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{{Short description|Oral compositions and written texts in the Persian language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Culture of Iran}}
{{Contains special characters|Perso-Arabic}}
{{History of literature by era}}
[[File:Kelileh va Demneh.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kelileh va Demneh]] Persian manuscript copy dated 1429, depicts the Jackal trying to lead the Lion astray. [[Topkapi Palace Museum]] in [[Istanbul]], Turkey.]]
[[File:Shahnameh3-5.jpg|thumb|right|A scene from the ''[[Shahnameh]]'' describing the valour of Rustam]]
'''Persian literature'''{{efn|{{langx|fa|ادبیات فارسی|Adabiyâte fârsi}}, {{IPA|fa|ædæbiːˌjɒːte fɒːɾˈsiː|pron}}}} comprises oral compositions and written texts in the [[Persian language]] and is one of the world's oldest [[literature]]s.<ref name=Spooner1994>{{cite book |last1=Spooner |first1=Brian |editor1-last=Marashi |editor1-first=Mehdi |title=Persian Studies in North America: Studies in Honor of Mohammad Ali Jazayery |date=1994 |publisher=Brill |___location=Leiden |pages=177–178 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSdsnqWpuh4C&pg=PA177 |chapter=Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki |isbn=9780936347356 |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022120249/https://books.google.com/books?id=nSdsnqWpuh4C&pg=PA177 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Spooner2012>{{cite book |last1=Spooner |first1=Brian |editor1-last=Schiffman |editor1-first=Harold |title=Language policy and language conflict in Afghanistan and its neighbors: the changing politics of language choice |date=2012 |publisher=Brill |___location=Leiden |page=94 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52aicl9l7rwC&pg=PA94 |chapter=Dari, Farsi, and Tojiki |isbn=978-9004201453 |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022120258/https://books.google.com/books?id=52aicl9l7rwC&pg=PA94#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=CWL2013>{{cite book |editor1-last=Campbell |editor1-first=George L. |editor2-last=King |editor2-first=Gareth |title=Compendium of the World's Languages |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |page=1339 |edition=3rd |chapter=Persian |isbn=9781136258466 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1339 |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=22 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022120250/https://books.google.com/books?id=DWAqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1339#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> It spans over two-and-a-half millennia. Its sources have been within [[Greater Iran]] including present-day [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Caucasus]], and [[Turkey]], regions of [[Central Asia]] (such as [[Tajikistan]]), [[South Asia]] and the [[Balkans]] where the [[Persian language]] has historically been either the native or official language.
For example, [[Rumi]], one of the best-loved Persian poets, born in [[Balkh]] (in modern-day Afghanistan) or [[Sangtuda|Wakhsh]] (in modern-day Tajikistan), wrote in Persian and lived in [[Konya]] (in modern-day Turkey), at that time the capital of the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]] in [[Anatolia]]. The [[Ghaznavids]] conquered large territories in Central and [[South Asia]] and adopted Persian as their court language. There is thus Persian literature from Iran, [[Mesopotamia]], [[Azerbaijan]], the wider Caucasus, Turkey, [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], Tajikistan and other parts of Central Asia, as well as the Balkans. Not all Persian literature is written in [[Persian language|Persian]], as some consider works written by ethnic [[Persian people|Persians]] or Iranians in other languages, such as [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], to be included.
At the same time, not all literature written in Persian is written by ethnic Persians or Iranians, as Turkic, Caucasian, Indic and [[Slavs|Slavic]] poets and writers have also used the Persian language in the environment of [[Persianate]] cultures.
Described as one of the great literatures of humanity,<ref>Arthur John Arberry, ''The Legacy of Persia'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953, {{ISBN|0-19-821905-9}}, p. 200.</ref> including [[Goethe]]'s assessment of it as one of the four main bodies of world literature,<ref>Von David Levinson; Karen Christensen, ''Encyclopedia of Modern Asia'', Charles Scribner's Sons. 2002, vol. 4, p. 480</ref> Persian literature has its roots in surviving works of [[Middle Persian]] and [[Old Persian]], the latter of which dates back as far as 522 BCE, the date of the earliest surviving [[Achaemenid]] inscription, the [[Behistun Inscription]]. The bulk of surviving Persian literature, however, comes from the times following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] c. 650 CE. After the [[Abbasid]]s came to power (750 CE), the Iranians became the scribes and bureaucrats of the [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphate]] and, increasingly, also its writers and poets. The New Persian language literature arose and flourished in [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] and [[Transoxiana]] because of political reasons, early Iranian dynasties of post-Islamic Iran such as the [[Tahirids]] and [[Samanids]] being based in Khorasan.<ref>Frye, R.N., "Darī", ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam'', Brill Publications, CD version.</ref>
Persian poets such as [[Ferdowsi]], [[Saadi Shirazi|Saadi]], [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]], [[Attar of Nishapur|Attar]], [[Nezami Ganjavi|Nezami]],<ref>C. A. (Charles Ambrose) Storey and Franço de Blois (2004), "Persian Literature - A Biobibliographical Survey: Volume V Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period", RoutledgeCurzon; 2nd revised edition (June 21, 2004). p. 363: "Nizami Ganja’i, whose personal name was Ilyas, is the most celebrated native poet of the Persians after Firdausi. His nisbah designates him as a native of Ganja (Elizavetpol, Kirovabad) in Azerbaijan, then still a country with an Iranian population, and he spent the whole of his life in Transcaucasia; the verse in some of his poetic works which makes him a native of the hinterland of Qom is a spurious interpolation."</ref> [[Rumi]]<ref>Franklin Lewis, Rumi Past and Present, East and West, Oneworld Publications, 2000. How is it that a Persian boy born almost eight hundred years ago in Khorasan, the northeastern province of greater Iran, in a region that we identify today as Central Asia, but was considered in those days as part of the Greater Persian cultural sphere, wound up in Central Anatolia on the receding edge of the Byzantine cultural sphere, in which is now Turkey, some 1500 miles to the west? (p. 9)</ref> and [[Omar Khayyam]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Grant |first1=Edward |title=Science and Religion, 400 B.C. to A.D. 1550 From Aristotle to Copernicus |date=2006 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |page=232}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Naidis |first1=Mark |title=The Western Tradition A Survey of Western Civilization |date=1972 |publisher=Dryden Press |page=96}}</ref> are also known in the West and have influenced the literature of many countries.
== Classical Persian literature ==
=== Pre-Islamic Persian literature ===
{{See also|Pahlavi literature|Zoroastrian literature}}
Very few literary works of [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] [[Iran]] have survived, partly due to the destruction of the library at [[Persepolis]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VW-rtv9te8cC&dq=persepolis+library&pg=PA23|title=Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science: Volume 13 - Inventories of Books to Korea: Libraries in the Republic of|first1=Allen|last1=Kent|first2=Harold|last2=Lancour|first3=Jay E.|last3=Daily|date=January 1, 1975|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9780824720131|via=Google Books|access-date=1 November 2022|archive-date=13 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113080342/https://books.google.com/books?id=VW-rtv9te8cC&dq=persepolis+library&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}</ref> Most of what remains consists of the royal inscriptions of Achaemenid kings, particularly [[Darius I]] (522–486 BC) and his son [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes]]. Many [[Zoroastrian]] writings were destroyed in the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] in the 7th century. The [[Parsi people|Parsis]] who fled to [[India]], however, took with them some of the books of the Zoroastrian canon, including some of the [[Avesta]] and ancient [[Commentary (philology)|commentaries]] ([[Zend]]) thereof. Some works of [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanid]] geography and travel also survived, albeit in Arabic translations.
No single text devoted to [[literary criticism]] has survived from [[pre-Islamic Iran]]. However, some essays in [[Zoroastrian Middle Persian|Pahlavi]], such as "Ayin-e name nebeshtan" (Principles of Writing Book) and "Bab-e edteda’I-ye" ([[Panchatantra|Kalileh o Demneh]]), have been considered as literary criticism (Zarrinkoub, 1959).<ref>Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub, ''Naqde adabi'', Tehran 1959 pp: 374–379.</ref>
Some researchers have quoted the ''Sho'ubiyye'' as asserting that the pre-Islamic Iranians had books on eloquence, such as 'Karvand'. No trace remains of such books. There are some indications that some among the Persian elite were familiar with Greek [[rhetoric]] and [[literary criticism]] ([[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob|Zarrinkoub]], 1947).
=== Persian literature of the medieval and pre-modern periods ===
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Bahram Gur and Courtiers Entertained by Barbad the Musician Page from a manuscript of the Shahnama of Firdawsi (d. 1020).jpg|thumbnail|''[[Bahram Gur]] and Courtiers Entertained by [[Barbad]] the Musician'', Page from a manuscript of the [[Shahnama]] of [[Ferdowsi]]. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]]
While initially [[Islamization of Iran|overshadowed by Arabic]] during the [[Umayyad]] and early [[Abbasid]] caliphates, [[New Persian]] soon became a literary language again of the [[Central Asia]]n and [[West Asian]] lands. The rebirth of the language in its new form is often accredited to [[Ferdowsi]], [[Unsuri]], [[Abu-Mansur Daqiqi|Daqiqi]], [[Rudaki]], and their generation, as they used pre-Islamic nationalism as a conduit to revive the language and customs of ancient Iran.
