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{{Short description|MacOS framework}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Cocoa
| logo =
| developer = [[Apple Inc.]]
| released = <!-- {{start date and age|df=yes/no|199?|MM|DD}} -->
| latest release version =
| latest release date =
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date =
| programming language = [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[Objective-C]], [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]]
| operating system = [[macOS]]
| genre = [[Software framework]]
| license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]]<br />with some open source components{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
| website = {{URL|developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/CocoaFundamentals/WhatIsCocoa/WhatIsCocoa.html|Apple Developer}}
}}
'''Cocoa''' is [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s native [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] [[application programming interface]] (API) for its [[Desktop computer|desktop]] [[operating system]] [[macOS]].
Cocoa consists of the [[Foundation Kit]], [[Application Kit]], and [[Core Data]] frameworks, as included by the <code>Cocoa.h</code> header file, and the libraries and frameworks included by those, such as the C standard library and the Objective-C runtime.<ref name="apple1">[https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/#documentation/MacOSX/Conceptual/OSX_Technology_Overview/SystemFrameworks/SystemFrameworks.html Mac Technology Overview: OS X Frameworks]. Developer.apple.com. Retrieved on September 18, 2013.</ref>
Cocoa applications are typically developed using the development tools provided by Apple, specifically [[Xcode]] (formerly [[Project Builder]]) and [[Interface Builder]] (now part of Xcode), using the [[programming language]]s [[Objective-C]] or [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]]. However, the Cocoa programming environment can be accessed using other tools. It is also possible to write Objective-C Cocoa programs in a simple [[text editor]] and build it manually with [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC) or [[Clang]] from the command line or from a [[Make (software)|makefile]].
For [[end user]]s, Cocoa [[application software|applications]] are those written using the Cocoa programming environment. Such applications usually have a familiar look and feel, since the Cocoa programming environment provides a lot of common [[User interface|UI elements]] (such as buttons, scroll bars, etc.), and automates many aspects of an application to comply with Apple's [[human interface guidelines]].
For [[iOS]], [[iPadOS]], [[tvOS]], and [[watchOS]], APIs similar to Application Kit, named [[UIKit]] and WatchKit, are available; they include [[gesture recognition]], [[animation]], and a different set of [[graphical control element]]s that are designed to accommodate the specific platforms they target. Foundation Kit and Core Data are also available in those operating systems. It is used in [[application software|applications]] for Apple devices such as the [[iPhone]], the [[iPod Touch]], the [[iPad]], the [[Apple TV]], and the [[Apple Watch]].
==History==
{{further|History of macOS}}
Cocoa continues the lineage of several [[software framework]]s (mainly the ''App Kit'' and ''Foundation Kit'') from the [[NeXTSTEP]] and [[OpenStep]] programming environments developed by [[NeXT]] in the 1980s and 1990s. Apple acquired NeXT in December 1996, and subsequently went to work on the [[Rhapsody (operating system)|Rhapsody]] operating system that was to be the direct successor of [[OPENSTEP]]. It was to have had an emulation base for [[classic Mac OS]] applications, named ''Blue Box''. The OpenStep base of libraries and binary support was termed ''Yellow Box''. Rhapsody evolved into Mac OS X, and the Yellow Box became Cocoa. Thus, Cocoa classes begin with the letters ''NS'', such as NSString or NSArray. These stand for the original proprietary term for the OpenStep framework, NeXTSTEP.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8vUkpOXhN4C&q=NS+prefix|quote=Cocoa is an important inheritance from NeXT, as indicated by .. the "NS" prefix|title=Mac OS X Internals: A Systems Approach|author=Amit Singh|date=June 19, 2006|publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional |isbn=0-321-27854-2}}</ref>
Much of the work that went into developing OpenStep was applied to developing Mac OS X, Cocoa being the most visible part. However, differences exist. For example, NeXTSTEP and OpenStep used [[Display PostScript]] for on-screen display of text and graphics, while Cocoa depends on Apple's [[Quartz (graphics layer)|Quartz]] (which uses the [[Portable Document Format]] (PDF) imaging model, but not its underlying technology). Cocoa also has a level of Internet support, including the NSURL and [[WebKit]] [[HTML]] classes, and others, while OpenStep had only rudimentary support for managed network connections via NSFileHandle classes and [[Berkeley sockets]].
