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{{Short description|1923 treaty between Turkey and the Allies}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox Treaty
| name = Treaty of Lausanne
| long_name = Treaty of Peace and Exchange of War Prisoners with Turkey Signed at Lausanne<br />
{{lang|fr|Accord relatif à la restitution réciproque des internés civils et à l'échange des prisonniers de guerre, signé à Lausanne}}<br />
{{lang|tr|Lozan'da Türkiye ile Barış ve Savaş Esirlerinin Değişimi üzerine İmzalanan Antlaşma}}
| image = Turkey-Greece-Bulgaria on Treaty of Lausanne.png
| caption = Borders of Turkey set by the Treaty of Lausanne.
| type =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = July 24, 1923
| location_signed = [[Lausanne]], Switzerland
| condition_effective = Following ratification by [[Turkey]] and any three of the [[United Kingdom]], [[French Third Republic|France]], [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Italy]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japan]], the treaty would come into force for those "high contracting parties" and thereafter for each additional signatory upon deposit of [[ratification]]
| date_effective = 6 August 1924<ref>''The Law of Treaties'', ed. by Scott Davidson (Taylor & Francis, 2017) p.205</ref>
| signatories =
| parties = * {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}
* {{flag|United Kingdom}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Italy}}
* {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Greece|state}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Yugoslavia|name=Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes}}
<hr width="50%"/>
* {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Turkey]]
| depositor = [[French Third Republic|French Republic]]
| language = [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]
| wikisource = Treaty of Lausanne
}}
The '''Treaty of Lausanne''' ({{langx|fr|Traité de Lausanne}}, {{langx|tr| Lozan Antlaşması}}) is a [[peace treaty]] negotiated during the [[Lausanne Conference of 1922–1923]] and signed in the [[Palais de Rumine]]<ref>[https://vidy-archives.lausanne.ch/uploads/r/archives-de-la-ville-de-lausanne/e/3/3/e337dc8394f8b9d486a585c9cb97e3e62527a392d1d6bf51d8fc346fd4f13edd/AVL_ADM_B1_224_10_2_89_9.pdf Archives de la Ville de Lausanne] (consulté le 22.07.23)</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Palais de Rumine |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/switzerland/lausanne/attractions/palais-de-rumine/a/poi-sig/1439510/360822 |access-date=6 September 2018 |website=www.lonelyplanet.com |language=en |archive-date=14 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914000817/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/switzerland/lausanne/attractions/palais-de-rumine/a/poi-sig/1439510/360822 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Palais de Rumine & Musée cantonal des Beaux-Arts |url=http://www.myswitzerland.com/en-us/mice/palais-de-rumine-musee-cantonal-des-beaux-arts.html |access-date=6 September 2018 |website=MySwitzerland.com |language=en}}</ref> in [[Lausanne]], Switzerland, on 24 July 1923.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Xypolia |first=Ilia |date=2021 |title=Imperial Bending of Rules: The British Empire, the Treaty of Lausanne, and Cypriot Immigration to Turkey |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09592296.2021.1996711 |journal=Diplomacy & Statecraft |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=674–691 |doi=10.1080/09592296.2021.1996711 |s2cid=246234931 |access-date=19 April 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114142612/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09592296.2021.1996711 |url-status=live |hdl=2164/18252 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The treaty officially resolved the conflict that had initially arisen between the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the Allied [[French Third Republic|French Republic]], [[British Empire]], [[Kingdom of Italy]], [[Empire of Japan]], [[Kingdom of Greece]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Serbia]], and the [[Kingdom of Romania]] since the outset of [[World War I]].<ref name="Treaty">{{Citation |title=Treaty of Peace with Turkey signed at Lausanne |date=24 July 1923 |url=http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne |place=[[Lausanne]], Switzerland |access-date=28 November 2012 |archive-date=12 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112221242/http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne |url-status=live }}</ref> The original text of the treaty is in [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]].<ref name="Treaty" /> It emerged as a second attempt at peace after the failed and unratified [[Treaty of Sèvres]], which had sought to partition Ottoman territories. The earlier treaty, signed in 1920, was later rejected by the [[Turkish National Movement]] which [[Turkish War of Independence|actively opposed]] its terms. As a result of Greek defeat in the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|Greco-Turkish War]], Turkish forces recaptured [[İzmir]], and the [[Armistice of Mudanya]] was signed in October 1922.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Armistice-of-Mudanya |title=Armistice of Mudanya |access-date=2021-11-17 |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202225224/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Armistice-of-Mudanya |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Treaty" /> This armistice provided for the [[Greek-Turkish population exchange|exchange of Greek-Turkish populations]] and allowed unrestricted civilian, non-military passage through the [[Turkish Straits]].
