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'''Collaborative methods''' are processes, behaviors, and conversations that relate to the [[collaboration]] between individuals.<ref name="spencelecture">Spence, Muneera U. ''"Graphic Design: Collaborative Processes = Understanding Self and Others."'' (lecture) Art 325: Collaborative Processes. Fairbanks Hall, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 13 Apr. 2006.</ref> These methods specifically aim to increase the success of [[
== History of collaboration ==
{{Main|Collaboration#History}}
==Group
Deliberate setup of a team—before beginning work—increases the potential for high performance.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} To do so, the following components of collaboration should be an initial focus:
==Group models==
Four group models are common in collaboration:<ref name="spencelecture"
;Chance
:''Collaboration by chance'' is the most basic model and underlies all four. The team is a random pick of whoever is available without any specific regard for the skills or needs of each member.
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:'''Critique results, not people:''' do not waste time on personal hostility, make other people feel good, avoid criticism and put downs
:'''Give and get respect:''' show respect for others' opinions, be considerate and friendly, put yourself in the other person's shoes, be responsive to emotions, speak with confidence but remain tactful
:'''Proceed slowly:''' present one idea at a time, check for understanding and acceptance of each idea before moving on to the next. Speak in an organized and logical sequence.
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:'''Small numbers''' of people—typically less than twelve
:'''Complementary skills''' in
:'''Common purposes''' for working
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=== Working styles ===
Two primary types of working styles exist,{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} each benefiting from contributions of the other:
#'''Alone/Quiet/Focused''' workers are typically self-paced, internal thinkers who are driven by goals and are conscious of ownership issues. They are usually best at expressing themselves in writing.
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=== Acuity ===
[[
While psychologist [[Howard Gardner]] identified seven major realms of intelligence,{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} a more simple set of ''acuities'' may be more useful within smaller groups. Four roles have been identified and are defined as follows (note that individuals may score high in more than one category):
:The '''conceptualist''' role typically provides ideas, concepts and the 'visionary' direction of the group
:The '''formalist''' role typically excels at production tasks that relate to organization of content, adherence to formal requirements and quality of craft
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=== Thinking styles ===
[[
There are two main components of thinking styles: internal and external,{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} they share similarities to the [[extraversion and introversion]] traits seen in human [[Personality psychology|personalities]]. The two thinking styles are dichotomies and can be used as axes when charting personal evaluation; note that "there is no 'right' place on the grid."
==== Creation of ideas ====
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=== Learning styles ===
[[
For collaboration purposes, three [[learning styles]] are typically identified:{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}
* '''[[Auditory learning]]''' occurs through hearing the spoken word and represents approximately 25% of the population<ref name="spencelecture" />
* '''[[Kinesthetic learning]]''' occurs through doing, touching and interacting and represents approximately 40% of the population<ref name="spencelecture" />
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Through the use of varied (or redundant) communication styles, collaborative groups can communicate better both internally and externally.
▲''Main article: [[Value (personal and cultural)]]''
Agreeing upon group values is a step that "sets the tone" for further work. This is a convenient warm-up activity for a group and most commonly involves brainstorming a list and then picking a "top-ten." Spence recommends<ref name="spencelecture" /> that this is a high-priority item for the first meeting.
Values may be grouped into categories, but each
:'''Healthy values and habits''' ''(Sensual and Operational Values)'' — Sensual values are individual values and are functional or dysfunctional to an individual's emotional survival. They are ''sensitive'' or ''insensitive'' depending upon an individual's emotional maturity. Operational values are individual values and are functional or dysfunctional to an individual's physical survival. They are ''active'' or ''inactive'' depending upon an individual's physical development. Healthy values and habits are acquired through ''personal satisfaction'', ''practice'' and ''personal experience''.
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== Group functions ==
Collaborative groups often work together in the same environment but may also utilize [[information technology]]—[[collaborative software]] in particular—to overcome geographic limitations. As a group works to meet its goals, the following components should be included to sustain effective collaboration:
=== Interpersonal communication ===
Spence states<ref name="spencelecture" /> that communication is composed of the following:
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* 11% based on words
In collaborative groups, two styles of communication are likely to be found:{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}
* '''Indirect''' communicators are typically persons who use intuitive means to understand the needs and desires of others. They find direct questions difficult to answer and direct communication rude and insensitive.
