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{{Short description|Aquaculture of shrimp or prawns}}
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'''Marine shrimp farming''' is an [[aquaculture]] business for the cultivation of marine [[shrimp]] or [[prawn]]s{{#tag:ref|The terminology is sometimes confusing as the distinction between "[[shrimp]]" and "[[prawn]]" is often blurred. The FAO, for instance, calls ''P. monodon'' the "Giant Tiger Prawn", but ''P. vannamei'' the "Whiteleg Shrimp". Recent aquaculture literature increasingly uses the term "prawn" only for the freshwater forms of [[palaemonid]]s and "shrimp" for the marine penaeids.<ref name="IAA01a"/>|group=Note}} for human consumption. Although traditional [[shrimp farming]] has been carried out in Asia for centuries, large-scale commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the [[United States]], [[Japan]] and [[Western Europe]]. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6 million [[tonne]]s in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9 billion [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]]. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in Asia, particularly in [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Thailand]]. The other 25% is produced mainly in [[Latin America]], where [[Brazil]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Mexico]] are the largest producers. The largest exporting nation is India.
Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in [[Southeast Asia]] into a global industry. Technological advances have led to higher densities of shrimp, and [[broodstock]] is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Penaeidae]], and just two species – ''[[Whiteleg shrimp|Penaeus vannamei]]'' (Pacific white shrimp) and ''[[Penaeus monodon]]'' (giant tiger prawn) – account for roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial [[monoculture]]s are very susceptible to diseases, which have caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations. Increasing ecological problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both [[non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments. In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more [[sustainable agriculture|sustainable farming]] practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations.
== History and geography ==
Shrimp
Industrial shrimp farming can be traced to the 1930s, when Japanese agrarians spawned and cultivated [[Marsupenaeus japonicus|Kuruma shrimp]] (''Penaeus japonicus'') for the first time. By the 1960s, a small industry had developed in Japan.<ref name="Ros04a">{{cite web |author=Bob Rosenberry |url=http://www.shrimpnews.com/About.html |title=About Shrimp Farming |work=ShrimpNews |date=August 2004 |access-date=June 28, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201223644/http://www.shrimpnews.com/About.html |archive-date=February 1, 2010}}</ref> Commercial shrimp farming began to grow rapidly in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
Shrimp farming was first carried out in Latin America in 1969 in [[Guaymas]], Mexico, by {{Ill|María Concepción Rodríguez de la Cruz|es}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=INAPESCA |date=November 23, 2010 |title=RECONOCIMIENTO AL MERITO ACUÍCOLA Y PESQUERO. En el marco de la I Reunión Nacional de Innovación Acuícola y Pesquera. |url=https://www.inapesca.gob.mx/portal/documentos/forosyeventos/notas%20informativas/nota%20informativaAP2310a%20_2_.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230529181005/https://www.inapesca.gob.mx/portal/documentos/forosyeventos/notas%20informativas/nota%20informativaAP2310a%20_2_.pdf |archive-date=2023-05-29 |language=es}}</ref> In Mexico, shrimp farming was practiced for non-commercial purposes at the {{Ill|National Fisheries Institute (Mexico)|lt=National Fisheries Institute|es|Instituto Nacional de la Pesca}}, at the Scientific and Technical Research Center of the [[University of Sonora]] (CICTUS), and in [[Puerto Peñasco]]. The practice was implemented commercially in Mexico in 1985.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Rodríguez de la Cruz |first=María Concepción |url=http://biblioteca.diputados.gob.mx/janium/bv/cedrssa/lxii/ins_nacpes_50exi.pdf |title=Instituto Nacional de Pesca 50 años de existencia: memoria edición especial |date= |year=2014 |isbn=978-607-9423-44-5 |language=es |trans-title=Fifty Years of the National Fisheries Institute: Special Report}}</ref>
Worldwide, technological advances led to more intensive forms of farming, and growing market demand led to worldwide proliferation of shrimp farms, concentrated in tropical and subtropical regions. Growing consumer demand in the early 1980s coincided with faltering wild catches, creating a booming industry. [[Taiwan]] was an early adopter and a major producer in the 1980s; its production collapsed beginning in 1988 due to poor management practices and disease.<ref name="ISA00">[[#ISAN|ISAN (2000)]], pp. 9–10.</ref> In [[Thailand]], large-scale production expanded rapidly from 1985.<ref name="HL01">[[#Hossain|Hossain & Lin (2001)]], p. 4.</ref> In South America, [[Ecuador]] lead shrimp farming, where it expanded dramatically from 1978.<ref>[[#McClennan|McClennan (2004)]], p. 43.</ref> Brazil had been active in shrimp farming since 1974, but trade boomed there only in the 1990s, making the country a major producer within a few years.<ref name="Nov03">{{cite web |author=Yara Novelly |url=http://lists.iatp.org/listarchive/archive.cfm?id=66469 |title=Brazil's Shrimp Farming History |format=E-mail |date=February 10, 2003 |access-date=January 13, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209141903/http://lists.iatp.org/listarchive/archive.cfm?id=66469 |archive-date=February 9, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Today, there are marine shrimp farms in over fifty countries.