Turkey [[Ratification#Ratification of an international treaty|ratified]] the treaty on 23 August 1923,<ref name="Lawrence">{{Cite book |last=Martin Lawrence |title=Treaties of Peace, 1919–1923 |publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]] |year=1924 |volume=I |page=lxxvii}}</ref><ref name="lonoj">{{Cite journal |date=October 1924 |title=Official Journal, October 1924 |journal=League of Nations Official Journal |volume=4 |page=1292}}</ref> and all other signatories did so by 16 July 1924.<ref>Hansard, [https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1924/jul/16/treaty-of-lausanne-ratification#S5CV0176P0_19240716_HOC_53 House of Commons] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018131357/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1924/jul/16/treaty-of-lausanne-ratification#S5CV0176P0_19240716_HOC_53 |date=18 October 2017 }}, 16 July 1924.</ref> The Treaty of Lausanne became effective on 6 August 1924.<ref>Taner Akçam and Ümit Kurt, ''The Spirit of the Laws: The Plunder of Wealth in the Armenian Genocide'' (Bergahn Books, 2015) p.132</ref>
Additionally, a declaration of amnesty was issued, granting immunity for crimes committed between 1914 and 1922, including the [[Armenian genocide]] and [[Greek genocide]]. Historian [[Hans-Lukas Kieser]] asserts that "Lausanne tacitly endorsed comprehensive policies of expulsion and extermination of hetero-ethnic and hetero-religious groups".<ref name=Kieser/>
==
{{main|Lausanne Conference of 1922–23}}
{{See also|Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|Turkish War of Independence}}
[[File:SevresTreaty.png|thumb|300px|Borders of Turkey according to the unratified [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (1920) which was annulled and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) in the aftermath of the [[Turkish War of Independence]]]]
After the withdrawal of the Greek forces in [[Asia Minor]] and the expulsion of the Ottoman Sultan by the Turkish army under the command of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the [[Ankara]]-based [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Kemalist government]] of the [[Turkish National Movement]] rejected the territorial losses imposed by the 1920 [[Treaty of Sèvres]], previously signed by the Ottoman Empire but remaining unratified. Britain had sought to undermine Turkish influence in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Kirkuk]] by seeking the creation of a [[Kurds|Kurdish]] state in [[Eastern Anatolia]]. Secular Kemalist rhetoric relieved some of the international concerns about the future of [[Armenians]] who had survived the 1915 [[Armenian genocide]], and support for Kurdish [[Self-determination|self determination]] similarly declined. Under the Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, Eastern Anatolia became part of modern-day Turkey, in exchange for Turkey's relinquishing Ottoman-era claims to the oil-rich Arab lands.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Darren L. Logan |date=2009 |title=Thoughts on Iraqi Kurdistan: Present Realities, Future Hope |journal=Iran & the Caucasus |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=161–186 |doi=10.1163/160984909X12476379008205 |jstor=25597401}}</ref>
Negotiations were undertaken during the [[Lausanne Conference of 1922–23|Conference of Lausanne]]. [[İsmet İnönü]] was the chief negotiator for Turkey. [[George Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]], the [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] of that time, was the chief negotiator for the Allies, while [[Eleftherios Venizelos]] negotiated on behalf of [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]]. The negotiations took many months. On 20 November 1922, the peace conference was opened; the treaty was signed on 24 July 1923 after eight months of arduous negotiation, punctuated by several Turkish withdrawals. The Allied delegation included U.S. Admiral [[Mark L. Bristol]], who served as the United States High Commissioner and supported Turkish efforts.<ref>Morgenthau, Henry, ''Ambassador Morgenthau's Story'', (Detroit: [[Wayne State University]], 2003), 303.</ref>