The API toolbox was originally called “Yellow Box” and was renamed to Cocoa - a name that had been already trademarked by Apple. Apple's ''Cocoa'' trademark had originated as the name of a multimedia project design application for children. The name was intended to evoke "Java for kids", as it ran embedded in web pages.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mardesich|first1=Jodi|title=A Sour Note in Apple's Rhapsody Once-Loyal Software Writers Wary of New OS as Crucial Conference Looms|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=SJ&p_theme=sj&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=allfields(Peter%20Jensen)%20AND%20date(1/1/1997%20to%201/1/1998)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=1/1/1997%20to%201/1/1998)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(%22Peter%20Jensen%22)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no|access-date=13 August 2015|agency=San Jose Mercury News|issue=Morning Final|date=April 14, 1997|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306122132/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=SJ&p_theme=sj&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&s_dispstring=allfields(Peter%20Jensen)%20AND%20date(1/1/1997%20to%201/1/1998)&p_field_date-0=YMD_date&p_params_date-0=date:B,E&p_text_date-0=1/1/1997%20to%201/1/1998)&p_field_advanced-0=&p_text_advanced-0=(%22Peter%20Jensen%22)&xcal_numdocs=20&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&xcal_useweights=no|archive-date=2016-03-06|url-status=dead}}</ref> The original "Cocoa" program was discontinued following the return of [[Steve Jobs]] to Apple. At the time, Java was a big focus area for the company, so “Cocoa” was used as the new name for “Yellow Box” because, in addition to the native Objective-C usage, it could also be accessed from Java via a bridging layer.<ref>{{Citation |last=Apple Inc. |title=WWDC 1999 |date=1999-05-10 |url=http://archive.org/details/1999-05-10-wwdc-keynote-bad-audio |access-date=2024-04-27}}</ref> Even though Apple discontinued support for the Cocoa Java bridge, the name continued and was even used for the [[Cocoa Touch]] API.
==Memory management==
One feature of the Cocoa environment is its facility for managing dynamically allocated memory.
A newly allocated object created with <code>alloc</code> or <code>copy</code> has a retain count of one. Sending that object a <code>retain</code> message increments the retain count, while sending it a <code>release</code> message decrements the retain count. When an object's retain count reaches zero, it is deallocated by a procedure similar to a C++ ''destructor''. <code>dealloc</code> is not guaranteed to be invoked.
Starting with Objective-C 2.0, the Objective-C runtime implemented an optional [[Objective-C#Garbage collection|garbage collector]], which is now obsolete and deprecated in favor of [[Automatic Reference Counting]] (ARC). In this model, the runtime turned Cocoa [[reference counting]] operations such as "retain" and "release" into [[no-op]]s. The garbage collector does not exist on the [[iOS]] implementation of Objective-C 2.0. Garbage collection in Objective-C ran on a low-priority background thread, and can halt on Cocoa's user events, with the intention of keeping the user experience responsive. The legacy garbage collector is still available on Mac OS X version 10.13, but no Apple-provided applications use it.
In 2011, the [[LLVM]] compiler introduced [[Automatic Reference Counting]] (ARC), which replaces the conventional garbage collector by performing static analysis of Objective-C source code and inserting retain and release messages as necessary.
==Main frameworks==
Cocoa consists of three [[Objective-C]] object libraries called ''[[Application framework|frameworks]]''. Frameworks are functionally similar to [[Library (computer science)|shared libraries]], a compiled object that can be dynamically loaded into a program's address space at runtime, but frameworks add associated resources, header files, and documentation. The Cocoa frameworks are implemented as a type of [[bundle (macOS)|bundle]], containing the aforementioned items in standard locations.