== Farming methods ==
When shrimp farming emerged to satisfy demand that had surpassed the wild fisheries' capacity, the [[subsistence farming]] methods of old were rapidly replaced by the more productive practices required to serve a global market. Industrial farming at first followed traditional methods, with so-called "extensive" farms, compensating for low density with increased pond sizes; instead of ponds of just a few [[hectare]]s, ponds of sizes up to {{convert|100|ha|sqkm}} were used and huge areas of mangroves were cleared in some areas. Technological advances made more intensive practices possible that increase yield per area, helping reduce pressure to convert more land. Semi-intensive and intensive farms appeared, where the shrimp were reared on artificial feeds and ponds were actively managed. Although many extensive farms remain, new farms typically are of the semi-intensive kind.
Until the mid-1980s, most farms were stocked with young wild animals, called 'postlarvae', typically caught locally. Postlarvae fishing became an important economic sector in many countries. To counteract the depletion of fishing grounds and to ensure a steady supply of young shrimp, the industry started breeding shrimp in [[hatchery|hatcheries]].
=== Life cycle ===
[[File:Shrimp nauplius.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.86|A [[nauplius (larva)|nauplius]] of a shrimp]]
Shrimp mature and breed only in a marine [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]]. The females lay 100,000 to 500,000 eggs, which hatch after some 24 hours into tiny [[nauplius (larva)|nauplii]].<ref name="IAA01a">IAA (2001), [[#IAA_ch2|chapter 2]].</ref> These nauplii feed on [[yolk]] reserves within their bodies, and then [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphose]] into [[zoea]]e. Shrimp in this second larval stage feed in the wild on [[algae]], and after a few days, morph again into mysis larvae. The [[mysis (larvae)|mysis]] larvae or myses look akin to tiny shrimp, and feed on algae and [[zooplankton]]. After another three to four days, they metamorphose a final time into postlarvae: young shrimp that have adult characteristics.<ref name="IAA01a"/> The whole process takes about 12 days from hatching. In the wild, postlarvae then migrate into [[estuary|estuaries]], which are rich in nutrients and low in [[salinity]]. They migrate back into open waters when they mature.<ref name="IAA01a"/>
===
In shrimp farming, this life cycle occurs under controlled conditions. The reasons to do so include more [[intensive farming]], improved size control resulting in more uniformly sized shrimp, and better predator control, but also the ability to accelerate growth and maturation by controlling the climate (especially in farms in the temperate zones, using [[greenhouse]]s). There are three different stages:
* ''Hatcheries'' breed shrimp and produce nauplii or even postlarvae, which they sell to farms. Large shrimp farms maintain their own hatcheries and sell nauplii or postlarvae to smaller farms in the region.
* ''Nurseries'' grow postlarvae and accustom them to the marine conditions in the grow-out ponds.
* In the ''grow-out'' ponds the shrimp are grown from juveniles to marketable size, which takes between three and six months.
Most farms produce one to two harvests a year; in tropical climates, even three are possible. Because of the need for salt water, shrimp farms are located on or near a coast. Inland shrimp farms have also been tried in some regions, but the need to ship salt water and competition for land with agricultural users led to problems. [[Thailand]] banned inland shrimp farms in 1999.<ref name="AGL00">{{cite web |publisher=FAO Land and Water Development Division |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/spush/topic3.htm |title=Bio-physical, socio-economic and environmental impacts of salt-affected soils |year=2000 |access-date=August 23, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505155742/http://www.fao.org/AG/AGL/agll/spush/topic3.htm |archive-date=May 5, 2009}}</ref>
====
[[File:Shrimp hatchery.jpg|right|thumb|Tanks in a shrimp hatchery]]
Small-scale hatcheries are very common throughout Southeast Asia. Often run as family businesses and using a low-technology approach, they use small tanks (less than ten tons) and often low animal densities.<ref name="Ros04a"/> They are susceptible to disease, but due to their small size, they can typically restart production quickly after disinfection. The survival rate is anywhere between zero and 90%, depending on a wide range of factors, including disease, the weather, and the experience of the operator.<ref name="Ros04a"/>