==== Poetry ====
{{Further|Persian metres}}
[[File:Bowl of Reflections, early 13th century.jpg|thumbnail|''Bowl of Reflections'', early 13th century. [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
So strong is the Persian inclination to versifying everyday expressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or [[metaphysics]]. In short, the ability to write in verse form was a pre-requisite for any scholar. For example, almost half of [[Avicenna]]'s medical writings are in verse.
Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court [[patronage]], an extravagance of [[panegyrics]], and what is known as {{lang|fa|سبک فاخر}} "exalted in style". The tradition of royal patronage began perhaps under the Sassanid era and carried over through the Abbasid and [[Samanid dynasty|Samanid]] courts into every major [[List of kings of Persia|Iranian dynasty]]. The [[Qasida]] was perhaps the most famous form of panegyric used, though [[quatrain]]s such as those in [[Omar Khayyam]]'s [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam|Ruba'iyyat]] are also widely popular.
[[Khorasani style (poetry)|Khorasani style]], whose followers mostly were associated with [[Greater Khorasan]], is characterized by its supercilious diction, dignified tone, and relatively literate language. The chief representatives of this lyricism are [[Asjadi]], [[Farrukhi Sistani]], [[Unsuri]], and [[Manuchihri|Manuchehri]]. Panegyric masters such as [[Rudaki]] were known for their love of nature, their verses abounding with evocative descriptions.
Through these courts and system of patronage emerged the [[Epic poetry|epic]] style of poetry, with [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''[[Shahnama]]'' at the apex. By glorifying the [[History of Iran|Iranian historical past]] in heroic and elevated verses, he and other notables such as [[Abu-Mansur Daqiqi|Daqiqi]] and [[Asadi Tusi]] presented the "[[Ajam]]" with a source of pride and inspiration that has helped preserve a sense of identity for the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian people]] over the ages. Ferdowsi set a model to be followed by a host of other poets later on.
The 13th century marks the ascendancy of lyric poetry with the consequent development of the [[ghazal]] into a major verse form, as well as the rise of mystical and [[Sufi poetry]]. This style is often called Araqi (Iraqi) style (Araq-e-Ajam) and is known by its emotional lyric qualities, rich meters, and the relative simplicity of its language. Emotional romantic poetry was not something new, however, as works such as [[Vis and Rāmin|Vis o Ramin]] by [[Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani|As'ad Gorgani]], and ''Yusof o Zoleikha'' by [[Am'aq]] Bokharai exemplify. Poets such as [[Sana'i]] and [[Farid al-Din Attar|Attar]] (who ostensibly inspired [[Rumi]]), [[Khaqani Shirvani]], [[Anvari]], and [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]], were highly respected ghazal writers. However, the elite of this school are Rumi, [[Saadi Shirazi|Saadi]], and [[Hafiz Shirazi]].
Regarding the tradition of Persian love poetry during the [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] era, Persian historian [[Ehsan Yarshater]] notes, "As a rule, the beloved is not a woman, but a young man. In the early centuries of Islam, the raids into [[Central Asia]] produced many young [[slavery|slaves]]. Slaves were also bought or received as gifts. They were made to serve as [[Page (servant)|pages]] at court or in the households of the affluent, or as soldiers and bodyguards. Young men, slaves or not, also, served wine at banquets and receptions, and the more gifted among them could play music and maintain a cultivated conversation. It was [[LGBT topics and Islam|love toward young pages, soldiers, or novices in trades and professions]] which was the subject of lyrical introductions to panegyrics from the beginning of Persian poetry, and of the ghazal. "<ref>Yar-Shater, Ehsan. 1986. ''Persian Poetry in the Timurid and Safavid Periods'', Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 973–974. 1986.</ref> During the same Safavid era, many subjects of the Iranian Safavids were patrons of Persian poetry, such as [[Teimuraz I of Kakheti]].
In the [[didactic]] genre one can mention [[Sanai]]'s ''[[Hadiqat al Haqiqa|Hadiqat-ul-Haqiqah]]'' (Garden of Truth) as well as [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]]'s ''[[Makhzan ol-Asrar|Makhzan-ul-Asrār]]'' (Treasury of Secrets). Some of [[Farid al-Din Attar|Attar]]'s works also belong to this genre as do the major works of Rumi, although some tend to classify these in the lyrical type due to their mystical and emotional qualities. In addition, some tend to group [[Naser Khosrow]]'s works in this style as well; however true gems of this genre are two books by Saadi, a heavyweight of Persian literature, the ''[[Bostan (book)|Bustan]]'' and the ''[[Gulistan of Sa'di|Gulistan]]''.
After the 15th century, the [[Indian style (poetry)|Indian style]] of Persian poetry (sometimes also called ''Isfahani'' or ''Safavi'' styles) took over. This style has its roots in the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] era and produced the likes of [[Amir Khusro|Amir Khosrow Dehlavi]], and Bhai [[Nand Lal Goya]].
==== Prose writings ====
The most significant prose writings of this era are [[Nizami Aruzi|Nizami Arudhi Samarqandi]]'s ''"Chahār Maqāleh"'' as well as [[Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi]]'s [[anecdote]] compendium ''[[Jawami ul-Hikayat]]''.
[[Shams al-Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos ibn Wushmgir]]'s famous work, the ''[[Qabus nama]]'' (''A Mirror for Princes''), is a highly esteemed [[Belles-lettres]] work of Persian literature. Also highly regarded is ''[[Siyasatnama]]'', by [[Nizam al-Mulk]], a famous Persian [[vizier]]. ''[[Panchatantra|Kelileh va Demneh]]'', translated from [[India]]n folk tales, can also be mentioned in this category. It is seen as a collection of adages in Persian literary studies and thus does not convey folkloric notions.
==== Biographies, hagiographies, and historical works ====
Among the major historical and biographical works in classical Persian, one can mention [[Abolfazl Beyhaqi|Abolfazl Beyhaghi]]'s famous ''[[Tarikh-i Beyhaqi]]'', ''[[Lubab ul-Albab]]'' of [[Zahiriddin Nasr Muhammad Aufi]] (which has been regarded as a reliable chronological source by many experts), as well as [[Ata-Malik Juvayni]]'s famous ''[[Tarikh-i Jahangushay-i Juvaini]]'' (which spans the Mongolid and [[Ilkhanate|Ilkhanid]] era of [[Iran]]). [[Farid al-Din Attar|Attar]]'s ''[[Tazkerat-ol-Owliya]]'' ("Biographies of the Saints") is also a detailed account of [[Sufi]] mystics, which is referenced by many subsequent authors and considered a significant work in mystical [[hagiography]].
==== Literary criticism ====
{{See also|Literary criticism in Iran}}
The oldest surviving work of Persian literary criticism after the Islamic conquest of Persia is ''Muqaddame-ye Shahname-ye Abu Mansuri'', which was written during the [[Samanids|Samanid period]].<ref>Iraj Parsinejad, ''A History of Literary Criticism in Iran, 1866-1951'', (Ibex Publishers, Inc., 2003), 14.</ref> The work deals with the myths and legends of ''[[Shahnameh]]'' and is considered the oldest surviving example of Persian prose. It also shows an attempt by the authors to evaluate literary works critically.
==== Storytelling ====
''[[One Thousand and One Nights]]'' ({{langx|fa|هزار و یک شب|italic=yes}}) is a medieval [[Folklore|folk tale]] collection which tells the story of [[Scheherazade]] ({{langx|fa|شهرزاد}} ''Šahrzād''), a [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] queen who must relate a series of stories to her malevolent husband, King [[List of One Thousand and One Nights characters#Shahryār|Shahryar]] ({{langx|fa|شهریار}} ''Šahryār''), to delay her execution. The stories are told over a period of one thousand and one nights, and every night she ends the story with a suspenseful situation, forcing the King to keep her alive for another day. The individual stories were created over several centuries, by many people from a number of different lands.
The nucleus of the collection is formed by a [[Zoroastrian Middle Persian|Pahlavi]] Sassanid [[Persian language|Persian]] book called ''Hazār Afsānah''<ref>Abdol Hossein Saeedian, ''"Land and People of Iran"'' p. 447.</ref> ({{langx|fa|هزار افسان|italic=yes}}, ''Thousand Myths''), a collection of ancient Indian and Persian folk tales.