* ''[[Foundation Kit]]'' (''Foundation''), first appeared in Enterprise Objects Framework on NeXTSTEP 3.<ref>[http://www.cilinder.be/docs/next/NeXTStep/3.3/nd/Foundation/HybridWorld.htmld/index.html HybridWorld]. Cilinder.be. Retrieved on September 18, 2013.</ref> It was developed as part of the OpenStep work, and subsequently became the basis for OpenStep's AppKit when that system was released in 1994. On macOS, Foundation is based on [[Core Foundation]]. Foundation is a generic object-oriented library providing [[string (computer science)|string]] and value manipulation, [[container (data structure)|containers]] and [[iteration]], [[distributed computing]], [[event loop]]s (run loops), and other functions that are not directly tied to the graphical user interface. The "NS" prefix, used for all classes and [[constant (programming)|constants]] in the framework, comes from Cocoa's OPENSTEP heritage, which was jointly developed by NeXT and [[Sun Microsystems]].
* ''[[Application Kit]]'' (''AppKit'') is directly descended from the original NeXTSTEP Application Kit. It contains code programs can use to create and interact with [[graphical user interface]]s. AppKit is built on top of Foundation, and uses the same ''NS'' prefix.
* ''[[Core Data]]'' is the object persistence framework included with Foundation and Cocoa and found in Cocoa.h.<ref name="apple1"/>
A key part of the Cocoa architecture is its comprehensive views model. This is organized along conventional lines for an application framework, but is based on the [[Portable Document Format]] (PDF) drawing model provided by [[Quartz (graphics layer)|Quartz]]. This allows creating custom drawing content using [[PostScript]]-like drawing commands, which also allows automatic printer support and so forth. Since the Cocoa framework manages all the clipping, scrolling, scaling and other chores of drawing graphics, the programmer is freed from implementing basic infrastructure and can concentrate on the unique aspects of an application's content.
==Model–view–controller==
{{Main article|Model–view–controller}}
The [[Smalltalk]] teams at [[Xerox PARC]] eventually settled on a design philosophy that led to easy development and high code reuse. Named ''[[model–view–controller]]'' (MVC), the concept breaks an application into three sets of interacting object classes:
* Model classes represent problem ___domain data and operations (such as lists of people/departments/budgets; documents containing sections/paragraphs/footnotes of stylized text).
* View classes implement visual representations and affordances for human-computer interaction (such as scrollable grids of captioned icons and pop-up menus of possible operations).
* Controller classes contain logic that surfaces model data as view representations, maps affordance-initiated user actions to model operations, and maintains state to keep the two synchronized.
Cocoa's design is a fairly, but not absolutely strict application of MVC principles. Under OpenStep, most of the classes provided were either high-level View classes (in AppKit) or one of
In Mac OS X 10.3, Apple introduced the NSController family of classes, which provide predefined behavior for the controller layer. These classes are considered part of the [[Cocoa Bindings]] system, which also makes extensive use of protocols such as [[Key-Value Observing]] and [[Key-Value Binding]]. The term 'binding' refers to a relationship between two objects, often between a view and a controller. Bindings allow the developer to focus more on declarative relationships rather than orchestrating fine-grained behavior.
With the arrival of Mac OS X 10.4, Apple extended this foundation further by introducing the [[Core Data]] framework, which standardizes change tracking and persistence in the model layer. In effect, the framework greatly simplifies the process of making changes to application data, undoing changes
==Late binding==
In most object-oriented languages, calls to methods are represented physically by a pointer to the code in memory. This restricts the design of an application since specific
Under Objective-C, methods are represented by a
By a similar token, Cocoa provides a pervasive data manipulation
Late static binding is a variant of binding somewhere between static and dynamic binding. The binding of names before the program is run is called static (''early''); bindings performed as the program runs are dynamic (''late'' or ''virtual'').
==Rich objects==
One of the most useful features of Cocoa is the powerful ''base objects'' the system supplies. As an example, consider the Foundation classes <code>NSString</code> and <code>NSAttributedString</code>, which provide [[Unicode]] [[string (computer science)|strings]], and the <code>[[NSText]]</code> system in AppKit, which allows the programmer to place string objects in the GUI.