==Stipulations==
The treaty was composed of 143 articles with major sections including:<ref name="Mango">{{Cite book |last=Mango, Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/388 |title=Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey |publisher=[[Overlook Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=1-58567-334-X |page=[https://archive.org/details/ataturk00andr/page/388 388] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Treaty
!Parts
|-
|Convention on the [[Turkish Straits]]
|-
|Trade ([[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|abolition of capitulations]]) – Article 28 provided: "Each of the High Contracting Parties hereby accepts, in so far as it is concerned, the complete abolition of the [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|Capitulations in Turkey]] in every respect."<ref>In addition to Turkey, the [[British Empire]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] were parties to the Treaty.</ref>
|-
|Agreements
|-
|Binding letters
|}
The treaty provided for the independence of the Republic of Turkey but also for the protection of the [[Greeks in Turkey|Greek Orthodox Christian minority in Turkey]] and the [[Muslim minority of Greece|Muslim minority in Greece]]. However, most of the Christian population of Turkey and the Muslim population of Greece had already been deported under the earlier [[Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations (1923)|Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations]] signed by Greece and Turkey. Only the Greek Orthodox of [[Constantinople]], [[Imbros]] and [[Tenedos]] (about 270,000 at that time),<ref>[http://www.hri.org/MFA/foreign/bilateral/minority.htm The Greek minority of Turkey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303192959/http://www.hri.org/MFA/foreign/bilateral/minority.htm|date=3 March 2016}} – Hellenic Resources Network</ref> and the Muslim population of [[Western Thrace]] (about 129,120 in 1923) were excluded.<ref>{{citation |last=Öksüz|first=Hikmet|year=2004|title=The Reasons for Immigration from Western Thrace to Turkey (1923–1950) |url=http://www.azinlikca.net/pdfs/thesis/The_Reasons_for_immigration_from_Western_Thrace_to_Turkey.pdf|publisher=Turkish Review of Balkan Studies |page=255}}</ref> Article 14 of the treaty granted the islands of [[Imbros]] (Gökçeada) and Tenedos (Bozcaada) "[[autonomy|special administrative organisation]]", a right that was revoked by the Turkish government on 17 February 1926. Turkey also formally accepted the loss of [[Cyprus]] (which had been leased to the British Empire following the [[Congress of Berlin]] in 1878, but ''[[de jure]]'' remained an Ottoman territory until [[World War I]]). The fate of the province of [[Mosul]] was left to be determined through the [[League of Nations]]. Turkey also explicitly renounced all claims to the [[Dodecanese Islands]], which [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] had been obliged to return to Turkey according to Article 2 of the [[Treaty of Ouchy]] in 1912 following the [[Italo-Turkish War]] (1911–1912).<ref name="Ouchy">{{cite web| url = http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos142.htm| title = Treaty of Lausanne, October, 1912. | access-date = 18 November 2008| archive-date = 25 October 2021| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211025183004/https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos142.htm| url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>James Barros, ''The Corfu Incident of 1923: Mussolini and The League of Nations'', Princeton University Press, 1965 (reprinted 2015), {{ISBN|1400874610}}, p. 69</ref>
=== Summary of contents of treaty ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Lausanne Treaty I. Treaty of Peace<ref>{{Cite web |title=Treaty Summary |url=http://www.mfa.gov.tr/lausanne-peace-treaty.en.mfa |access-date=28 February 2019 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226233527/http://www.mfa.gov.tr/lausanne-peace-treaty.en.mfa |url-status=live }}</ref>
!Parts
!Sections
|-
|
|Preamble
|-
|Part I
|Political Clauses
|-
|Part II
|Financial Clauses
|-
|Part III.