During the reign of the [[Abbasid]] [[Caliph]] [[Harun al-Rashid]] in the 8th century, [[Baghdad]] had become an important cosmopolitan city. Merchants from [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[China]], [[India]], Africa, and Europe were all found in Baghdad. During this time, many of the stories that were originally folk stories are thought to have been collected orally over many years and later compiled into a single book. The compiler and 9th-century translator into Arabic is reputedly the storyteller ''Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad el-Gahshigar''. The [[frame story]] of Shahrzad seems to have been added in the 14th century.
==Persian dictionaries==
The biggest Persian dictionary is ''[[Dehkhoda Dictionary]]'' (16 volumes) by
[[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda]]. It is the largest comprehensive [[Persian language|Persian]] [[dictionary]] ever published, comprising 16 volumes (more than 27,000 pages). It is published by the [[University of Tehran Press|Tehran University Press (UTP)]] under the supervision of the [[Dehkhoda Dictionary Institute]] and was first published in 1931. It traces the historical development of the Persian language, providing a comprehensive resource to scholars and academic researchers, as well as describing usage in its many variations throughout the world.
He names 200 Persian lexicographical works in his dictionary, the earliest, ''[[Frahang-i Oim-evak|Farhang-i Oim]]'' ({{lang|fa|فرهنگ اویم|italic=yes}}) and ''Farhang-i Menakhtay'' ({{lang|fa|فرهنگ مناختای|italic=yes}}), from the late [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] era of the 3rd-7th century.
The most widely used Persian [[lexicon]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] were those of [[Abu Hafs Sughdi]] ({{lang|fa|فرهنگ ابوحفص سغدی|italic=yes}}) and [[Asadi Tusi]] ({{lang|fa|فرهنگ لغت فرس|italic=yes}}), written in 1092.
The production of Persian dictionaries declined in Iran after the 14th century, while it simultaneously grew in the Indian subcontinent and Ottoman Turkey, regions that were increasingly becoming Persianized. Only 4 dictionaries of Persian were compiled in Iran between the 10th and 19th centuries, while more than 66 were produced in India. Significant dictionaries from India include the ''Farhang-e Ghavvas,'' ''Sharafnama-ye Ebrahimi'', ''[[Farhang-i Jahangiri]]'', and ''[[Burhan-i Qati]]''. Unlike the Persian dictionaries of India, most dictionaries from Ottoman Turkey are bilingual (Persian-Turkish). Some significant dictionaries of the era are ''Oqnum-e Ajam'', ''Loghat-e Ne'matallah'', and ''Lesan al-Ajam.''<ref>{{Cite journal|last=SĀMEʿĪ|first=ḤOSAYN|title=DICTIONARIES|doi=10.1163/2330-4804_eiro_com_8387|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2018-09-10|editor-last=Sedighi|editor-first=Anousha|editor2-last=Shabani-Jadidi|editor2-first=Pouneh|title=The Oxford Handbook of Persian Linguistics|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198736745.001.0001|journal=Oxford Handbooks Online|pages=2166–2170|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198736745.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-873674-5|access-date=20 January 2022|archive-date=22 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022120252/https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34676|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Alam|first=Muzaffar|title=2. The Culture and Politics of Persian in Precolonial Hindustan|date=2019-12-31|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/9780520926738-007|work=Literary Cultures in History|pages=149|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/9780520926738-007|isbn=9780520926738|s2cid=226770775|access-date=2022-01-20|archive-date=22 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230922035426/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1525/9780520926738-007/html|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
In 1645, [[Christian Ravius]] completed a Persian-[[Latin]] dictionary, printed at Leiden. This was followed by [[John Richardson (orientalist)|John Richardson]]'s two-volume Oxford edition (1777) and Gladwin-Malda's (1770) Persian-English Dictionaries, Scharif and S. Peters' Persian-Russian Dictionary (1869), and 30 other Persian lexicographical translations through the 1950s.
Currently, English-Persian dictionaries of [[Manouchehr Arianpour|Manouchehr Aryanpour]] and [[Soleiman Haim]] are widely used in Iran. Also highly regarded in the contemporary Persian literature lexical corpus are the works of Dr. [[Mohammad Moin]]. The first volume of Moin Dictionary was published in 1963.
== Influence ==
=== Sufi literature ===
Some of Persia's best-beloved medieval poets were [[Sufism|Sufis]], and their poetry was, and is, widely read by Sufis from [[Morocco]] to [[Indonesia]]. Rumi, in particular, is renowned both as a poet and as the founder of a widespread Sufi order. [[Hafez]], too, is hugely admired in both East and West, and he was inspired by Sufism if he was not actually a Sufi himself. The themes and styles of this kind of devotional poetry have been widely imitated by many Sufi and non-Sufi poets. See also the article on [[Sufi poetry]].
Many notable texts in Persian mystic literature are not poems, yet highly read and regarded. Among those are ''[[Kimiya-yi sa'ādat]]'', ''[[Asrar al-Tawhid]]'' and ''[[Kashf ul Mahjoob]]''.
=== Georgian literature ===
[[File:Georgian manuscript (Shahname).jpg|thumb|Georgian manuscript of ''Shahnameh'' written in the [[Georgian script]]]]
Beginning in the early 16th century, Persian traditions had a large impact on the Georgian ruling elites, which in turn resulted in Persian influence on Georgian art, architecture, and literature.<ref name="Willem Floor p 494">Willem Floor, Edmund Herzig. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2S_DxLGKw6IC&dq=georgian+culture+influenced+by+persian&pg=PA494 ''Iran and the World in the Safavid Age''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408054519/https://books.google.com/books?id=2S_DxLGKw6IC&dq=georgian+culture+influenced+by+persian&pg=PA494 |date=8 April 2023 }} I.B.Tauris, 15 sep. 2012 {{ISBN|1850439303}} p 494</ref> This cultural influence lasted until the arrival of the Russians.<ref>{{cite book |quote=(...) Iranian power and cultural influence dominated eastern Georgia until the coming of the Russians |title=Vagabond Life: The Caucasus Journals of George Kennan |first=Hans Dieter |last=Kennan |publisher=University of Washington Press |year=2013 |page=32 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>
[[Jamshid Giunashvili|Jamshid Sh. Giunashvili]] remarks on the connection of [[Culture of Georgia (country)|Georgian culture]] with that of the Persian literary work ''Shahnameh'':
{{blockquote|The names of many ''Šāh-nāma'' heroes, such as [[Rostam|Rostom-i]], Thehmine, [[Sām|Sam-i]], or [[Zal|Zaal-i]], are found in 11th- and 12th-century [[Georgian literature]]. They are indirect evidence for an Old Georgian translation of the ''Šāh-nāma'' that is no longer extant. ...}}
{{blockquote|The ''Šāh-nāma'' was translated, not only to satisfy the literary and aesthetic needs of readers and listeners, but also to inspire the young with the spirit of heroism and Georgian patriotism. Georgian ideology, customs, and worldview often informed these translations because they were oriented toward Georgian poetic culture. Conversely, Georgians consider these translations works of their native literature. Georgian versions of the ''Šāh-nāma'' are quite popular, and the stories of [[Rostam and Sohrab|Rostam and Sohrāb]], or [[Bijan and Manijeh|Bījan and Maniža]] became part of Georgian folklore.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Giunshvili|first=Jamshid Sh.|title=Šāh-nāma Translations ii. Into Georgian|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sah-nama-translations-ii-into-georgian|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|access-date=28 May 2012|date=15 June 2005|archive-date=22 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922140039/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/sah-nama-translations-ii-into-georgian|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
Farmanfarmaian in the ''[[Journal of Persianate Studies]]'':
{{blockquote|Distinguished scholars of Persian such as Gvakharia and Todua are well aware that the inspiration derived from the Persian classics of the ninth to the twelfth centuries produced a ‘cultural synthesis’ which saw, in the earliest stages of written secular literature in Georgia, the resumption of literary contacts with Iran, “much stronger than before” (Gvakharia, 2001, p. 481). Ferdowsi’s ''Shahnama'' was a never-ending source of inspiration, not only for high literature, but for folklore as well. “Almost every page of Georgian literary works and chronicles [...] contains names of Iranian heroes borrowed from the ''Shahnama''” (ibid). Ferdowsi, together with [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nezāmi]], may have left the most enduring imprint on Georgian literature (...){{sfn|Farmanfarmaian|2009|page=24}}}}
=== Asia Minor ===
{{Islamic Culture}}
