the Co-Chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group |publisher=[[OSCE]] |access-date=June 25, 2011}}</ref> However, almost the entire Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh [[Flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians|fled]] in 2023 after an [[2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh|Azerbaijani offensive]] retook it.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-04 |title=UN Reports Between 50-1,000 Armenians Remain Within Artsakh, 99% of Population Gone|website=Atlas News |url=https://theatlasnews.co/conflict/2023/10/04/un-reports-between-50-1000-armenians-remain-within-artsakh-99-of-population-gone/ |access-date=2024-02-10 |language=en-US|url-status=dead|archive-date=9 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231209055339/https://theatlasnews.co/conflict/2023/10/04/un-reports-between-50-1000-armenians-remain-within-artsakh-99-of-population-gone/|author-first1=Sébastien|author-last1=Gray}}</ref>
Oriental Orthodoxy is a prevailing religion in [[Ethiopia]] (43.1%), while Protestants account for 19.4% and Islam – 34.1%.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ethiopia – Religion |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ethiopia |access-date=2019-10-25 |website=Britannica |language=en}}</ref> It is most widespread in two regions in [[Ethiopia]]: [[Amhara Region|Amhara]] (82%) and [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] (96%), as well as the capital city of [[Addis Ababa]] (75%). It is also one of two major religions in [[Eritrea]] (40%).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Eritrea |title=Eritrea – Religion |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref>
It is a minority in [[Egypt]] (<20%),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/egypt/ |title=The World Factbook: Egypt |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] |access-date=7 October 2010}}</ref> [[Syria]] (2–3% out of the 10% of total Christians), [[Lebanon]] (10% of the 40% of Christians in Lebanon or 200,000 Armenians and members of the Church of the East) and [[Kerala]], [[India]] (7% out of the 20% of total Christians in Kerala).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Church in India – Syrian Orthodox Church of India – Roman Catholic Church – Protestant Churches in India |url=http://www.syrianchurch.org/MalankaraChurch/DEFAULT.HTM |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016110920/http://www.syrianchurch.org/MalankaraChurch/DEFAULT.HTM |archive-date=16 October 2013 |access-date=14 October 2013 |publisher=Syriac Orthodox Church in India}}</ref> In terms of total number of members, the Ethiopian Church is the largest of all Oriental Orthodox churches, and is second among all Orthodox churches among Eastern and Oriental Churches (exceeded in number only by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]).
Also of particular importance are the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey and the [[Christianity in Iran|Armenian Apostolic Church of Iran]]. These Oriental Orthodox churches represent the largest Christian minority in both of these predominantly Muslim countries, [[Turkey]] and [[Iran]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=161291 |title=Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey |date=15 December 2008 |website=Today's Zaman |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520084230/http://www.todayszaman.com/newsDetail_getNewsById.action?load=detay&link=161291 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |access-date=16 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Golnaz Esfandiari |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/dec/1207.html |title=A Look At Iran's Christian Minority |work=Payvand |date=2004-12-23 |access-date=2012-03-21}}</ref>
==Theology<!--'Oriental Orthodoxy' redirects here-->==
[[File:Faras Madonna and Child.jpg|thumb|Coptic icon of [[Madonna and Child]]]]{{Main|Oriental Orthodox theology}}
The Oriental Orthodox Churches are distinguished by their recognition of only the first three ecumenical councils during the period of the [[state church of the Roman Empire]]: the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in 381 and the [[Council of Ephesus]] in 431.
Oriental Orthodoxy shares much theology and many [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] traditions with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]; these include a similar [[Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)|doctrine of salvation]] and a tradition of collegiality between bishops, as well as reverence of the [[Theotokos]] and use of the [[Nicene Creed]].<ref name="SMSV" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lacopts.org/story/the-transfiguration-our-past-and-our-future/ |title=The Transfiguration: Our Past and Our Future |website=Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles}}</ref> They also share the doctrine of [[ancestral sin]] and [[Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)|deification]].