|Economic clauses
|-
|Part IV
|Communications and Sanitary Questions
|-
|Part V.
|Miscellaneous Provisions
|-
|Part IV.
|Convention respecting conditions of Residence and Business and Jurisdiction
|-
|Part V
|Commercial Convention
|-
|Part VI
|Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations
|-
|Part VII
|Agreement between Greece and Turkey respecting the reciprocal restitution of interned civilians and the exchange of prisoners of war
|-
|Part VIII
|Declaration relating to the Amnesty
|-
|Part IX
|Declaration relating to Muslim properties in Greece
|-
|Part X
|Declaration relating to sanitary matters in Turkey;
|-
|Part XI
|Declaration relating to the administration of justice;
|-
|Part XII
|Protocol relation to certain concessions granted
|-
|Part XIII
|Protocol relating to the accession of Belgium and Portugal to contain provisions and instruments signed at Lausanne
|-
|Part XIV
|Protocol relating to the evacuation of the Turkish territory occupied by the British, French and Italian forces
|-
|Part XV
|Protocol relative to the [[Karaağaç, Edirne|Karagatch]] territory and the Islands of Imbros and Tenedos
|-
|Part XVI
|Protocol relative to the Treaty concluded at Sèvres between the principal Allied Powers and Greece on 10 August 1920, concerning the protection of minorities in Greece, and the Treaty concluded on the same day between the same Powers relating to Thrace.
|-
|Part XVII
|Protocol relating to signature by the Serb-Croat-Slovene State
|}
===Borders===
[[File:Ada Kaleh.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ada Kaleh|Adakale Island]] in [[Danube|River Danube]] was forgotten during the peace talks at the [[Congress of Berlin]] in 1878, which allowed it to remain a ''[[de jure]]'' Ottoman territory and the Ottoman Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II|Abdülhamid II]]'s private possession until the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 (''[[de facto]]'' until [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] unilaterally declared its sovereignty on the island in 1919 and further strengthened this claim with the [[Treaty of Trianon]] in 1920.)<ref name=Adakale/> The island was submerged during the construction of the [[Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station|Iron Gates hydroelectric plant]] in 1970, which also removed the possibility of a potential legal claim by the descendants of [[Abdul Hamid II]].]]
The treaty delimited the boundaries of [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]], [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], and [[Turkey]]. Specifically, the treaty provisioned that all the islands, islets and other territories in the Aegean Sea (Eastern Mediterranean in the original text) beyond three miles from the Turkish shores were ceded to Greece, with the exception of [[Imbros]], [[Tenedos]] and [[Tavşan Islands, Çanakkale|Rabbit islands]] ([[wikisource:Treaty of Lausanne/Part I|Articles 6 and 12]]). There is a special notation in both articles, that, unless it is explicitly stated otherwise, the Turkish sovereignty extends three miles from Asia Minor shores. The Greek population of Imbros and Tenedos was not included in the [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|population exchange]] and would be protected under the stipulations of the protection of the minorities in Turkey ([[wikisource:Treaty of Lausanne/Part I|Article 38]]).
The major issue of the war reparations, demanded from Greece by Turkey, was abandoned after Greece agreed to cede [[Karaağaç, Edirne|Karaağaç]] to Turkey.