<code>NSText</code> and its related classes are used to display and edit strings. The collection of objects involved permit an application to implement anything from a simple single-line text entry field to a complete multi-page, multi-column text layout schema, with full professional [[typography]] features such as [[kerning]], [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]], running text around arbitrary [[shape]]s, [[rotation]], full Unicode support, and [[Spatial anti-aliasing|anti-aliased]] [[glyph]] rendering. Paragraph layout can be controlled automatically or by the user, using a built-in "[[ruler]]" object that can be attached to any text view. Spell checking is automatic, using a system-wide set of language dictionaries. Unlimited undo/redo support is built in. Using only the built-in features, one can write a text editor application in as few as 10 lines of code. With new controller objects, this may fall towards zero.
When extensions are needed, Cocoa's use of Objective-C makes this a straightforward task. Objective-C includes the concept of "[https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/#documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/ObjectiveC/Chapters/ocCategories.html#//apple_ref/doc/uid/TP30001163-CH20-SW1 categories]," which allows modifying existing class "in-place". Functionality can be accomplished in a category without any changes to the original classes in the framework, or even access to its source. In other common languages, this same task requires deriving a new subclass supporting the added features, and then replacing all instances of the original class with instances of the new subclass.
==Implementations and bindings==
The Cocoa frameworks are written in [[Objective-C]]. Java [[language binding|bindings]] for the Cocoa frameworks (termed the ''Java bridge'') were also made available with the aim of replacing Objective-C with a more popular language<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.19/19.12/CocoaAppsinJava/index.html|title=Writing Cocoa Apps in Java|author=Steve Klingsporn|journal=[[MacTech]]|volume=19|issue=12|year=2003}}</ref> but these bindings were unpopular among Cocoa developers and Cocoa's message passing semantics did not translate well to a statically-typed language such as Java.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://developer.apple.com/legacy/library/documentation/Cocoa/Conceptual/Legacy/JavaBridge/JavaBridge.pdf|title=Using the Java Bridge|publisher=[[Apple Inc.]]|quote=Because Java is a strongly typed language, it requires more information about the classes and interfaces it manipulates at compile time. Therefore, before using Objective-C classes as Java ones, a description of them has to be written and compiled.}}</ref> Cocoa's need for runtime binding means many of Cocoa's key features are not available with Java. In 2005, Apple announced that the Java bridge was to be deprecated, meaning that features added to Cocoa in macOS versions later than 10.4 would not be added to the Cocoa-Java programming interface.
At [[Apple Worldwide Developers Conference]] (WWDC) 2014, Apple introduced a new programming language named [[Swift (programming language)|Swift]], which is intended to replace Objective-C.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://appleinsider.com/articles/14/06/04/apples-top-secret-swift-language-grew-from-work-to-sustain-objective-c-which-it-now-aims-to-replace |title=Apple's top secret Swift language grew from work to sustain Objective-C, which it now aims to replace|date=June 4, 2014 }}</ref>
===AppleScriptObjC===
Originally, AppleScript Studio could be used to develop simpler Cocoa applications.<ref>{{cite web|title=AppleScript Studio Programming Guide (Not Recommended): About AppleScript Studio|url=https://developer.apple.com/legacy/library/documentation/AppleScript/Conceptual/StudioBuildingApps/chapter02/studio_about_book.html#//apple_ref/doc/uid/20001249-TPXREF101|publisher=Apple, Inc.|access-date=November 20, 2013}}</ref> However, as of Snow Leopard, it has been deprecated. It was replaced with AppleScriptObjC, which allows programming in [[AppleScript]], while using Cocoa frameworks.<ref>{{cite web |title=AppleScriptObjC Release Notes |url=https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/#releasenotes/ScriptingAutomation/RN-AppleScriptObjC/ |publisher=Apple, Inc. |access-date=November 20, 2013}}</ref>
===Other bindings===
The Cocoa programming environment can be accessed using other tools with the aid of [[language binding|bridge mechanisms]] such as [[PasCocoa]], [[PyObjC]], [[CamelBones]], [[RubyCocoa]], and a [[D (programming language)|D]]/Objective-C Bridge.