''Greenwater'' hatcheries are medium-sized hatcheries using large tanks with low animal densities. To feed the shrimp larvae, an [[algal bloom]] is induced in the tanks. The survival rate is about 40%.<ref name="Ros04a"/>
''Galveston'' hatcheries (named after [[Galveston, Texas]], where they were developed) are large-scale, industrial hatcheries using a closed and tightly controlled environment. They breed the shrimp at high densities in large (15–30 t) tanks. Survival rates vary between 0% and 80%, but typically achieve 50%.<ref name="Ros04a"/>
In hatcheries, the developing shrimp are fed on a diet of algae and later also [[brine shrimp]] nauplii, sometimes (especially in industrial hatcheries) augmented by artificial diets. The diet of later stages also includes fresh or [[freeze dry|freeze-dried]] animal protein, for example [[krill]]. Nutrition and medication (such as [[antibiotic]]s) fed to the brine shrimp nauplii are passed on to the shrimp that eat them.<ref name="Ros04a"/>
==== Nurseries ====
[[File:Shrimp postlarvae stocking.jpg|right|thumb|Farmers transferring postlarvae from the tanks on the truck to a grow-out pond]]
Many farms have nurseries where the postlarval shrimp are grown into juveniles for another three weeks in separate ponds, tanks, or so-called raceways. A raceway is a rectangular, long, shallow tank through which water flows continuously.<ref name="vW99a">{{cite book |title=Principles of Recirculating System Design |author=Peter van Wyk |pages=59–98 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050521082543/http://www.hboi.edu/aqua/downloads/pdf/shrimpmanual_chapter4.pdf |archive-date=May 21, 2005 |url=http://www.hboi.edu/aqua/downloads/pdf/shrimpmanual_chapter4.pdf |access-date=December 24, 2016}} In [[#Wyk|Van Wyk ''et al.'' (1999)]].</ref>
In a typical nursery, there are 150 to 200 animals per square metre. They are fed on a high-[[protein]] diet for at most three weeks before they are moved to the grow-out ponds. At that time, they weigh between one and two grams. The water salinity is adjusted gradually to that of the grow-out ponds.
Farmers refer to postlarvae as "PLs", with the number of days suffixed (i.e., PL-1, PL-2, etc.). They are ready to be transferred to the grow-out ponds after their [[gill]]s have branched, which occurs around PL-13 to PL-17 (about 25 days after hatching). Nursing is not absolutely necessary, but is favoured by many farms because it makes for better food utilization, improves the size uniformity, helps use the infrastructure better, and can be done in a controlled environment to increase the harvest. The main disadvantage of nurseries is that some of the postlarval shrimp die upon the transfer to the grow-out pond.<ref name="Ros04a"/>
Some farms do not use a nursery, but stock the postlarvae directly in the grow-out ponds after having acclimated them to the appropriate temperature and salinity levels in an acclimation tank. Over the course of a few days, the water in these tanks is changed gradually to match that of the grow-out ponds. The animal density should not exceed 500/litre for young postlarvae and 50/liter for larger ones, such as PL-15.<ref name="vW99b">{{cite book |title=Receiving and Acclimation of Postlarvae |author=Peter van Wyk |pages=115–125 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714030808/http://www.hboi.edu/aqua/downloads/pdf/shrimpmanual_chapter6.pdf |archive-date=July 14, 2007 |url=http://www.hboi.edu/aqua/downloads/pdf/shrimpmanual_chapter6.pdf |access-date=24 December 2016}} In [[#Wyk|Van Wyk ''et al.'' (1999)]].</ref>
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| image1 = Shrimp pond with aerator.jpg
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| caption1 = Shrimp pond with [[paddlewheel aerator]]s in Indonesia. The pond is in an early stage of cultivation; plankton has been seeded and grown (whence the greenish color of the water); shrimp postlarvae are to be released next.
| image2 = Paddlewheel aerator.jpg
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| caption2 = A one-[[horsepower]] paddlewheel aerator. The splashing may increase the [[evaporation]] rate of the water and thus increase the salinity of the pond.
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| caption3 = The intake of a two-horsepower "turbo aerator", which paddles one meter below the water surface. To avoid stirring up pond sediments, the water depth should be at least 1.5 m.
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==== Grow-out ====
In the grow-out phase, the shrimp are grown to maturity. The postlarvae are transferred to ponds where they are fed until they reach marketable size, which takes about another three to six months. Harvesting the shrimp is done by fishing them from the ponds using nets or by draining the ponds. Pond sizes and the level of technical infrastructure vary.