Turkey also formally ceded all claims on the [[Dodecanese Islands]] (Article 15); [[Cyprus]] (Article 20);<ref name="Xypolia">{{Cite journal |last=Xypolia |first=Ilia |year=2011 |title=Cypriot Muslims among Ottomans, Turks and British |url=http://www.bujournal.boun.edu.tr/docs/13330942935.pdf |journal=Bogazici Journal |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=109–120 |doi=10.21773/boun.25.2.6 |doi-broken-date=9 July 2025 |access-date=10 November 2012 |doi-access=free |archive-date=2 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180602043648/http://www.bujournal.boun.edu.tr/docs/13330942935.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Sudan]] (Article 17); [[Mandate of Syria|Syria]] and [[Kingdom of Iraq (Mandate administration)|Iraq]] (Article 3); and (along with the [[Treaty of Ankara (1921)|Treaty of Ankara]]) settled the boundaries of the latter two nations.<ref name="Treaty" />
The territories to the south of Syria and Iraq on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], which still remained under Turkish control when the [[Armistice of Mudros]] was signed on 30 October 1918, were not explicitly identified in the text of the treaty. However, the definition of Turkey's southern border in Article 3 also meant that Turkey officially ceded them. These territories included the [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen]], [[Asir]] and parts of [[Hejaz]] like the city of [[Siege of Medina|Medina]]. They were held by Turkish forces until 23 January 1919.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arabia (Yemen–Hejaz) Front Side |url=http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/affairs/affairs_a1.html |access-date=6 September 2018 |website=www.osmanli700.gen.tr |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807132822/http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/affairs/affairs_a1.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Arabistan Cephesi – Osmanlı Web Sitesi – Forsnet |url=http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/olaylar/olaya1.html |access-date=6 September 2018 |website=www.osmanli700.gen.tr |archive-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906124940/http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/olaylar/olaya1.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
By Articles 25 and 26 of the Treaty of Lausanne, Turkey officially ceded [[Ada Kaleh|Adakale Island]] in the [[Danube|Danube River]] to [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] by formally recognizing the related provisions in the [[Treaty of Trianon]] of 1920.<ref name="Treaty" /><ref name="Adakale">{{cite web| url = http://alexisphoenix.org/adakaleh.php| title = Adakale Island in River Danube| access-date = 21 September 2010| archive-date = 25 July 2011| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725000112/http://alexisphoenix.org/adakaleh.php| url-status = live}}</ref> Due to a diplomatic irregularity at the 1878 [[Congress of Berlin]], the island had technically remained part of the Ottoman Empire.
Turkey also renounced its privileges in [[Italian Libya|Libya]] which were defined by Article 10 of the [[Treaty of Ouchy]] in 1912 (per Article 22 of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.)<ref name="Treaty" />
===Agreements===
Among many agreements, there was a separate agreement with the United States, the [[Chester concession]]. In the United States, the treaty was opposed by several groups, including the Committee Opposed to the Lausanne Treaty (COLT), and on 18 January 1927, the [[United States Senate]] refused to ratify the treaty by a vote of 50–34, six votes short of the two-thirds required by the Constitution.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trask |first1=Roger R. |chapter=Rejection of the Lausanne Treaty and Resumption of Diplomatic Relations, 1923–1927 |pages=37–64 |id={{Project MUSE|1252066|type=chapter}} |title=The United States Response to Turkish Nationalism and Reform, 1914–1939 |date=1971 |publisher=University of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-1-4529-3717-5 }}</ref> Consequently, Turkey annulled the concession.<ref name="Mango" />
Besides, Turkey was obliged to instate four European advisors on juridical matters for five years.<ref name=":0">Liebisch-Gümüş, Carolin (6 July 2020). p. 257</ref> The advisors were to observe a juridical reform in Turkey. The advisors contract could be renewed if the suggested reforms would not have taken place.<ref name=":0" /> Subsequently, Turkey worked on and announced a new [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|Turkish constitution]] and reformed the Turkish justice system by including the [[Swiss Civil Code|Swiss Civil code]], the [[Italian Code of Criminal Procedure|Italian criminal law]] and the German Commercial law before completion of the five years in question.<ref name=":0" />
==Declaration of Amnesty==