Despite that [[Asia Minor]] (or [[Anatolia]]) had been ruled various times prior to the Middle Ages by various Persian-speaking dynasties originating in Iran, the language lost its traditional foothold there with the demise of the [[Sassanian Empire]]. Centuries later however, the practise and usage in the region would be strongly revived. A branch of the [[Seljuks]], the [[Sultanate of Rum]], took Persian language, art and letters to Anatolia.<ref>Sigfried J. de Laet. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA734 ''History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408054521/https://books.google.com/books?id=PvlthkbFU1UC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA734 |date=8 April 2023 }} UNESCO, 1994. {{ISBN|9231028138}} p 734</ref> They adopted Persian language as the [[official language]] of the empire.<ref>Ga ́bor A ́goston, Bruce Alan Masters. [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA322 ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407184636/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA322 |date=7 April 2023 }} Infobase Publishing, 1 jan. 2009 {{ISBN|1438110251}} p 322</ref> The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], which can "roughly" be seen as their eventual successors, took this tradition over. Persian was the official court language of the empire, and for some time, the official language of the empire.<ref>Doris Wastl-Walter. [https://books.google.com/books?id=6gsm72h9u_IC&dq=ottoman+empire+official+language+persian+language&pg=PA409 ''The Ashgate Research Companion to Border Studies''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424001453/https://books.google.com/books?id=6gsm72h9u_IC&dq=ottoman+empire+official+language+persian+language&pg=PA409 |date=24 April 2023 }} Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011 {{ISBN|0754674061}} p 409</ref> The educated and noble class of the Ottoman Empire all spoke Persian, such as sultan [[Selim I]], despite being Safavid Iran's archrival and a staunch opposer of [[Shia Islam]].<ref name="books. google. nl">Bertold Spuler. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA68 ''Persian Historiography & Geography''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408054520/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA68 |date=8 April 2023 }} Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd {{ISBN|9971774887}} p 68</ref> It was a major literary language in the empire.<ref>Franklin D. Lewis. [https://books.google.com/books?id=PFsQBwAAQBAJ&dq=ottoman+court+persian+language&pg=PT340 ''Rumi - Past and Present, East and West: The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jal l al-Din Rumi''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408054520/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFsQBwAAQBAJ&dq=ottoman+court+persian+language&pg=PT340 |date=8 April 2023 }} Oneworld Publications, 18 okt. 2014 {{ISBN|1780747373}}</ref> Some of the noted earlier Persian literature works during the Ottoman rule are [[Idris Bitlisi|Idris Bidlisi]]'s ''Hasht Bihisht'', which begun in 1502 and covered the reign of the first eight Ottoman rulers, and the ''Salim-Namah'', a glorification of Selim I.<ref name="books. google. nl"/> After a period of several centuries, [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] (which was highly Persianised itself) had developed towards a fully accepted language of literature, which was even able to satisfy the demands of a scientific presentation.<ref name="Bertold Spuler p 69">Bertold Spuler. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA68 ''Persian Historiography & Geography''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408054520/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&dq=persian+language+in+anatolia&pg=PA68 |date=8 April 2023 }} Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd {{ISBN|9971774887}} p 69</ref> However, the number of Persian and Arabic loanwords contained in those works increased at times up to 88%.<ref name="Bertold Spuler p 69"/> The Ottomans produced thousands of Persian literary works throughout their century long lifespan.
=== South Asia ===
{{Further|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}
With the emergence of the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid]]s and their successors such as the [[Ghurids]], [[Timurid dynasty|Timurids]] and [[Mughal Empire]], [[Culture of Iran|Persian culture]] and its literature gradually moved into [[South Asia]] too. In general, from its earliest days, Persian literature and language was imported into the subcontinent by culturally Persianised [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] and [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] dynasties. Persian became the language of the nobility, literary circles, and the royal Mughal courts for hundreds of years. In the early 19th century, [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] replaced it.
Under the [[Mughal Empire]] during the 16th century, the official language of the Indian subcontinent became Persian. Only in 1832 did the British army force the South Asia to begin conducting business in English. <small>''(Clawson, p. 6)''</small> Persian poetry in fact flourished in these regions while post-[[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] [[Iran]]ian literature stagnated. [[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda|Dehkhoda]] and other scholars of the 20th century, for example, largely based their works on the detailed lexicography produced in India, using compilations such as [[Ghazi khan Badr Muhammad Dehlavi]]'s ''Adat al-Fudhala'' ({{lang|fa|اداة الفضلا|italic=yes}}), [[Ibrahim Farughi|Ibrahim Ghavamuddin Farughi]]'s ''Farhang-i Ibrahimi'' ({{lang|fa|فرهنگ ابراهیمی|italic=yes}}), and particularly Muhammad Padshah's ''Farhang-i Anandraj'' ({{lang|fa|فرهنگ آنندراج|italic=yes}}).
=== Balkans ===
{{see also|Fevzi Mostari}}
Persian learning was also widespread in the Ottoman-held [[Balkans]] (''[[Rumelia]]''), with a range of cities being famed for their long-standing traditions in the study of Persian and its classics, amongst them Saraybosna (modern [[Sarajevo]], Bosnia and Herzegovina), [[Mostar]] (also in Bosnia and Herzegovina), and Vardar Yenicesi (or Yenice-i Vardar, now [[Giannitsa]], in the northern part of Greece).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |editor1-link=Nile Green |title=The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |page=85-86 |chapter=Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World}}</ref>
Vardar Yenicesi differed from other localities in the Balkans insofar as that it was a town where Persian was also widely spoken.<ref name="Green">{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |editor1-link=Nile Green |title=The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |page=86 |chapter=Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World}}</ref> However, the Persian of Vardar Yenicesi and throughout the rest of the Ottoman-held Balkans was different from formal Persian both in accent and vocabulary.<ref name="Green"/> The difference was apparent to such a degree that the Ottomans referred to it as "Rumelian Persian" (''Rumili Farsisi'').<ref name="Green"/> As learned people such as students, scholars and literati often frequented Vardar Yenicesi, it soon became the site of a flourishing [[Persianate society|Persianate]] linguistic and literary culture.<ref name="Green"/> The 16th-century Ottoman [[Aşık Çelebi]] (died 1572), who hailed from [[Prizren]] in modern-day [[Kosovo]], was galvanized by the abundant Persian-speaking and Persian-writing communities of Vardar Yenicesi, and he referred to the city as a "hotbed of Persian".<ref name="Green"/>
Many Ottoman Persianists who established a career in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople (modern-day [[Istanbul]]) pursued early Persian training in Saraybosna, amongst them [[Ahmed Sudi]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |editor1-link=Nile Green |title=The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |page=85 |chapter=Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World}}</ref>
=== Western literature ===
{{main|Persian literature in the West}}
Persian literature was little known in the West before the 18-19th century. It became much better known following the publication of several translations from the works of late medieval Persian poets, and it inspired works by various Western poets and writers.
==== German literature ====
* In 1819, [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] published his ''[[West-östlicher Divan]]'', a collection of lyric poems inspired by a German translation of [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]] (1326–1390).
* The German essayist and philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] was the author of the book ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'' (1883–1885),<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://faculty.frostburg.edu/phil/forum/Zarathustra.htm
| title=Nietzsche's Zarathustra
| work=Philosophical forum at [[Frostburg State University]]
| access-date=2006-03-31
| archive-date=2018-03-11
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311073152/http://faculty.frostburg.edu/phil/forum/Zarathustra.htm
| url-status=dead
}}</ref> referring to the ancient Persian prophet [[Zoroaster]] (c. 1700 BCE).
==== English literature ====
* A selection from [[Ferdowsi]]'s ''Shahnameh'' (935–1020) was published in 1832 by [[James Atkinson (Persian scholar)|James Atkinson]], a physician employed by the [[Honourable East India Company|British East India Company]].
* A portion of this abridgment was later versified by the British poet Matthew Arnold in his 1853 ''Rustam and Sohrab''.
* The American poet [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] was another admirer of Persian poetry. He published several essays in 1876 that discuss Persian poetry: ''Letters and Social Aims'', ''From the Persian of Hafiz'', and ''Ghaselle''.
Perhaps the most popular Persian poet of the 19th and early 20th centuries was [[Omar Khayyám|Omar Khayyam]] (1048–1123), whose ''[[Rubaiyat (Khayyam)|Rubaiyat]]'' was freely translated by [[Edward FitzGerald (poet)|Edward Fitzgerald]] in 1859. Khayyam is esteemed more as a scientist than a poet in his native Persia, but in Fitzgerald's rendering, he became one of the most quoted poets in English. Khayyam's line, "A loaf of bread, a jug of wine, and thou", is known to many who could not say who wrote it, or where:
{{verse transliteration-translation
|lang = fa
|rtl = yes
|گر دست دهد ز مغز گندم نانی
وز می دو منی ز گوسفندی رانی
وانگه من و تو نشسته در ویرانی
عیشی بود آن نه حد هر سلطانی
|gar(agar) dast dahad ze maghz-e gandom nāni
va'z(va az) mey do mani ze gūsfandi rāni
vāngah man-o tō neshaste dar vīrāni
'eyshi bovad ān na had-de har soltāni
|Ah, would there were a loaf of bread as fare,
A joint of lamb, a jug of vintage rare,
And you and I in wilderness encamped—
No [[Sultan]]'s pleasure could with ours compare.