Extensive shrimp farms using traditional low-density methods are invariably located on a coast and often in [[mangrove]] areas. The ponds range from just a few to more than 100 [[hectare]]s; shrimp are stocked at low densities (2–3 animals per square metre, or 25,000/ha).{{#tag:ref|Since adult shrimp are bottom dwellers, stocking densities in ponds are usually given per area, not per water volume.|group=Note}} The tides provide for some water exchange, and the shrimp feed on naturally occurring organisms. In some areas, farmers even grow wild shrimp by just opening the gates and impounding wild larvae. Prevalent in poorer or less developed countries where land prices are low, extensive farms produce annual yields from 50 to 500 kg/ha of shrimp (head-on weight). They have low production costs (US$1–3/kg live shrimp), are not very labor-intensive, and do not require advanced technical skills.<ref name="Tac02">[[#Tacon|Tacon (2002)]], p. 28.</ref>
Semi-intensive farms do not rely on [[tide]]s for water exchange, but use pumps and a planned pond layout. They can therefore be built above the high tide line. Pond sizes range from 2 to 30 ha; the stocking densities range from 10 to 30/square meter (100,000–300,000/ha). At such densities, artificial feeding using industrially prepared shrimp feeds and fertilizing the pond to stimulate the growth of naturally occurring organisms become a necessity. Annual yields range from 500 to 5,000 kg/ha, while production costs are in the range of US$2–6/kg live shrimp. With densities above 15 animals per square meter, [[aeration]] is often required to prevent oxygen depletion. Productivity varies depending upon water temperature, thus it is common to have larger sized shrimp in some seasons than in others.
Intensive farms use even smaller ponds ({{convert|0.1|-|1.5|ha|disp=or}}) and even higher stocking densities. The ponds are actively managed: they are aerated, there is a high water exchange to remove waste products and maintain water quality, and the shrimp are fed on specially designed diets, typically in the form of formulated pellets. Such farms produce annual yields between 5,000 and 20,000 kg/ha; a few super-intensive farms can produce as much as 100,000 kg/ha. They require an advanced technical infrastructure and highly trained professionals for constant monitoring of water quality and other pond conditions; their production costs are in the range of US$4–8/kg live shrimp.
Estimates on the production characteristics of shrimp farms vary. Most studies agree that about 15-20% of all shrimp farms worldwide are extensive farms, another 25–30% are semi-intensive, and the rest are intensive farms. Regional variation is high, though, and Tacon reports wide discrepancies in the percentages claimed for individual countries by different studies.<ref>[[#Tacon|Tacon (2002)]], p. 29.</ref>
=== Animal welfare ===
{{main|Eyestalk ablation}}
Eyestalk ablation is the removal of one (unilateral) or both (bilateral) [[eyestalk]]s from a [[crustacean]]. It is routinely practiced on female shrimps (or prawns) in almost every marine shrimp maturation or reproduction facility in the world, but has faced increasing criticism in recent years.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The shocking practice that shows prawn farming is as cruel as factory farming|url=https://www.animalsaustralia.org/features/prawn-farming.php|access-date=2020-09-23|website=www.animalsaustralia.org|language=en}}</ref> The aim of [[Ablation#Medicine|ablation]] is to stimulate the female shrimp to develop mature ovaries and [[Spawn (biology)|spawn.]]<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0024427|title = Insights into Eyestalk Ablation Mechanism to Induce Ovarian Maturation in the Black Tiger Shrimp|year = 2011|last1 = Uawisetwathana|first1 = Umaporn|last2 = Leelatanawit|first2 = Rungnapa|last3 = Klanchui|first3 = Amornpan|last4 = Prommoon|first4 = Juthatip|last5 = Klinbunga|first5 = Sirawut|last6 = Karoonuthaisiri|first6 = Nitsara|journal = PLOS ONE|volume = 6|issue = 9|pages = e24427|pmid = 21915325|pmc = 3168472|bibcode = 2011PLoSO...624427U|doi-access = free}}</ref>
Poor captive conditions for shrimp cause inhibitions in females that prevent them from developing mature [[Ovary|ovaries]]. Even in conditions where a given species will develop ovaries and spawn in captivity, use of eyestalk ablation increases total egg production and increases the percentage of females in a given population that will participate in reproduction. Once females have been subjected to eyestalk ablation, complete ovarian development often ensues within as little as 3 to 10 days.