[[File:Treaty of Lausanne Declaration of Amnesty.pdf|thumb|150px|Declaration of Amnesty]]
Annex VIII to the treaty, called "Declaration of Amnesty", granted immunity to the perpetrators of any crimes "connected to political events" committed between 1914 and 1922.<ref>''The American Journal of International Law'', Vol. 18., No. 2, Supplement:Official Documents (Apr. 1924), pp. 92–95.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Scharf |first=Michael |date=1996 |title=The Letter of the Law: The Scope of the International Legal Obligation to Prosecute Human Rights Crimes |url=https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=lcp |journal=Law and Contemporary Problems |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=41–61 |doi=10.2307/1192189 |issn=0023-9186 |jstor=1192189 |quote=Initially, the Allied Powers sought the prosecution of those responsible for the massacres. The Treaty of Sevres, which was signed on August 10, 1920, would have required the Turkish Government to hand over those responsible to the Allied Powers for trial. Treaty of Peace between the Allied Powers and Turkey [Treaty of Sevres], art. 230, at 235, Aug. 10, 1920, reprinted in 15 AM. J. INT'L L. 179 (Supp 1921). "The Treaty of Sevres was, however, not ratified and did not come into force. It was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne, which not only did not contain provisions respecting the punishment of war crimes, but was accompanied by a 'Declaration of Amnesty' of all offenses committed between 1914 and 1922." Treaty of Peace between the Allied Powers and Turkey [Treaty of Lausanne], July 24, 1923, League of Nations Treaty Series 11, reprinted in 18 AM. J. INT'L L. 1 (Supp. 1924). 99. |access-date=17 December 2020 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719183245/https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=lcp |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The treaty thus put an end to the [[Prosecution of Ottoman war criminals after World War I|effort to prosecute Ottoman war criminals]] for crimes such as the [[Armenian genocide]], the [[Sayfo]], the [[Greek genocide]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lattanzi |first=Flavia |title=The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-78169-3_3 |date=2018 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-78169-3 |series=Studies in the History of Law and Justice |volume=15 |pages=27–104 |language=en |chapter=The Armenian Massacres as the Murder of a Nation? |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-78169-3_3 |access-date=27 November 2020 |archive-date=21 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210321220531/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-78169-3_3 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Marchesi |first=Antonio |title=The Armenian Massacres of 1915–1916 a Hundred Years Later: Open Questions and Tentative Answers in International Law |date=2018 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-78169-3 |pages=143–160 |language=en |chapter=Metz Yeghern and the Origin of International Norms on the Punishment of Crimes}}</ref> and codified [[impunity]] for these crimes.<ref name="Dadrian">{{Cite journal |last=Dadrian |first=Vahakn |date=1998 |title=The Historical and Legal Interconnections Between the Armenian Genocide and the Jewish Holocaust: From Impunity to Retributive Justice |url=https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjil/vol23/iss2/5/ |journal=Yale Journal of International Law |volume=23 |issue=2 |issn=0889-7743 |quote=After expunging all references to Armenian massacres (and, indeed, to Armenia itself) from the draft version, they signed the Lausanne Peace Treaty, thus helping to codify impunity by ignoring the Armenian genocide. The international law flowing from this treaty, while a sham in reality, lent an aura of respectability to impunity because the imprimatur of a peace conference was attached to it. A French jurist observed that the treaty was an "assurance" for impunity for the crime of massacre; indeed, it was a "glorification" of the crime in which an entire race, the Armenians, was "systematically exterminated." For his part, David Lloyd George, wartime Prime Minister of Great Britain, found it appropriate to vent his ire when he was out of power: He declared the Western Allies' conduct at the Lausanne Conference to be "abject, cowardly and infamous." A creature of political deal-making, the Lausanne Treaty was a triumph of the principle of impunity over the principle of retributive justice. |access-date=24 November 2020 |archive-date=3 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201203160836/https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yjil/vol23/iss2/5/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Legacy==
[[File:Lausanne 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Turkish delegation after having signed the Treaty of Lausanne. The delegation was led by [[İsmet İnönü]] (in the middle).]]