[[File:Holy Baptism.jpg|thumb|Baptism in a Syriac Orthodox church in India]]
The Oriental Orthodox accept the seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]] of [[baptism]], [[chrismation]], the [[Eucharist]], [[penance]] and [[confession]], [[anointing of the sick]], [[holy orders]], and [[Marriage in Christianity|marriage]].<ref name=":23">{{Cite book |last=Youssef |first=Andrew |title=Oriental Orthodoxy Unveiled |date=2022-11-19 |publisher=Agora University Press |year= |isbn=978-1-950831-39-5 |pages=}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=79}} In Oriental Orthodoxy, the sacraments or ''mysterion'' "can be defined as the main task of the Church in which Christ dispenses Himself to the congregation." This understanding is viewed as a combination of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Gregory of Nyssa]]'s teachings.<ref name=":23" />{{Reference page|page=79}}
In Oriental Orthodoxy, the sacrament of baptism is performed by both immersion and sprinkling;<ref name=":23" />{{Reference page|page=82}} the ordained are considered "participants in the one priesthood of Christ" and "When a man is selected to become a member of the diaconate, priesthood or bishopric, he officiates sacraments not on account of a priesthood intrinsic to him but rather as one who derives his functionality from his participation in the priesthood of Christ."<ref name=":23" />{{Reference page|page=90}} Oriental Orthodoxy accepts baptisms and ordinations from the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, and considers their understanding of [[sacramental character]] "the middle path forged by [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil the Great]]."<ref name=":23" />{{Reference page|pages=70-78}}
The primary theological difference between the two communions is the differing Christology. Oriental Orthodoxy rejects the [[Chalcedonian Definition]], and instead adopts the [[miaphysite]] formula,{{sfn|Winkler|1997|p=33-40}}{{sfn|Brock|2016|p=45–52}} believing that the human and [[Divinity|divine]] natures of Christ are united in one incarnate nature. Historically, the early prelates of the Oriental Orthodox Churches thought that Chalcedonianism implied a possible repudiation of the [[Trinity]], or a concession to [[Nestorianism]].
The break in communion between the imperial Roman and Oriental Orthodox churches did not occur suddenly, but rather gradually over two to three centuries following the Council of Chalcedon.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Chalcedonians |title=Chalcedonians |website=TheFreeDictionary |access-date=June 11, 2016}}</ref> Eventually the two communions developed separate institutions, and the Oriental Orthodox did not participate in any of the later ecumenical councils.
===Christology===
{{main|History of Oriental Orthodoxy#Chalcedonian Schism|Non-Chalcedonianism}}
[[File:The Crucifiction (2427079194).jpg|thumb|Ethiopian icon of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]]]]
The schism between Oriental Orthodoxy and the adherents of Chalcedonian Christianity was based on differences in Christology.<ref name=":0" /> The [[First Council of Nicaea]], in 325, declared that Jesus Christ is [[God in Christianity|God]], that is to say, "[[consubstantial]]" with the Father.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, the third ecumenical council, the [[Council of Ephesus]], declared that Jesus Christ, though divine as well as human, is only one being, or person ([[Hypostatic union|hypostasis]]). Thus, the Council of Ephesus explicitly rejected [[Nestorianism]], the Christological doctrine that Christ was two distinct persons, one divine (the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]) and one human (Jesus), who happened to inhabit the same body.<ref name=":7" />
Twenty years after Ephesus, the [[Council of Chalcedon]] reaffirmed the view that Jesus Christ was a single person, but at the same time declared that this one person existed "in two complete natures", one human and one divine.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Council of Chalcedon |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm |access-date=2025-06-06 |website=Catholic Encyclopedia}}</ref>
At times, Chalcedonian Christians have referred to the Oriental Orthodox as being [[Monophysitism|monophysites]]—that is to say, accusing them of following the teachings of [[Eutyches]] ({{Circa|380|456}}), who argued that Jesus Christ was not human at all, but only divine. Monophysitism was condemned as heretical alongside Nestorianism, and to accuse a church of being monophysite is to accuse it of falling into the opposite extreme from Nestorianism. However, the Oriental Orthodox themselves reject this description as inaccurate, having officially condemned the teachings of both [[Nestorius]] and Eutyches. They define themselves as miaphysite instead,{{sfn|Winkler|1997|p=33-40}}{{sfn|Brock|2016|p=45–52}} holding that Christ has one nature, but this nature is both human and divine.{{sfn|Davis|1990|p=342}}