Eyestalk ablation has faced criticism from animal welfare advocates. Alternatives such as higher quality feed, and maintaining a 2:1 sex ratio of female to male shrimp within tanks have been found effective, but are not yet widespread.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Stirling researchers identify viable ablation alternatives for shrimp hatcheries « Global Aquaculture Advocate|url=https://www.aquaculturealliance.org/advocate/stirling-researchers-identify-viable-ablation-alternatives-shrimp-hatcheries/|access-date=2020-09-23|website=Global Aquaculture Alliance|date=28 January 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Slaughter Methods ===
Shrimp are commonly slaughtered using the ice slurry method, in which they are immersed in a mixture of ice and water with the aim of inducing thermal shock.<ref>{{Cite web |last=zuridah |date=2025-02-21 |title=Waitrose to stop selling "killed in ice slurry" prawns |url=https://aquaasiapac.com/2025/02/21/waitrose-to-stop-selling-killed-in-ice-slurry-prawns/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Aqua Culture Asia Pacific |language=en-US}}</ref> However, animal welfare organizations have raised concerns that this method is often ineffective, leading instead to death by asphyxiation and prolonged suffering.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ungoed-Thomas |first=Jon |date=2025-02-15 |title=Waitrose to stop selling suffocated farmed prawns, as campaigners say they feel pain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/15/prawn-farming-cruelty-electrical-stunning-waitrose |access-date=2025-07-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In response to growing ethical concerns, more humane alternatives have been explored. Electrical stunning is currently considered the most humane pre-slaughter method available for shrimp, as it renders them unconscious significantly faster and more effectively than ice slurry or asphyxiation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Humane Slaughter Initiative |url=https://www.shrimpwelfareproject.org/humane-slaughter-initiative |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Shrimp Welfare Project |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2022, the United Kingdom legally recognized decapod [[Crustacean|crustaceans]], including shrimp, as sentient beings capable of experiencing pain, further reinforcing the need for improved welfare practices during slaughter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lobsters, octopus and crabs recognised as sentient beings |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/lobsters-octopus-and-crabs-recognised-as-sentient-beings |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref>
=== Animal Welfare Initiatives in Shrimp Farming ===
In recent years, animal welfare groups have intensified their campaigns to improve shrimp farming standards. [[Mercy for Animals]] led the world’s first public demonstration for shrimp welfare, prompting Tesco in 2024 to commit to banning eyestalk ablation and ice-slurry stunning, replacing them with 100% electrical stunning for key species, Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus monodon, by 2027.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Kimberly |date=2024-08-19 |title=Tesco Commits to Banning the Cruelest Shrimp-Farming Practices |url=https://mercyforanimals.org/blog/tesco-shrimp-welfare-progress/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Mercy For Animals |language=en-US}}</ref> The UK-based Shrimp Welfare Project supports humane slaughter practices globally by providing free electrical stunners to producers and encouraging broader adoption of electrical stunning alongside efforts to eliminate eyestalk ablation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shrimp Welfare Project |url=https://www.shrimpwelfareproject.org/ |access-date=2025-07-04 |website=Shrimp Welfare Project |language=en-US}}</ref> Similarly, the International Council for Animal Welfare (ICAW) has urged retailers, including [[Tesco]], [[Marks & Spencer]], [[Sainsbury's|Sainsbury’s]], [[Ocado]], [[Waitrose]], and [[The Co-operative Group|Co‑op]], to end ice-slurry slaughter and eyestalk ablation and to implement electrical stunning in their supply chains.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ungoed-Thomas |first=Jon |date=2025-02-15 |title=Waitrose to stop selling suffocated farmed prawns, as campaigners say they feel pain |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/15/prawn-farming-cruelty-electrical-stunning-waitrose |access-date=2025-07-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
=== Feeding ===
While extensive farms mainly rely on the natural productivity of the ponds, more intensively managed farms rely on artificial shrimp feeds, either exclusively or as a supplement to the organisms that naturally occur in a pond. A [[food chain]] is established in the ponds, based on the growth of [[phytoplankton]]. Fertilizers and mineral conditioners are used to boost the growth of the phytoplankton to accelerate the growth of the shrimp. Waste from the artificial food pellets and shrimp excrement can lead to the [[eutrophication]] of the ponds.
Artificial feeds come in the form of specially formulated, granulated pellets that disintegrate quickly. Up to 70% of such pellets are wasted, as they decay before the shrimp have eaten them.<ref name="Ros04a"/> They are fed two to five times daily; the feeding can be done manually either from ashore or from boats, or using mechanized feeders distributed all over a pond. The [[feed conversion rate]] (FCR), i.e. the amount of food needed to produce a unit (e.g. one kilogram) of shrimp, is claimed by the industry to be around 1.2–2.0 in modern farms, but this is an optimum value that is not always attained in practice. For a farm to be profitable, a feed conversion rate below 2.5 is necessary; in older farms or under suboptimal pond conditions, the ratio may easily rise to 4:1.<ref name="CDE03_93">[[#Avalle|Avalle ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 39.</ref> Lower FCRs result in a higher profit for the farm.
{{clear}}
== Farmed species ==
[[File:Shrimp and prawn aquaculture time series.png|thumb|{{center|Global aquaculture of shrimp and prawn species in million tonnes, 1970–2009, as reported by the FAO <ref>Based on data sourced from the [http://faostat.fao.org/site/629/default.aspx FishStat database]</ref>}}]]
Although there are many species of shrimp and prawn, only a few of the larger ones are actually cultivated, all of which belong to the family of [[penaeid]]s ([[family (biology)|family]]
* [[Pacific
* [[Giant
Together, these two species account for about 80% of the whole farmed shrimp production.
[[
* [[Penaeus stylirostris|Western
* [[Penaeus chinensis|Chinese
* [[Marsupenaeus japonicus|Kuruma
* [[Indian
* [[Banana
Several other species of ''Penaeus'' play only a very minor role in shrimp farming. Some other kinds of shrimp also can be farmed, e.g. the "Akiami paste shrimp" or ''[[Metapenaeus]]'' spp.