The Treaty of Lausanne led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new [[Republic of Turkey]] as the [[successor state]] of the Ottoman Empire.<ref name="Treaty" /> As result of the Treaty, the Ottoman public debt was divided between Turkey and the countries which emerged from the former Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter V. |title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism, and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007 |date=2010 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |pages=224–226 |language=en}}</ref> The convention on the [[Straits]] lasted for thirteen years and was replaced with the [[Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits]] in 1936.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Liebisch-Gümüş|first=Carolin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NlWxQEACAAJ|title=Verflochtene Nationsbildung: Die Neue Türkei und der Völkerbund|date=2020|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter GmbH]]|isbn=978-3-11-064341-1|page=256|language=de|access-date=19 November 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114142648/https://books.google.com/books?id=-NlWxQEACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The customs limitations in the treaty were shortly after reworked.
For Greece, the treaty brought to an end the impetus behind the [[Megali Idea]], the notion that modern Greece should encompass those territories in Asia Minor which had been populated with Greek speakers for up to 3000 years and which also formed the core of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]].
[[Hatay Province]] remained a part of the [[French Mandate of Syria]] according to the Treaty of Lausanne, but in 1938 gained its independence as the [[Hatay State]], which later joined Turkey after a referendum in 1939. Political amnesty was given to opponents of the new Turkish regime but the government reserved the right to make 150 exceptions.<ref>Zürcher Erik Jan. ''Turkey: a Modern History''. 4th ed. London: I.B. Tauris, 2017. p. 163</ref> The [[150 personae non gratae of Turkey]] (mostly descendants of the Ottoman dynasty) slowly acquired citizenship – the last one in 1974.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
[[Lloyd George]] declared the treaty an "abject, cowardly and infamous surrender".<ref name=Dadrian/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KC8lDwAAQBAJ&q=%22abject,+cowardly+and+infamous%22&pg=PA231 |title=Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction |date=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-53386-3 |page=231 |language=en |access-date=17 December 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114142650/https://books.google.com/books?id=KC8lDwAAQBAJ&q=%22abject,+cowardly+and+infamous%22&pg=PA231 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Historian [[Norman Naimark]] states, "The Lausanne Treaty served as a pivotal international precedent for transferring populations against their will throughout the twentieth century."<ref>{{cite web |title=Ethnic Cleansing {{!}} Sciences Po Violence de masse et Résistance – Réseau de recherche |url=https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/ethnic-cleansing-0.html |website=ethnic-cleansing-0.html |access-date=29 March 2021 |language=fr |date=16 April 2019 |archive-date=11 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511072630/https://www.sciencespo.fr/mass-violence-war-massacre-resistance/fr/document/ethnic-cleansing-0.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Historian [[Ronald Grigor Suny]] states that the treaty "essentially confirmed the effectiveness of deportations or even murderous ethnic cleansing as a potential solution to population problems".<ref name="Suny">{{Cite book |last=Suny |first=Ronald Grigor |title='They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else': A History of the Armenian Genocide |title-link=They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else |date=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6558-1 |pages=367–368 |author-link=Ronald Grigor Suny}}
*{{lay source |template=cite encyclopedia |author=Ronald Grigor Suny |date=26 May 2015 |title=Armenian Genocide |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/armenian_genocide |encyclopedia=1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War}}</ref>