}}
The Persian poet and mystic Rumi (1207–1273) (known as Molana in Iran, Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and as Mevlana in Turkey), has attracted a large following in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Popularizing translations by [[Coleman Barks]] have presented Rumi as a [[New Age]] sage. There are also a number of more literary translations by scholars such as [[Arthur John Arberry|A. J. Arberry]].
The classical poets (Hafiz, Saadi, Khayyam, Rumi, [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]] and [[Ferdowsi]]) are now widely known in English and can be read in various translations. Other works of Persian literature are untranslated and little known.
==== Swedish literature ====
During the last century, numerous works of classical Persian literature have been translated into [[Swedish language|Swedish]] by baron [[Eric Hermelin]]. He translated works by, among others, [[Farid al-Din Attar]], Rumi, [[Ferdowsi]], Omar Khayyam, Saadi and Sanai. Influenced by the writings of the [[Sweden|Swedish]] mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], he was especially attracted to the religious or [[Sufism|Sufi]] aspects of classical Persian poetry. His translations have had a great impact on numerous modern Swedish writers, among them [[Karl Wennberg]], [[Willy Kyrklund]] and [[Gunnar Ekelöf]]. More recently classical authors such as [[Hafez]], Rumi, [[Fakhr-al-Din Iraqi|Araqi]] and [[Nizami Aruzi]] have been rendered into Swedish by the [[Iranist]] [[Ashk Dahlén]], who has published several essays on the development of Persian literature. Excerpts from Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh'' has also been translated into Swedish prose by Namdar Nasser and Anja Malmberg.
==== Italian literature ====
During the last century, numerous works of classical and modern Persian literature have been translated into [[Italian language|Italian]] by Alessandro Bausani (Nizami, Rumi, Iqbal, Khayyam), Carlo Saccone ('Attar, Sana'i, Hafiz, Nasir-i Khusraw, Nizami, Ahmad Ghazali, Ansari of Herat, Sa'di, Ayené), Angelo Piemontese (Amir Khusraw Dihlavi), Pio Filippani-Ronconi (Nasir-i Khusraw, Sa'di), Riccardo Zipoli (Kay Ka'us, Bidil), Maurizio Pistoso (Nizam al-Mulk), Giorgio Vercellin (Nizami 'Aruzi), Giovanni Maria D'Erme ('Ubayd Zakani, Hafiz), Sergio Foti (Suhrawardi, Rumi, Jami), Rita Bargigli (Sa'di, Farrukhi, Manuchehri, 'Unsuri), Nahid Norozi (Sohrab Sepehri, Khwaju of Kerman, Ahmad Shamlu), Faezeh Mardani (Forugh Farrokhzad, Abbas Kiarostami). A complete translation of Firdawsi's ''Shah-nama'' was made by [[Italo Pizzi]] in the 19th century.
== Contemporary Persian literature ==
=== History ===
In the 19th century, Persian literature experienced dramatic change and entered a new era. The beginning of this change was exemplified by an incident in the mid-19th century at the court of [[Nasser al-Din Shah Qajar|Nasereddin Shah]], when the reform-minded prime minister, [[Amir Kabir]], chastised the poet [[Qa'ani|Habibollah Qa'ani Shirazi]] for "lying" in a panegyric qasida written in Kabir's honor. Kabir saw poetry in general and the type of poetry that had developed during the Qajar period as detrimental to "progress" and "modernization" in Iranian society, which he believed was in dire need of change. Such concerns were also expressed by others such as [[Mirza Fatali Akhundov|Fath-'Ali Akhundzadeh]], [[Mirza Aqa Khan Kermani]], and [[Mirza Malkom Khan]]. Khan also addressed a need for a change in Persian poetry in literary terms as well, always linking it to social concerns.
[[File:HedayatParis1306.jpg|thumb|"In life there are certain sores which slowly erode the mind in solitude like a kind of canker." (''[[The Blind Owl]]'')]]
The new Persian literary movement cannot be understood without an understanding of the [[Intellectual movements in Iran|intellectual movements]] among Iranian philosophical circles. Given the social and political climate of Persia (Iran) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which led to the [[Iranian Constitutional Revolution|Persian Constitutional Revolution]] of 1906–1911, the idea that change in poetry was necessary became widespread. Many argued that Persian poetry should reflect the realities of a country in transition. This idea was propagated by notable literary figures such as [[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda]] and [[Aref Qazvini|Abolqasem Aref]], who challenged the traditional system of Persian poetry in terms of introducing new content and experimentation with rhetoric, lexico-semantics, and structure. Dehkhoda, for instance, used a lesser-known traditional form, the mosammat, to elegize the execution of a revolutionary journalist. 'Aref employed the ghazal, "the most central genre within the lyrical tradition" (p. 88), to write his "Payam-e Azadi" (Message of Freedom).
Some researchers argue that the notion of "sociopolitical ramifications of esthaetic changes" led to the idea of poets "as social leaders trying the limits and possibilities of social change".<!-- Quotation source? -->
An important movement in modern Persian literature centered on the question of [[modernization]] and [[Westernization]] and whether these terms are synonymous when describing the evolution of Iranian society. It can be argued that almost all advocates of modernism in Persian literature, from Akhundzadeh, Kermani, and Malkom Khan to Dehkhoda, Aref, Bahar, and [[Taqi Rafat]], were inspired by developments and changes that had occurred in Western, particularly European, literatures. Such inspirations did not mean blindly copying Western models but, rather, adapting aspects of Western literature and changing them to fit the needs of Iranian culture.
Following the pioneering works of [[Ahmad Kasravi]], [[Sadeq Hedayat]] and many others, the Iranian wave of comparative literature and literary criticism reached a symbolic crest with the emergence of [[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob|Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub]], [[Shahrokh Meskoob]], [[Houshang Golshiri]] and [[Ebrahim Golestan]].
=== In Afghanistan ===
Persian literature in Afghanistan has also experienced a dramatic change during the last century. At the beginning of the 20th century, Afghanistan was confronted with economic and social change, which sparked a new approach to literature. In 1911, [[Mahmud Tarzi]], who came back to Afghanistan after years of exile in Turkey and was influential in government circles, started a fortnightly publication named ''Saraj’ul Akhbar''. ''Saraj'' was not the first such publication in the country, but in the field of journalism and literature it launched a new period of change and modernization. ''Saraj'' not only played an important role in journalism, it also gave new life to literature as a whole and opened the way for poetry to explore new avenues of expression through which personal thoughts took on a more social colour.
In 1930 (1309 AH), after months of cultural stagnation, a group of writers founded the Herat Literary Circle. A year later, another group calling itself the Kabul Literary Circle was founded in the capital. Both groups published regular magazines dedicated to culture and Persian literature. Both, especially the Kabul publication, had little success in becoming venues for modern Persian poetry and writing. In time, the Kabul publication turned into a stronghold for traditional writers and poets, and modernism in [[Dari literature]] was pushed to the fringes of social and cultural life.
Two of the most prominent classical poets in Afghanistan at the time were [[Abdul Haq Betab]] and [[Khalilullah Khalili|Khalil Ullah Khalili]]. Betab received the honorary title ''Malek ul Shoara'' (King of Poets). Khalili was drawn toward the ''Khorasan style'' of poetry instead of the usual ''Hendi style''. He was also interested in modern poetry and wrote a few poems in a more modern style with new aspects of thought and meaning. In 1318 (AH)<!-- Western date? -->, after two poems by [[Nima Youshij]] titled "Gharab" and "Ghoghnus" were published, Khalili wrote a poem under the name "Sorude Kuhestan" or "The Song of the Mountain" in the same rhyming pattern as Nima and sent it to the Kabul Literary Circle. The traditionalists in Kabul refused to publish it because it was not written in the traditional rhyme. They criticized Khalili for modernizing his style.
Very gradually new styles found their way into literature and literary circles despite the efforts of traditionalists. The first book of new poems was published in the year 1957 (1336 AH), and in 1962 (1341 AH), a collection of modern Persian (Dari) poetry was published in Kabul. The first group to write poems in the new style consisted of [[Mahmud Farani]], [[Baregh Shafi’i]], [[Solayman Layeq]], Sohail, [[Ayeneh]] and a few others. Later, [[Wasef Bakhtari|Vasef Bakhtari]], [[Asadullah Habib]] and [[Latif Nazemi]], and others joined the group. Each had his own share in modernizing Persian poetry in Afghanistan. Other notable figures include [[Leila Sarahat Roshani]], [[Sayed Elan Bahar]], [[Parwin Pazwak]], and [[Qahar Asi]]. Poets like [[Vladimir Mayakovsky|Mayakovsky]], [[Yase Nien]] and [[Lahouti]] (an Iranian poet living in exile in Russia) exerted a special influence on the Persian poets in Afghanistan. The influence of Iranians (e.g. [[Mohammad Farrokhi Yazdi|Farrokhi Yazdi]] and [[Ahmad Shamlou]]) on the newly established Afghan prose and poetry, especially in the second half of the 20th century, must also be taken into consideration.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qantara.de/uploads/540/FWF_78_Persian_Literature_in_Afghanistan.pdf |title=Latif Nazemi ''"A Look at Persian Literature in Afghanistan"'' |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227020705/http://www.qantara.de/uploads/540/FWF_78_Persian_Literature_in_Afghanistan.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-27}}</ref>
Prominent novelists and short story writers from Afghanistan include [[Akram Osman]], known especially for ''Real Men Keep Their Word'' (مرداره قول اس), written in part in [[Kabuli dialect]], and [[Rahnaward Zaryab]]. Some prominent writers from Afghanistan like [[Asef Soltanzadeh]], [[Reza Ebrahimi, Ameneh Mohammadi]], and [[Abbas Jafari]] grew up in Iran and were influenced by Iranian writers and teachers.