== Diseases ==
There are a variety of lethal [[virus|viral]] [[disease]]s that affect shrimp.<ref name="BRMES01">{{cite book |title=Crustacean diseases |url=http://library.enaca.org/NACA-Publications/ADG-CrustaceanDiseases.pdf |pages=155–220 |access-date=24 December 2016}} In [[#Bondad|Bondad-Reantaso ''et al.'' (2001)]]</ref> In the densely populated, [[monoculture|monocultural]] farms such virus infections spread rapidly and may wipe out whole shrimp populations. A major transfer [[vector (epidemiology)|vector]] of many of these viruses is the water itself; and thus any virus outbreak also carries the danger of decimating shrimp living in the wild.
[[Yellowhead disease]], called ''Hua leung'' in [[Thai language|Thai]], affects ''P. monodon'' throughout Southeast Asia.<ref name="GSMFC03a">Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission: [http://nis.gsmfc.org/nis_factsheet.php?toc_id=119 ''Non-Native Species Summaries: ''Yellowhead Virus'' (YHV)''], 2003. URL last accessed June 23, 2005. Data temporarily withdrawn pending review. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014907/http://nis.gsmfc.org/nis_factsheet.php?toc_id=119 Archived link with the data].</ref> It had been reported first in Thailand in 1990. The disease is highly contagious and leads to mass mortality within 2 to 4 days. The [[cephalothorax]] of an infected shrimp turns yellow after a period of unusually high feeding activity ending abruptly, and the then moribund shrimp congregate near the surface of their pond before dying.<ref name="OIE03a">{{cite book |title=Yellowhead disease |pages=144–157 |url=http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/aahm/2010/2.2.07_YHD.pdf }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |fix-attempted=yes}} In [[#OIE|OIE (2009)]].</ref>
[[Early mortality syndrome]] (EMS) has been linked to a strain of a bacterium called ''Vibrio parahaemolyticus'' which affects the [[Giant Tiger Prawn]] and the [[Whiteleg Shrimp]], both shrimp that are commonly farmed around the world. The strains are not harmful to humans, but are economically devastating for shrimp farmers. The spread of the bacteria is more prevalent in warmer and saltier ocean waters.<ref name="investvine">{{cite web|url=http://investvine.com/thailands-shrimps-export-set-to-decline-by-half/|title=Thailand's shrimp export set to decline by half|first=Arno|last=Maierbrugger|work=Inside Investor|date=July 16, 2013|access-date=July 19, 2013}}</ref>
[[Infectious
There are also a number of [[bacteria]]l infections that are lethal to
With their high mortality rates, diseases represent a very real danger to shrimp farmers, who may lose their income for the whole year if their ponds are infected. Since most diseases cannot yet be treated effectively, the industry's efforts are focused on preventing
== Economy ==
The total global production of farmed shrimp reached 2.5 million [[tonne]]s in 2005.<ref>FAO, The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, p. 124.</ref> This accounts for 42% of the total shrimp production that year (farming and wild catches combined). The largest single market for shrimp is the [[United States]], importing between 500 – 600,000 tonnes of shrimp products yearly in the years 2003–2009.<ref name="usda_stats">U.S. Department of Agriculture: [http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/ShrimpImportsVolume.htm U.S. Shrimp Imports by Volume] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331185007/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/ShrimpImportsVolume.htm |date=March 31, 2015 }} ([http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/ Aquaculture Data] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100220083421/http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/Aquaculture/ |date=February 20, 2010 }}), February 2010. Retrieved February 23, 2010.</ref> About 200,000 tonnes yearly are imported by [[Japan]],<ref name="picjp">PIC: [http://www.pic.or.jp/en/market/shrimp.htm Market information: shrimps and crabs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100505071343/http://www.pic.or.jp/en/market/shrimp.htm |date=May 5, 2010 }}. Data for 1994–1998. Retrieved February 23, 2010.</ref><ref name="noaanmfs">NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Regional Office: [http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/fmd/sunee/shrimp/jsh.htm Japanese Shrimp Imports] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216001858/http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/fmd/sunee/shrimp/jsh.htm |date=February 16, 2013 }}, monthly data from 1997 on. URl last accessed February 23, 2010.</ref> while the [[European Union]] imported in 2006 another about 500,000 tonnes of tropical shrimps, with the largest importers being [[Spain]] and [[France]].