=== Worship ===
[[File:Tatev Monastery, Liturgy, Rite, Clergy, Armenian Christian Church, Tatev, Armenia.jpg|thumb|Celebration of the Armenian Rite]]
Oriental Orthodox Christians—such as Copts, Syrians and Indians—use a [[breviary]] such as the [[Agpeya]] and [[Shehimo]], respectively, to pray the [[canonical hours]] seven times a day while facing in the [[ad orientem|eastward direction]] towards Jerusalem, in anticipation of the [[Second Coming of Jesus]]; this Christian practice has its roots in {{Bibleverse|Psalm|119:164|KJV}}, in which the prophet [[David]] prays to God seven times a day.<ref name="EOTC2020">{{cite web |title=Prayers of the Church |url=https://www.ethiopianorthodoxchurch.ca/prayers-church |publisher=[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] |access-date=25 July 2020 |language=en |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725181427/https://www.ethiopianorthodoxchurch.ca/prayers-church |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{original research inline|date=March 2023}}
[[Ritual purification]] plays a major role in worship across the autocephalous and autonomous Oriental Orthodox churches.<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Ian Bradley]] |title=Water: A Spiritual History |date=2 November 2012 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4411-6767-5 |language=English|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= H. Bulzacchelli|first=Richard|title=Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|year=2006|isbn=9780761835011|pages=19}}</ref> Before praying, they wash their hands and face in order to be clean before and to present their best to God; [[Tradition of removing shoes in the home and houses of worship|shoes are removed]] in order to acknowledge that one is offering prayer before a holy God.<ref name="Amherst1906">{{cite book |author1=Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney |author-link=Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney |title=A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day |date=1906 |publisher=Methuen |page=399 |language=en |quote=Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one of more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East.}}</ref><ref name="Kosloski2017">{{cite web |last1=Kosloski |first1=Philip |title=Did you know Muslims pray in a similar way to some Christians? |url=https://aleteia.org/2017/10/16/did-you-know-muslims-pray-in-a-similar-way-to-some-christians/ |publisher=[[Aleteia]] |access-date=25 July 2020 |language=en |date=16 October 2017}}</ref> In this Christian tradition, it is customary for women to wear a [[Christian headcovering]] when praying.<ref name="Duffner2014">{{cite web |last1=Duffner |first1=Jordan Denari |title=Wait, I thought that was a Muslim thing?!|url=https://www.commonwealmagazine.org/wait-i-thought-was-muslim-thing |publisher=[[Commonweal (magazine)|Commonweal]] |access-date=26 July 2020 |language=en |date=13 February 2014}}</ref>
Although the Coptic,<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Collection Of Safey Ibn Al-Assal|url=https://stmary-church.com/ibn_assal.pdf|first=Al Safy|last=Ibn Assal|access-date=2025-07-19|website=stmary-church.com|year=1996}} In the new Testament, circumcision (of the flesh) is a custom/tradition not a commandment because it already has been replace with baptism. In the old testament circumcision had to be performed on the eighth day after birth to be legal, but in the new such is not required.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Collection Of Safey Ibn Al-Assal|url=https://stmary-church.com/ibn_assal.pdf|first=Al Safy|last=Ibn Assal|access-date=2025-07-19|website=stmary-church.com|year=1996}} About food, nothing is forbidden except those which were forbidden by the Apostles in the Book of Acts and their Cannons in which they said: “That ye abstain from meats offered to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication: from which if ye keep yourselves, ye shall do well. Fare ye well.”.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States - Q&A |url=https://suscopts.org/q&a/index.php?qid=1464&catid=85 |access-date=2025-07-18 |website=suscopts.