=== In Tajikistan ===
The new poetry in Tajikistan is mostly concerned with the way of life of people and is revolutionary. From the 1950s until the advent of new poetry in France, Asia and Latin America, the impact of the modernization drive was strong. In the 1960s, modern Iranian poetry and that of [[Mohammad Iqbal Lahouri]] made a profound impression in Tajik poetry. This period is probably the richest and most prolific period for the development of themes and forms in Persian poetry in Tajikistan. Some Tajik poets were mere imitators, and one can easily see the traits of foreign poets in their work. Only two or three poets were able to digest the foreign poetry and compose original poetry. In Tajikistan, the format and pictorial aspects of short stories and novels were taken from Russian and other European literature. Some of [[Tajikistan]]'s prominent names in Persian literature are [[Gulrukhsor Safieva|Golrokhsar Safi Eva]],<ref>{{cite web
| work=BBC Persian
| access-date=2006-03-31
| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2006/01/060113_7thday_bs_golrokhsar.shtml
| title=گلرخسار صفی اوا، مادر ملت تاجیک
| archive-date=14 March 2006
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060314181436/http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2006/01/060113_7thday_bs_golrokhsar.shtml
| url-status=live
}}</ref> [[Mo'men Ghena'at]],<ref>{{cite web
|work = BBC Persian
|access-date = 2006-03-31
|url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/tajikistan/story/2005/08/050808_mj-qanoat-tajik-figures.shtml
|title = مومن قناعت، شاعر و سیاستمدار
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20121223212706/http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/tajikistan/story/2005/08/050808_mj-qanoat-tajik-figures.shtml
|archive-date = 2012-12-23
}}</ref> [[Farzona|Farzaneh Khojandi]],<ref>{{cite web
|work = BBC Persian
|access-date = 2006-03-31
|url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/tajikistan/story/2005/04/050421_v-tajik-culture-ar-farzanehkhojandi.shtml
|title = فرزانه، صدای نسل نو
|url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20130114002842/http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/tajikistan/story/2005/04/050421_v-tajik-culture-ar-farzanehkhojandi.shtml
|archive-date = 2013-01-14
}}</ref> [[Bozor Sobir]], and [[Loiq Sher-Ali|Layeq Shir-Ali]].
=== Play ===
Among the best-known playwrights are:
* [[Bahram Beyzai]]
* [[Akbar Radi]]
* [[Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi]]
* [[Esmaeel Khalaj]]
* [[Ali Nassirian]]
* [[Mirza Agha Tabrizi|Mirza Aqa Tabrizi]]
* [[Bijan Mofid]]
=== Novel ===
Well-known novelists include:
* [[Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh]]
* [[Sadeq Hedayat]]
* [[Sadeq Chubak]]
* [[Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi]]
* [[Ahmad Mahmoud]]
* [[Jalal Al-e-Ahmad]]
* [[Simin Daneshvar]]
* [[Bozorg Alavi]]
* [[Ebrahim Golestan]]
* [[Bahman Sholevar]]
* [[Mahmoud Dowlatabadi]]
* [[Bahram Sadeghi]]
* [[Ghazaleh Alizadeh]]
* [[Bahman Forsi]]
* [[Houshang Golshiri]]
* [[Reza Baraheni]]
* [[Abbas Maroufi]]
* [[Reza Ghassemi]]
* [[Zoya Pirzad]]
* [[Shahriyar Mandanipour]]
* [https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/285067.Abutorab_Khosravi Abutorab Khosravi]
* [[Nazi Safavi]]
=== Satire ===
{{main|Persian satire}}
* [[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda|Dehkhoda]]
* [[Iraj Mirza]]
* [[
* [[Ubayd Zakani|Obeid Zakani]]
* [[
* [[
* [[
* [[
* Emran Salahi
=== Literary criticism ===
Pioneers of Persian literary criticism in 19th century include [[Mirza Fath `Ali Akhundzade]], [[Mirza Malkom Khan]], [[Mirza `Abd al-Rahim Talebof]] and [[Zeyn al-Abedin Maraghei|Zeyn al-`Abedin Maraghe`i]].
Prominent 20th century critics include:
* [[
* Allameh [[Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda|Dehkhoda]]
* [[Badiozzaman Forouzanfar]]
* [[Mohammad-Taqi Bahar]]
* [[Jalal Homaei]]
* [[Mohammad Moin]]
* [[Saeed Nafisi]]
* [[Parviz Natel-Khanlari]]
* [[Sadeq Hedayat]]
* [[Ahmad Kasravi]].
* [[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob|Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub]]
* [[Shahrokh Meskoob]]
*[[Ali Abdolrezaei]]
[[Saeed Nafisi]] analyzed and edited several critical works. He is well known for his works on [[Rudaki]] and Sufi literature. [[Parviz Natel-Khanlari]] and [[Gholamhossein Yousefi]], who belong to Nafisi's generation, were also involved in modern literature and critical writings.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://iranema-online.com/guest/files/000888.php
| title=پویایی فرهنگ هر کشور ی در "آزادی" نهفته است
| access-date=2006-03-31 | url-status=usurped
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051129022218/http://iranema-online.com/guest/files/000888.php <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2005-11-29}}</ref> Natel-Khanlari is distinguished by the simplicity of his style. He did not follow the traditionalists, nor did he advocate the new. Instead, his approach accommodated the entire spectrum of creativity and expression in Persian literature. Another critic, [[Ahmad Kasravi]], an experienced authority on literature, attacked the writers and poets whose works served despotism.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.ferdosi.com/Book/ShowBookDetail.asp?BkCode=10001027
| title=A history of literary criticism in Iran (1866-1951)
| access-date=2006-03-31
| archive-date=2012-02-19
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219034350/http://www.ferdosi.com/Book/ShowBookDetail.asp?BkCode=10001027
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>
Contemporary Persian [[literary criticism]] reached its maturity after [[Sadeq Hedayat]], [[Ebrahim Golestan]], [[Houshang Golshiri]], [[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob|Abdolhossein Zarrinkoub]] and [[Shahrokh Meskoob]]. Among these figures, Zarrinkoub held academic positions and had a reputation not only among the intelligentsia but also in academia. Besides his significant contribution to the maturity of Persian language and literature, Zarrinkoub boosted [[comparative literature]] and Persian literary criticism.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.persian-language.org/Group/Article.asp?ID=582&P=4 |title=AH Zarrinkoub: A biography |access-date=2006-03-30 |archive-date=2009-02-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211225714/http://www.persian-language.org/Group/Article.asp?ID=582&P=4 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Zarrinkoub's ''Serr e Ney'' is a critical and comparative analysis of Rumi's ''[[Masnavi]]''. In turn, [[Shahrokh Meskoob]] worked on Ferdowsi's ''Shahnameh'', using the principles of modern literary criticism.
[[Mohammad-Taqi Bahar|Mohammad Taghi Bahar]]'s main contribution to this field is his book called ''Sabk Shenasi'' (Stylistics). It is a pioneering work on the practice of Persian literary historiography and the emergence and development of Persian literature as a distinct institution in the early part of the 20th century. It contends that the exemplary status of Sabk-shinasi rests on the recognition of its disciplinary or institutional achievements. It further contends that, rather than a text on Persian ‘stylistics’, Sabk-shinasi is a vast history of Persian literary prose, and, as such, is a significant intervention in Persian literary historiography.{{citation needed|date=March 2020}}
[[Jalal Homaei]], [[Badiozzaman Forouzanfar]] and his student, [[Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani|Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani]], are other notable figures who have edited a number of prominent literary works.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2383/html/panorama.htm#s93186
| title=Luminaries - Mohammad Reza Shafiei-Kadkani
| work=Iran Daily - Panorama
| date=2005-09-24
| access-date=2006-03-31 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060517171109/http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2383/html/panorama.htm#s93186 <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2006-05-17}}</ref>
Critical analysis of Jami's works has been carried out by [[Ala Khan Afsahzad]]. His classic book won the prestigious award of Iran's Year Best book in the year 2000.<ref>"[http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/tajikistan/story/2005/11/051111_dr_afsahzad.shtml همایش بزرگداشت افصح زاد] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120722084955/http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/tajikistan/story/2005/11/051111_dr_afsahzad.shtml |date=2012-07-22 }}" at [[BBC Persian]]. Accessed on 2006-03-31.</ref>
=== Persian short stories ===
{{History of literature by region or country}}
Historically, the [[List of Iranian and Persian short story writers|modern Persian short story]] has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranchamber.com/literature/articles/persian_short_story.php|title=Persian Literature: The Persian Short Story|website=www.iranchamber.com|access-date=1 November 2022|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101154019/https://www.iranchamber.com/literature/articles/persian_short_story.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== Period of diversity ====
In this period, the influence of the western literature on the Iranian writers and authors is obvious. The new and modern approaches to writing is introduced and several genres have developed specially in the field of short story. The most popular trends are toward [[post-modern]] methods and [[Persian Fantasy Academy|speculative fiction]].