{{#tag:ref|FAO: FIGIS [http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-commodities-production/query/en Commodities 1976–2006], query for imports into all EU countries, all shrimps and prawns entries except those giving species other than ''Penaeus spp.'' (also excluding "nei" entries; "nei" means "not elsewhere included"). For comparison, the U.S. was also included, and the numbers reported by that selection were found to correspond well with the [https://web.archive.org/web/20090409013725/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Aquaculture/ShrimpImportsVolume.htm U.S. DOA numbers] after conversion from tonnes to 1,000 pounds. Retrieved February 25, 2010.|group=Note}} The EU also is a major importer of coldwater shrimp from catches, mainly common shrimp ''([[Crangon crangon]])'' and ''[[Pandalidae]]'' such as ''[[Pandalus borealis]]''; in 2006, these imports accounted for about another 200,000 tonnes.{{#tag:ref|FAO: FIGIS [http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-commodities-production/query/en Commodities 1976–2006], same query also including ''Cangon'' and ''Pandalidae''. Retrieved February 25, 2010.|group=Note}}
The import prices for shrimp fluctuate wildly. In 2003, the import price per [[kilogram]] shrimp in the [[United States]] was US$
About 75% of the world production of farmed shrimp comes from Asian countries; the two leading nations being [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Thailand]], closely followed by [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], and [[India]]. The other 25% are produced in the western hemisphere, where
<div style="text-align:center;">
{| class="wikitable"
|+align="bottom"|Aquaculture shrimp production by the major producer nations.<ref name="figis"/>
! style="background:#ccf;" rowspan="2"|Region
! style="background:#ccf;" rowspan="2"|Country
! style="background:#ccf;" colspan="25"|Production in 1,000 [[tonne]]s per year, rounded
|-
! style="background:#ccf;"|1985
! style="background:#ccf;"|86
! style="background:#ccf;"|87
! style="background:#ccf;"|88
! style="background:#ccf;"|89
! style="background:#ccf;"|1990
! style="background:#ccf;"|91
! style="background:#ccf;"|92
! style="background:#ccf;"|93
! style="background:#ccf;"|94
! style="background:#ccf;"|95
! style="background:#ccf;"|96
! style="background:#ccf;"|97
! style="background:#ccf;"|98
! style="background:#ccf;"|99
! style="background:#ccf;"|2000
! style="background:#ccf;"|01
! style="background:#ccf;"|02
! style="background:#ccf;"|03
! style="background:#ccf;"|04
! style="background:#ccf;"|05
! style="background:#ccf;"|06
! style="background:#ccf;"|07
! style="background:#ccf;"|08
! style="background:#ccf;"|09
|-
| rowspan="11" style="vertical-align:top;"|'''[[Asia]]'''
|[[People's Republic of China|China]]
|style="text-align:right;"|''40''
|style="text-align:right;"|''83''
|style="text-align:right;"|''153''
|style="text-align:right;"|''199''
|style="text-align:right;"|''186''
|style="text-align:right;"|''185''
|style="text-align:right;"|''220''
|style="text-align:right;"|''207''
|style="text-align:right;"|'''''88'''''
|style="text-align:right;"|''64''
|style="text-align:right;"|''78''
|style="text-align:right;"|''89''
|style="text-align:right;"|''96''
|style="text-align:right;"|''130''
|style="text-align:right;"|''152''
|style="text-align:right;"|''192''
|style="text-align:right;"|''267''
|style="text-align:right;"|''337''
|style="text-align:right;"|''432''
|style="text-align:right;"|''468''
|style="text-align:right;"|''546''
|style="text-align:right;"|''640''
|style="text-align:right;"|710
|style="text-align:right;"|725
|style="text-align:right;"|796
|-
|[[Thailand]]
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|19
|style="text-align:right;"|50
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|style="text-align:right;"|115
|style="text-align:right;"|161
|style="text-align:right;"|185
|style="text-align:right;"|223
|style="text-align:right;"|264
|style="text-align:right;"|259
|style="text-align:right;"|'''238'''
|style="text-align:right;"|225
|style="text-align:right;"|250
|style="text-align:right;"|274
|style="text-align:right;"|309
|style="text-align:right;"|279
|style="text-align:right;"|264
|style="text-align:right;"|330
|style="text-align:right;"|360
|style="text-align:right;"|401
|style="text-align:right;"|494
|style="text-align:right;"|523
|style="text-align:right;"|507
|style="text-align:right;"|539
|-
|[[Vietnam]]
|style="text-align:right;"|''8''
|style="text-align:right;"|''13''
|style="text-align:right;"|''19''
|style="text-align:right;"|27
|style="text-align:right;"|28
|style="text-align:right;"|32
|style="text-align:right;"|36
|style="text-align:right;"|37
|style="text-align:right;"|39
|style="text-align:right;"|45
|style="text-align:right;"|55
|style="text-align:right;"|46
|style="text-align:right;"|45
|style="text-align:right;"|52
|style="text-align:right;"|55
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|style="text-align:right;"|150
|style="text-align:right;"|''181''
|style="text-align:right;"|''232''
|style="text-align:right;"|''276''
|style="text-align:right;"|''327''