Historian [[Hans-Lukas Kieser]] states, "Lausanne tacitly endorsed comprehensive policies of expulsion and extermination of hetero-ethnic and hetero-religious groups, with fatal attraction for German revisionists and many other nationalists".<ref name="Kieser">{{Cite book |last=Kieser |first=Hans-Lukas |title=The Routledge History of the Holocaust |date=2010 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-136-87060-6 |editor-last=Friedman |editor-first=Jonathan C. |language=en |chapter=Germany and the Armenian Genocide of 1915–17 |doi=10.4324/9780203837443.ch3 |chapter-url=https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203837443.ch3 |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=13 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213120747/https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780203837443.ch3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Conspiracy theories==
The Treaty of Lausanne has given rise to a number of [[Islamism|Islamist]] [[conspiracy theories in Turkey]] to defame the post-[[Turkish War of Independence|war]] Turkish secular nationalist rule of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=In Turkey, conspiracy theories about the Peace Treaty of Lausanne run riot |url=https://www.skeptic.org.uk/2023/03/in-turkey-conspiracy-theories-about-the-peace-treaty-of-lausanne-run-riot/ |website=The Skeptic |access-date=18 May 2024 |date=29 March 2023 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702083157/https://www.skeptic.org.uk/2023/03/in-turkey-conspiracy-theories-about-the-peace-treaty-of-lausanne-run-riot/ }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Lozan Antlaşması'nın 100. Yılında Komplo Teorileri ve Gizli Maddelerin İzinde |url=https://yalansavar.org/2023/07/25/lozan-antlasmasinin-100-yilinda-komplo-teorileri-ve-gizli-maddelerin-izinde/ |website=Yalansavar |access-date=18 May 2024 |language=Turkish|date=25 July 2023 |archive-date=6 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230806150445/https://yalansavar.org/2023/07/25/lozan-antlasmasinin-100-yilinda-komplo-teorileri-ve-gizli-maddelerin-izinde/ }}</ref> For example, it has been claimed that the treaty was signed to be effective for a century and there are "secret articles" in the treaty regarding Turkey's mining of natural resources. One conspiracy theory that had following in the 2010s held that the treaty would expire in 2023 and Turkey would be allowed to mine [[boron]] and [[petroleum]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Danforth |first=Nick |date=2 October 2014 |title=Notes on a Turkish Conspiracy |work=Foreign Policy |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/10/02/notes-on-a-turkish-conspiracy/ |access-date=2 January 2023 |archive-date=9 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509194015/https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/10/02/notes-on-a-turkish-conspiracy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This appears not to have happened.
==See also==
{{Wikisource|Treaty of Lausanne}}
* [[Outline of Greek genocide|Outline and timeline of the Greek genocide]]
* [[Human rights in Turkey]]
* [[Aftermath of World War I]]
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[Minority Treaties]]
* [[Muslim minority of Greece]]
* [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey]]
* [[San Remo conference]]
* [[Treaty of Lausanne Monument and Museum]] in [[Karaağaç, Edirne]], Turkey
* [[Turks of the Dodecanese]]
* [[Turks of Western Thrace]]
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Kieser |first=Hans-Lukas |year=2023 |title=When Democracy Died: The Middle East's Enduring Peace of Lausanne |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9781316516423}}
* {{cite book |last=Tusan |first=Michelle |year=2023 |title=The Last Treaty: Lausanne and the End of the First World War in the Middle East |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9781009371087}} [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59901 online book review]
* Marabello, Thomas Quinn (2023) "The Centennial of the Treaty of Lausanne: Turkey, Switzerland, the Great Powers and a Soviet Diplomat’s Assassination," ''Swiss American Historical Society Review'': Vol. 59: No. 3, Article 4. Available at: https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/sahs_review/vol59/iss3/4
* {{Cite book |last1=Conlin |first1=Jonathan |last2=Ozavci |first2=Ozan |title=They All Made Peace – What is Peace? The 1923 Lausanne Treaty and the New Imperial Order |publisher=[[Gingko Library|Gingko]] |year= 2023 |isbn= 978-1-914983-05-4}}
==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{commons category|Treaty of Lausanne}}
* [http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne Full text of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)]<!--Older version of BYU document: http://web.archive.org/web/19970606152516/http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1918p/lausanne.html-->
* {{PM20|FID=sh/141111,144625}}
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