=== Poetry ===
Notable Persian poets, modern and classical, include [[Mehdi Akhavan-Sales]], [[Simin Behbahani]], [[Forough Farrokhzad]], [[Mohammad Zohari]], [[Bijan Jalali]], [[Mina Assadi]], [[Siavash Kasraie]], [[Fereydoon Moshiri]], [[Nader Naderpour]], [[Sohrab Sepehri]], [[Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani]], [[Ahmad Shamlou]], [[Nima Yooshij|Nima Yushij]], [[Hushang Ebtehaj|Houshang Ebtehaj]], [[Mirzadeh Eshghi]] (classical), [[Mohammad-Taqi Bahar|Mohammad Taghi Bahar]] (classical), [[Aref Ghazvini]] (classical), [[Ahmad NikTalab]] (new classic), [[Parvin E'tesami|Parvin Etesami]] (classical), [[Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar|Shahriar]] (classical) and, [[Ali Abdolrezaei]] (Post Modernism and New Post Modernism), [[Babak NikTalab]] (Children's poetry).<ref>[http://www.sharghnewspaper.com/850407/html/v2.htm Archived copy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060719164403/http://www.sharghnewspaper.com/850407/html/v2.htm |date=19 July 2006 }}</ref>
==== Classical Persian poetry in modern times ====
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Mohammad Taghi Bahar.jpg|frame|M. T. Bahar, the greatest classical poet of modern times]] -->A few notable classical poets have arisen since the 19th century, among whom Mohammad Taghi Bahar and Parvin Etesami have been most celebrated. Mohammad Taghi Bahar had the title "king of poets" and had a significant role in the emergence and development of Persian literature as a distinct institution in the early part of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Wali Ahmadi|title=The institution of Persian literature and the genealogy of Bahar's stylistics}}</ref> The theme of his poems was the social and political situation of Iran.
Parvin Etesami may be called the greatest Persian woman poet writing in the classical style. One of her remarkable series, called ''Mast va Hoshyar'' (The Drunk and the Sober), won admiration from many of those involved in romantic poetry.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irib.ir/occasions/etesami/etesamiEn.htm |title=Parvin Etesami's biography at IRIB.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112185219/http://www2.irib.ir/occasions/etesami/etesamiEn.htm |archive-date=2008-01-12}}</ref>
==== Modern Persian poetry ====
[[Nima Yooshij|Nima Yushij]] is considered the father of modern Persian poetry, introducing many techniques and forms to differentiate the modern from the old. Nevertheless, the credit for popularizing this new literary form within a country and culture solidly based on a thousand years of classical poetry goes to his few disciples such as Ahmad Shamlou, who adopted Nima's methods and tried new techniques of modern poetry.
The transformation brought about by Nima Youshij, who freed Persian poetry from the fetters of prosodic measures, was a turning point in a long literary tradition. It broadened the perception and thinking of the poets that came after him. Nima offered a different understanding of the principles of classical poetry. His artistry was not confined to removing the need for a fixed-length hemistich and dispensing with the tradition of rhyming but focused on a broader structure and function based on a contemporary understanding of human and social existence. His aim in renovating poetry was to commit it to a "natural identity" and to achieve a modern discipline in the mind and linguistic performance of the poet.<ref name="Mansur Khaksar">{{Cite web |url=http://www.iran-bulletin.org/art/Shamlu_khaksar.html |title=Mansur Khaksar ''"Shamlu's poetic world"'' |access-date=2006-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219034353/http://www.iran-bulletin.org/art/Shamlu_khaksar.html |archive-date=2012-02-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Nima held that the formal technique dominating classical poetry interfered with its vitality, vigor and progress. Although he accepted some of its aesthetic properties and extended them in his poetry, he never ceased to widen his poetic experience by emphasizing the "natural order" of this art. What Nima Youshij founded in contemporary poetry, his successor [[Ahmad Shamlou]] continued.
The [[Sepid Persian Poetry|Sepid poem]] (which translates to white poem), which draws its sources from this poet, avoided the compulsory rules which had entered the Nimai’ school of poetry and adopted a freer structure. This allowed a more direct relationship between the poet and his or her emotional roots. In previous poetry, the qualities of the poet’s vision as well as the span of the subject could only be expressed in general terms and were subsumed by the formal limitations imposed on poetic expression.
Nima’s poetry transgressed these limitations. It relied on the natural function inherent within poetry itself to portray the poet’s solidarity with life and the wide world surrounding him or her in specific and unambiguous details and scenes. Sepid poetry continues the poetic vision as Nima expressed it and avoids the contrived rules imposed on its creation. However, its most distinct difference with Nimai’ poetry is to move away from the rhythms it employed. Nima Youshij paid attention to an overall harmonious rhyming and created many experimental examples to achieve this end.<ref name="Mansur Khaksar" />
Ahmad Shamlu discovered the inner characteristics of poetry and its manifestation in the literary creations of classical masters as well as the Nimai’ experience. He offered an individual approach. By distancing himself from the obligations imposed by older poetry and some of the limitations that had entered the Nimai’ poem, he recognized the role of prose and music hidden in the language. In the structure of Sepid poetry, in contrast to the prosodic and Nimai’ rules, the poem is written in more "natural" words and incorporates a prose-like process without losing its poetic distinction.
Sepid poetry is a developing branch of Nimai’ poetry built upon Nima Youshij's innovations. Nima thought that any change in the construction and the tools of a poet’s expression is conditional on his/her knowledge of the world and a revolutionized outlook. Sepid poetry could not take root outside this teaching and its application.
According to [[Simin Behbahani]], Sepid poetry did not receive general acceptance before [[Bijan Jalali]]'s works. He is considered the founder of Sepid poetry according to Behbahani.<ref>{{cite web
| work=BBC Persian
| access-date=2006-03-31
| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2005/01/050115_la-pa-poetry.shtml
| title=جایزه شعر بیژن جلالی به سیمین بهبهانی اهدا شد
| archive-date=21 August 2006
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060821105837/http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/story/2005/01/050115_la-pa-poetry.shtml
| url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| work=BBC Persian
| access-date=2006-03-31
| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/030118_l-cy-poetry.shtml
| title=معرفی منتقدان و پژوهشگران برگزیده شعر
| archive-date=20 June 2006
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060620174225/http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian/arts/030118_l-cy-poetry.shtml
| url-status=live
}}</ref>
Behbahani herself used the "Char Pareh" style of Nima, and subsequently turned to [[ghazal]], a free-flowing poetry style similar to the Western sonnet. Simin Behbahani contributed to a historic development in the form of the ghazal, as she added theatrical subjects, and daily events and conversations into her poetry. She has expanded the range of traditional Persian verse forms and produced some of the most significant works of Persian literature in the 20th century.