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Al-Makari|first= Athanasius|date= July 2002|title= معجم المصطلحات الكنسية|language= Arabic|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1QXen3zy_uHeBu1uZSEBgUiLHd5CXoYiI/view|page= 29|access-date=23 July 2025|quote=إلا أنه قد جرت العادة عند الأقباطحتى اليوم أن يتم ختان الذكر قبل تعميده بغية منفعة صحية، وليس تتميمًا لشريعة دينية. وتذكر قوانين البابا كيرلس ابن لقلق (1235-1243 م) هذا الأمر}}</ref> Ethiopian,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bausi|first=Alessandro|title=The Confession of King Gälawdewos (r. 1540–1559): A Sixteenth-Century Ethiopian Monophysite Document against Jesuit Proselytism|journal=ResearchGate|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369016330|date=2022|quote=And concerning circumcision, we are not circumcised as the Jews, because we know the words of Paul the spring of wisdom, who saith, 'Circumcision availeth not, and uncircumcision availeth not, but rather a new creature, which is, faith in our Lord Jesus Christ.' And again he saith to the men of Corinth, 'He that hath received circumcision, let him not receive uncircumcision.' All the books of the doctrine of Paul are in our hands, and teach us concerning circumcision and uncircumcision. But the circumcision that is practised amongst us is according to the custom of the country, like the tattooing of the face in Ethiopia and Nubia and the piercing of the ear amongst the Indians. And what we do (we do) not in observance of the Law of Moses, but according to the custom of men.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Abir|first=Mordechai|title=Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim European Rivalry in the Region|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fArBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105|date=28 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-28090-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Bausi|first=Alessandro|title=The Confession of King Gälawdewos (r. 1540–1559): A Sixteenth-Century Ethiopian Monophysite Document against Jesuit Proselytism|journal=ResearchGate|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369016330|date=2022|quote=And concerning the eating of swine's flesh we are not prohibited from it, as the Jews are, by observance of the Law. Him also who eats thereof we do not abhor, and him who eats not thereof we do not compel to eat, as our Father Paul wrote to the Church of Rome, saying, 'Let not him who eateth despise him who eateth not; and, God receiveth all'. The Kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, all is clean to the clean, but it is evil for a man to eat with offence. And Matthew the Evangelist saith, 'There is nothing that can defile the man except that which cometh forth from his mouth, but that which is in the belly goeth forth and is contained in the draught, and is cast out and poured forth; and (thus) He maketh all meats clean'.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Daoud|first=Marcos|title=The Liturgy of the Ethiopian Church|publisher=Ethiopian Orthodox Church, Kingston, Jamaica|year=1959|isbn=151886466X|pages=41|quote=Henceforth, let us not be circumcised like the Jews. We know that He who had to fulfil the law and the prophets has already come.}}</ref> and Eritrean Orthodox do not require or endorse these practices,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.keraneyo-medhanealem.com/post/gizret-%E1%8C%8D%E1%8B%9D%E1%88%A8%E1%89%B5-circumcision | title=Gizret - ግዝረት [Circumcision] | date=9 January 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author= Pope Shenouda III|author-link=Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|date= 1985|title= On Priesthood|url= https://st-takla.org/books/en/pope-shenouda-iii/priesthood/male-circumcision.html|access-date=23 July 2025}}</ref> followers of these churches commonly [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork|abstain from pork]], [[circumcise]] their males, and follow other cultural practices that are close to [[Old Testament]] practices.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |last2=Gates |first2=Henry Louis |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |page=566 |language=English |quote=It emphasizes the dietary laws and rules of circumcision found in the Old Testament of the Bible, and in addition to the Christian Sunday Sabbath, Ethiopia Christians observe the traditional Jewish Saturday Sabbath, as do the Ethiopian Jews.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=[[Ian Bradley]] |title=Water: A Spiritual History |date=2 November 2012 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4411-6767-5 |language=English|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= H. Bulzacchelli|first=Richard|title=Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas|publisher=[[University Press of America]]|year=2006|isbn=9780761835011|pages=19|quote=The Ethiopian and Coptic Churches distinguishes between clean and unclean meats, observes days of ritual purification, and keeps a kind of dual Sabbath on both Saturday and Sunday.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last= N. Stearns|first=Peter|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=9780195176322|pages=179|quote=Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.}}</ref>
The Oriental Orthodox Churches also maintain differing compilations of the biblical canon including the [[Peshitta]], [[Bible translations into Coptic|Coptic]] and [[Orthodox Tewahedo biblical canon|Orthodox Tewahedo]] canons, and the [[Bible translations into Armenian|Armenian canon]].