<!--Try to organize bindings, alphabetically by language.-->Third-party bindings available for other languages include [[AppleScript]], [[Clozure CL]], [[Monobjc]] and [[NObjective]] ([[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]]), [[Cocoa Sharp|Cocoa#]] (CLI), Cocodao and [[D (programming language)|D]]/Objective-C Bridge,<ref>[https://sourceforge.net/projects/cocodao/ Cocodao], bridge to create Cocoa applications in D language.</ref><ref>[http://michelf.com/weblog/2007/d-objc-bridge/ D/Objective-C Bridge], a [[language binding]] mechanism for Cocoa.</ref> [[LispWorks]], [[Object Pascal]], [[CamelBones]] ([[Perl]]), [[PyObjC]] ([[Python (programming language)|Python]]), [[FPC PasCocoa]] ([[Lazarus (IDE)|Lazarus]] and [[Free Pascal]]), [[RubyCocoa]] ([[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]]).<ref>[http://osx.hyperjeff.net/Reference/cocoa.php more extensive list of implementations]</ref>
A Ruby language implementation named [[MacRuby]], which removes the need for a bridge mechanism, was formerly developed by Apple, while [[Nu (programming language)|Nu]] is a [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]]-like language that uses the [[Objective-C]] object model directly, and thus can use the Cocoa frameworks without needing a binding.
===Other implementations===
There are also open source implementations of major parts of the Cocoa framework, such as [[GNUstep]] and Cocotron,<ref>[http://www.cocotron.org/ Cocotron], free software implementation of Cocoa.</ref> which allow [[cross-platform]] Cocoa application development to target other operating systems, such as [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Linux]].
==See also==
{{col-list|colwidth=25em|
* [[Carbon (API)]]
* [[GNUStep]]
* [[Objective-C]]
* [[Xcode]]
* [[iOS SDK]]
* [[Interface Builder]]
* [[Aqua (user interface)]]
* [[Rosetta (software)]]
* [[XNU]]
* [[Quartz (graphics layer)]]
* [[X11]]
* [[QuickDraw]]
* [[SIMBL]]
* [[Swift (programming language)]]
}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
==Bibliography==
*[[Aaron Hillegass]]: ''Cocoa Programming for Mac OS X'', Addison-Wesley, 3rd Edition 2008, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-321-50361-9}}.
*[[Stephen Kochan]]: ''Programming in Objective-C'', Sams, 1st Edition 2003, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-672-32586-1}}.
*[[Michael Beam]], James Duncan Davidson: ''Cocoa in a Nutshell'', O'Reilly, 1st Edition 2003, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-596-00462-1}}.
*[[Erick Tejkowski]]: ''Cocoa Programming for Dummies'', 1st Edition 2003, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-7645-2613-8}}.
*{{cite book |title= Building Cocoa Applications: A Step by Step Guide |publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]] |edition=1st |date=2002 |first1=Simson |last1=Garfinkel |author-link1=Simson Garfinkel |first2=Michael K. |last2=Mahoney |isbn=0-596-00235-1 |citeseerx=10.1.1.394.3248 }}
*[[Paris Buttfield-Addison]], [[Jon Manning]]: ''Learning Cocoa with Objective-C'', O'Reilly, 3rd Edition 2012, Paperback, {{ISBN|978-1-4493-1849-9}}.
*[[Scott Anguish]], [[Erik M. Buck]], [[Donald A. Yacktman]]: ''Cocoa Programming'', Sams, 1st Edition 2002, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-672-32230-7}}.
*[[Erik M. Buck]], [[Donald A. Yacktman]]: ''Cocoa Design Patterns'', Addison-Wesley Professional, 1st Edition 2009, Paperback, {{ISBN|978-0321535023}}
*[[Bill Cheeseman]]: ''Cocoa Recipes for Mac OS X'', Peachpit Press, 1st Edition 2002, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-201-87801-1}}.
*Andrew Duncan: ''Objective-C Pocket Reference, O'Reilly'', 1st Edition 2002, Paperback, {{ISBN|0-596-00423-0}}.
==External links==
* [
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190202170514/http://www.
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20201114133049/http://cocoadevcentral.com/ Cocoa Dev Central]}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080801025517/http://www.cocoadev.com/ Cocoa Dev]
* [https://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/cocoa Stack Overflow: Cocoa] <!-- Stack Overflow is a popular and well regarded when it comes to Cocoa and Cocoa Touch -->
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{{Widget toolkits}}
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