A reluctant follower of Nima Yushij, [[Mehdi Akhavan-Sales]] published his ''Organ'' (1951) to support contentions against Nima Yushij's groundbreaking endeavors. In Persian poetry, Mehdi Akhavan Sales has established a bridge between the ''Khorassani'' and ''Nima'' Schools. The critics consider Mehdi Akhavan Sales as one of the best contemporary Persian poets. He is one of the pioneers of free verse (new style poetry) in Persian literature, particularly of modern style epics. It was his ambition, for a long time, to introduce a fresh style to Persian poetry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iranchamber.com/literature/makhavansales/mehdi_akhavan_sales.php|title=Persian Language & Literature: Mehdi Akhavan Sales|website=www.iranchamber.com|access-date=1 November 2022|archive-date=1 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101154021/https://www.iranchamber.com/literature/makhavansales/mehdi_akhavan_sales.php|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Forough Farrokhzad]] is important in the literary history of Iran for three reasons. First, she was among the first generation to embrace the new style of poetry, pioneered by Nima Yushij during the 1920s, which demanded that poets experiment with rhyme, imagery, and the individual voice. Second, she was the first modern Iranian woman to graphically articulate private sexual landscapes from a woman's perspective. Finally, she transcended her own literary role and experimented with acting, painting, and documentary film-making.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sitemaker.umich.edu/emes/sourcebook/da.data/82637/FileSource/1957_farrokhzad.pdf |title=Forough Farrokhzad and modern Persian poetry |access-date=2006-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227020701/http://sitemaker.umich.edu/emes/sourcebook/da.data/82637/FileSource/1957_farrokhzad.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[Fereydoon Moshiri]] is best known as conciliator of classical Persian poetry with the New Poetry initiated by Nima Yooshij. One of the major contributions of Moshiri's poetry, according to some observers, is the broadening of the social and geographical scope of modern Persian literature.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fereydoonmoshiri.org/fmepage01.htm |title=Fereydoon Moshiri's official website |access-date=27 March 2006 |archive-date=12 May 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150512021902/http://www.fereydoonmoshiri.org/fmepage01.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
A poet of the last generation before the Islamic Revolution worthy of mention is [[Mohammad-Reza Shafiei-Kadkani]] (M. Sereshk). Though he is from Khorassan and sways between allegiance to Nima Youshij and Akhavan Saless, in his poetry he shows the influences of Hafiz and Mowlavi. He uses simple, lyrical language and is mostly inspired by the political atmosphere. He is the most successful of those poets who in the past four decades have tried hard to find a synthesis between the two models of Ahmad Shamloo and Nima Youshij.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.art-arena.com/book.htm#Nader_Naderpour|title=Modern Persian Poetry By Mahmud Kianush|website=www.art-arena.com|access-date=27 March 2006|archive-date=23 April 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060423080723/http://www.art-arena.com/book.htm#Nader_Naderpour|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the twenty-first century, a new generation of Iranian poets continues to work in the New Poetry style and now attracts an international audience thanks to efforts to translate their works. Éditions Bruno Doucey published a selection of forty-eight poems by Garus Abdolmalekian entitled ''Our Fists under the Table'' (2012),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.editions-brunodoucey.com/garous-abdolmalekian/|title=Editions Bruno Doucey|access-date=16 April 2015|archive-date=16 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150416175024/http://www.editions-brunodoucey.com/garous-abdolmalekian/|url-status=live}}</ref> translated into French by Farideh Rava. Other notable names are poet and publisher Babak Abazari (1984–2015), who died under mysterious circumstances in January 2015,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rusartnet.com/biographies/humanitarian/they-must-not-be-forgotten/iran/babak-abazari |title= Babak Abazari |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307210111/http://www.rusartnet.com/biographies/humanitarian/they-must-not-be-forgotten/iran/babak-abazari |archive-date=7 Mar 2016}}</ref> and emerging young poet Milad Khanmirzaei.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rusartnet.com/persian-culture/iranian-writers/milad-khanmirzaei-%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C |title=Archived copy |access-date=16 April 2015 |archive-date=6 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106180856/http://www.rusartnet.com/persian-culture/iranian-writers/milad-khanmirzaei-%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AF-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C |url-status=dead }}</ref>
'''Post Modern Persian poetry'''
In 1990s a progressive evolution called [[Postmodern Ghazal]] begun in the Persian poetry leading to the modern poetry that changed the balancing principle of rhythm and rhyme of the traditional Persian poetry, as did in the Free Verse poetry following the rhythm of natural speech. Now, the center of the attention was language alone, and not only rhythm was absent but the charm of language leads it to be the main axle pushing the Persian poetry forward. The three most talked about poets of the Post Modern Poetry in Iran are [[Reza Baraheni|Reza Barahani]], [[Ali Abdolrezaei]] and [[Ali Babachahi]]. Among them Ali Abdolrezaei enjoyed a wider admissibility due to the new language he expressed which prevailed in that period. Of these poets Reza Barahani’s “Butterflies” (or Addressed to Butterflies), Ali Abdolrezaei’s “Paris in Renault”, “So Sermon of Society”, “Shinema” and “Mothurt”, and Ali Babachahi’s “The Soft Rain is Me” belong to this genre.
===== Children's poetry =====
In the contemporary period, the growth and manifestation of children's poetry in Persian language and literature increased and in this period we see the emergence of prominent poets such as Mahmoud Kianoosh and Abbas Yamini Sharif in young poetry and [[Babak NikTalab|Babak Niktalab]] in adolescent poetry.
== Persian literature awards ==
* Sadegh Hedayat Award
* National Ferdowsi Prize
* [[Houshang Golshiri Award]]
* Bijan Jalali Award
* [[Iran's Annual Book Prize]]
* [[Martyr Avini Literary Award]]
* Mehrgan Adab Prize
* Parvin Etesami Award
* Yalda Literary Award
* Isfahan Literary Award
* [[Persian Speculative Art and Literature Award]]
* [[Jalal Al-e Ahmad Literary Awards]]
* Golden Pen Awards
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121101061647/http://iranian-studies.com/awards/lois-roth Lois Roth Persian Translation Prize]
* Jaleh Esfahani Poetry Award
== Authors and poets ==
{{main|List of Persian-language poets and authors}}
== See also ==
* [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]]
* [https://twitter.com/persianpoetics Persian Poetics] (a source of translations of Persian poetry in English)
* [[Diwan (poetry)]] (includes description of symbols)
* [[Takhallus]] (pen name)
* [[List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
==
{{reflist}}
==
* {{cite journal |last1=Farmanfarmaian |first1=Fatema Soudavar |editor1-last=Arjomand|editor1-first=Saïd Amir|editor-link1=Saïd Amir Arjomand|title=Georgia and Iran: Three Millennia of Cultural Relations An Overview |journal=Journal of Persianate Studies |publisher=BRILL|date=2009 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–43 |doi=10.1163/187471609X445464}}
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|author=ʻAbd al-Ḥusayn Zarrīnʹkūb|author-link=Abdolhossein Zarinkoob|title=Dū qarn sukūt: sarguz̲asht-i ḥavādis̲ va awz̤āʻ-i tārīkhī dar dū qarn-i avval-i Islām (Two Centuries of Silence)|___location=Tihrān|publisher=Sukhan|year=2000|oclc=46632917 |id= {{Listed Invalid ISBN|964-5983-33-6}} }}
* Aryanpur, Manoochehr. ''A History of Persian Literature''. Tehran: Kayhan Press, 1973
* Chopra, R.M., "Eminent Poetesses of Persian", Iran Society, Kolkata, 2010.
* Chopra, R.M., "The Rise Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature", 2012, published by Iran Culture House, New Delhi and Iran Society, Kolkata. Revised edition published in 2013.
* Zellem, Edward. {{cite web|url=http://www.afghanproverbs.com|title=''Zarbul Masalha: 151 Afghan Dari Proverbs''|publisher=Charleston: CreateSpace, 2012}}
* Clawson, Patrick. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fX_HAAAAQBAJ Eternal Iran]''. Macmillan, 2005. {{ISBN|1-4039-6276-6}}.
* [[Edward Granville Browne|Browne, E.G.]] ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fshmK9xYD6cC Literary History of Persia]'' 1998. {{ISBN|0-7007-0406-X}}.
* [[Edward Granville Browne|Browne, Edward G.]] ''Islamic Medicine''. 2002. {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}
* Rypka, Jan. ''History of Iranian Literature''. Reidel Publishing Company, 1968. {{OCLC|460598}}. {{ISBN|90-277-0143-1}}.
* [[Annemarie Schimmel|Schimmel, Annemarie]] (1992). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JFxOAgAAQBAJ A Two-colored Brocade: The Imagery of Persian Poetry]''. University of North Carolina Press, USA. {{ISBN|1469616378}}.
* Tikku, G.L. ''Persian Poetry in Kashmir''. 1971. {{ISBN|0-520-09312-7}}
* [[Benjamin Walker (author)|Walker, Benjamin]]. ''Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran. '' Calcutta: Arya Press, 1950.
* Zellem, Edward. {{cite web|url=http://www.afghanproverbs.com|title=''Afghan Proverbs Illustrated''|publisher=Charleston: CreateSpace, 2012}}
* Chopra, R.M., "Great Poets of Classical Persian", 2014, Sparrow Publication, Kolkata, {{ISBN|978-81-89140-99-1}}.
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Persia|Persian literature}}
* [http://www.persian-language.com/ National Committee for the Expansion of the Persian Language and Literature] (شورای گسترش زبان و ادبیات فارسی)
* [http://persian.packhum.org/persian/ The Packard Humanities Institute: Persian Literature in Translation] (currently down) ([https://web.archive.org/web/20180128175755/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main latest archived version])
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/452843/Persian-literature Persian literature] at ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* [https://www.parstimes.com/literature/ Persian Literature & Poetry] at parstimes.com
{{Persian literature}}
{{Shahnameh}}
{{Poetry of different cultures and languages}}
{{Asian topic || literature}}
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[[Category:Persian literature| ]]
[[Category:Persian culture|Literature]]
[[Category:History of literature]]
[[Category:Iranic literature]]
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