==Relationship to the Church of the East==
The [[Assyrian Church of the East]] is sometimes incorrectly described as an Oriental Orthodox church,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Die orthodoxen Kirchen von 1274 bis 1700|url=https://www.eva-leipzig.de/flexpaper/?leseprobe=zw_9783374021864_digital_LP.pdf|first=Erich|last=Bryner|access-date=2023-02-12|website=www.eva-leipzig.de|year=2004}} S. 114 ff: "Die Orientalischen Orthodoxen Kirchen" (miaphysitische und dyophysitische Kirchen)</ref><ref>[[Johannes Oeldemann]]: ''Konfessionskunde'', 2017, Kap. 2: ''Die Orthodoxe Kirche und die Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen'' enthält drei Unterkapitel: ''Die Orthodoxe Kirche'', ''Die Assyrische Kirche des Ostens'' und ''Die Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen'' d.h. die [[Assyrische Kirche des Ostens]] gehört sowohl zu den ''Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen'' als auch nicht zu den ''Orientalisch-Orthodoxen Kirchen''.</ref><ref>artin Tamcke: Orientalische orthodoxe Nationalkirchen. In: [https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Enzyklop%C3%A4dien_und_Lexika/Religion#Schiele.2C_Zscharnack_Die_Religion_in_Geschichte_und_Gegenwart Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart] (RGG). 4. Auflage. Band 6, Mohr-Siebeck, Tübingen 2003, Sp. 653</ref> though its origins lie in disputes that predated the Council of Chalcedon and it follows a different [[Christology]] from Oriental Orthodoxy. The historical [[Church of the East]] was the church of [[Greater Iran]] and declared itself separate from the [[state church of the Roman Empire]] in 424–427, years before the Ecumenical Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon. Theologically, the Church of the East was affiliated with the doctrine of [[Nestorianism]], and thus rejected the [[Council of Ephesus]], which declared Nestorianism heretical in 431. The Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches in fact developed as a reaction against Nestorian Christology, which emphasizes the distinctness of the human and divine natures of Christ.
==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity|Religion}}
* [[Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy]]
* [[List of Christian denominations]]
* [[Oriental Orthodoxy in North America]]
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="SMSV">{{YouTube |id=KrIh9S8l7tw |title=St. Maurice and St. Verena Coptic Orthodox Church – Divine Liturgy }}</ref>
}}
==Sources==
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*{{cite book|last=Boutros Ghali|first=Mirrit|editor-first=Aziz Suryal |editor-last=Atiya|title=The Coptic Encyclopedia|chapter-url=http://ccdl.libraries.claremont.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/cce/id/1491/rec/1|volume=6|date= 1991|publisher=Macmillan|___location=New York|isbn=978-0-02-897035-6|chapter=Oriental Orthodox Churches|oclc=22808960}}
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* {{Cite journal|last=Brock|first=Sebastian P.|author-link=Sebastian P. Brock|title=Miaphysite, not Monophysite!|journal=Cristianesimo Nella Storia|year=2016|volume=37|number=1|pages=45–52|isbn=9788815261687|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwKJDAEACAAJ}}
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*{{Cite CE1913|wstitle =Baptism |first=William Henry Windsor |last=Fanning|volume=2}}
*{{cite book|last1=Hindson|first1=Ed |last2=Mitchell|first2=Dan |title=The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eE2LdSKiQwC|year=2013|publisher=Harvest House Publishers|isbn=978-0-7369-4806-7}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Keshishian|first1=Aram|title=The Oriental Orthodox Churches|journal=The Ecumenical Review|volume=46|issue=1|year=1994|pages=103–108|issn=0013-0796|doi=10.1111/j.1758-6623.1994.tb02911.x}}
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{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.scooch.org/ The Standing Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches in America]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110719013554/http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/oo-rc_syrindia/doc/i_oo-rc_syrindia_1984.html Common Declaration of Pope John Paul II and HH Mar Ignatius Zakka I Iwas] (archived 19 July 2011)
*[http://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/RC.html Joint Declarations Between the Syriac Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches]
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