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=== Respect ===
In [[collaboration]], respect is a critical component of group performance{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} and is given and/or received in two distinctly different ways:
The '''give none''' model of collaborative respect is seen when individuals or teams expect others to earn respect based on the actions of those persons. This often occurs inside organizations, businesses and other groups where there is an existing commonality. Persons joining a collaborative team must prove what they can do and how they are valuable to the group to gain respect and continue working with the group.
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=== Ideation ===
This [[Divergent thinking|divergent]] stage of collaboration is where ideas are developed. Group activities in this stage are typically called [[brainstorming]]. There are four basic rules in brainstorming.<ref>
:'''Focus on quantity''': This rule is a means of enhancing divergent production, aiming to facilitate problem solving through the maxim, ''quantity breeds quality''. The assumption is that the greater the number of ideas generated, the greater the chance of producing a radical and effective solution.
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==== Exercises ====
'''Clustering''' is often used to define and understand the ''basic thematics'' of the topic (such as 'danger,' as seen in the image).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} What follows is approximately 10–15 minutes of clustering and writing of anything and everything that comes to mind—whether related or unrelated and opposing or supporting. Next, to move forward and solidify group understanding, a voting process is used to identify the most thought-provoking or applicable statements about each ''basic thematic;'' finally, the group shares and discusses observations. The critical caveat of the writing and voting portion is that they both are performed silently, unjudging, divergently and done with confidence that every contribution is critical.<ref>Marks, Andrea. "The Role of Writing in a Design Curriculum." AIGA: Design Education (2004). 26 July 2007 [http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm/the-role-of-writing-in-a-design-curriculum]</ref>
'''Grouping''' is often used to agree on actions, items and properties within specific categories of a project. In creative problem solving—game design, for example—the categories "Duration, Purpose/Goal, Theme, Primary Activity, Physicality, Challenge, Audience and Location/Environment" might be used.
=== Consensus ===
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==== Voting ====
[[
[[Opinion poll|Polling the opinions]] of all group members is necessary to equalize ownership of the collaborative project.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} There are two principal ways to do this through [[voting]]:
* '''Written voting''' is a more formal method of establishing consensus that is useful to avoid conflict and pick specific means of proceeding. This is typically done in silence and is particularly valuable to engage internal thinkers.
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=== Performance analysis ===
[[
In Katzenbach and Smith's research, five team classifications have been established:<ref name="katzenbachandsmith" />
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# '''Potential team:''' a group where a significant performance need exists and attempts are being made to improve performance. This group typically requires more clarity about purpose, goals or outcomes and needs more discipline.
# '''Real team:''' a group with complementary skills, equal commitment and is mutually accountable.
# '''
==Barriers to effective collaboration==
A main barrier to collaboration may be the difficulty in achieving agreement when diverse viewpoints exist.{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} This can make effective decision-making more difficult. Even if collaboration members do manage to agree they are very likely to be agreeing from a different perspective. This is often called a cultural boundary. For example:
* A culture where rank or job title is important makes it hard for a lower rank person, who may be more qualified than their superior for the job
* "[[stranger danger]]"; which can be expressed as a reluctance to share with others unknown to you
* "needle in a haystack"; people believe that others may have already solved your problem but how do you find them
* "hoarding"; where people do not want to share knowledge because they see hoarding as a source of power
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== Group conclusion ==
[[
When a group has completed their objectives, introspection and self-critique are necessary to provide growth from the collaborative work experience. This stage also can be used to identify further work to be performed. Documentation of previous group actions become particularly useful at this stage. Spence recommends<ref name="spencelecture" /> that to evaluate collaborative output, individuals must "attack projects, not people." Using the values and goals agreed upon in the 'setup' phase allows group members to make objective, authoritative critique of performance.
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== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Appreciative inquiry]]
* [[Attitude (psychology)]]
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* [[Devil's advocate]]
* [[Game theory]]
* [[Group dynamics]]
* [[Polytely]]
* [[Icebreaker (facilitation)]]
* [[Industrial and organizational psychology]]
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* [[Organizational studies]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Sociomapping]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
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== Further reading ==
* Bennis, Warren, and Patricia W. Biederman. ''Organizing Genius.'' Cambridge,
* Marcum, James W. ''After the Information Age: A Dynamic Learning Manifesto.'' Vol. 231. Counterpoints: Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education. New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2006.
* Spence, Muneera U. ''"Graphic Design Collaborative Processes: a Course in Collaboration."'' Oregon State University. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: AIGA, 2005. https://web.archive.org/web/20080410234154/http://revolutionphiladelphia.aiga.org/resources/content/2/5/7/0/documents/MSpence.pdf
{{Management}}
[[Category:Collaboration]]
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