|style="text-align:right;"|''349''
|style="text-align:right;"|''377''
|style="text-align:right;"|381
|style="text-align:right;"|411
|-
|[[Indonesia]]
|style="text-align:right;"|25
|style="text-align:right;"|29
|style="text-align:right;"|42
|style="text-align:right;"|62
|style="text-align:right;"|82
|style="text-align:right;"|84
|style="text-align:right;"|116
|style="text-align:right;"|120
|style="text-align:right;"|117
|style="text-align:right;"|107
|style="text-align:right;"|121
|style="text-align:right;"|125
|style="text-align:right;"|127
|style="text-align:right;"|97
|style="text-align:right;"|121
|style="text-align:right;"|138
|style="text-align:right;"|149
|style="text-align:right;"|160
|style="text-align:right;"|191
|style="text-align:right;"|239
|style="text-align:right;"|280
|style="text-align:right;"|340
|style="text-align:right;"|330
|style="text-align:right;"|408
|style="text-align:right;"|337
|-
|[[India]]
|style="text-align:right;"|''13''
|style="text-align:right;"|''14''
|style="text-align:right;"|''15''
|style="text-align:right;"|''20''
|style="text-align:right;"|''28''
|style="text-align:right;"|''35''
|style="text-align:right;"|''40''
|style="text-align:right;"|''47''
|style="text-align:right;"|''62''
|style="text-align:right;"|''83''
|style="text-align:right;"|''70''
|style="text-align:right;"|''70''
|style="text-align:right;"|67
|style="text-align:right;"|83
|style="text-align:right;"|79
|style="text-align:right;"|97
|style="text-align:right;"|103
|style="text-align:right;"|115
|style="text-align:right;"|113
|style="text-align:right;"|118
|style="text-align:right;"|131
|style="text-align:right;"|132
|style="text-align:right;"|99
|style="text-align:right;"|''80''
|style="text-align:right;"|97
|-
|[[Bangladesh]]
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|style="text-align:right;"|18
|style="text-align:right;"|19
|style="text-align:right;"|20
|style="text-align:right;"|21
|style="text-align:right;"|28
|style="text-align:right;"|29
|style="text-align:right;"|32
|style="text-align:right;"|42
|style="text-align:right;"|48
|style="text-align:right;"|56
|style="text-align:right;"|58
|style="text-align:right;"|59
|style="text-align:right;"|55
|style="text-align:right;"|56
|style="text-align:right;"|56
|style="text-align:right;"|58
|style="text-align:right;"|63
|style="text-align:right;"|65
|style="text-align:right;"|64
|style="text-align:right;"|67
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|-
|[[Philippines]]
|style="text-align:right;"|29
|style="text-align:right;"|30
|style="text-align:right;"|35
|style="text-align:right;"|44
|style="text-align:right;"|47
|style="text-align:right;"|48
|style="text-align:right;"|47
|style="text-align:right;"|77
|style="text-align:right;"|86
|style="text-align:right;"|91
|style="text-align:right;"|89
|style="text-align:right;"|77
|style="text-align:right;"|'''41'''
|style="text-align:right;"|38
|style="text-align:right;"|39
|style="text-align:right;"|41
|style="text-align:right;"|42
|style="text-align:right;"|37
|style="text-align:right;"|37
|style="text-align:right;"|37
|style="text-align:right;"|39
|style="text-align:right;"|41
|style="text-align:right;"|43
|style="text-align:right;"|48
|style="text-align:right;"|51
|-
|[[Myanmar]]
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|''7''
|style="text-align:right;"|''19''
|style="text-align:right;"|''30''
|style="text-align:right;"|49
|style="text-align:right;"|49
|style="text-align:right;"|48
|style="text-align:right;"|48
|style="text-align:right;"|46
|-
|[[Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|style="text-align:right;"|18
|style="text-align:right;"|21
|-
|[[Taiwan]]
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|style="text-align:right;"|45
|style="text-align:right;"|80
|style="text-align:right;"|'''34'''
|style="text-align:right;"|22
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|style="text-align:right;"|22
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|-
|[[Malaysia]]
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|style="text-align:right;"|27
|style="text-align:right;"|26
|style="text-align:right;"|26
|style="text-align:right;"|31
|style="text-align:right;"|33
|style="text-align:right;"|35
|style="text-align:right;"|35
|style="text-align:right;"|51
|style="text-align:right;"|69
|-
| rowspan="6" style="vertical-align:top;"|'''[[Americas]]'''
|[[Brazil]]
|style="text-align:right;"|''<1''
|style="text-align:right;"|''<1''
|style="text-align:right;"|''<1''
|style="text-align:right;"|''<1''
|style="text-align:right;"|''1''
|style="text-align:right;"|''2''
|style="text-align:right;"|''2''
|style="text-align:right;"|''2''
|style="text-align:right;"|''2''
|style="text-align:right;"|''2''
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|style="text-align:right;"|25
|style="text-align:right;"|''40''
|style="text-align:right;"|''60''
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|style="text-align:right;"|76
|style="text-align:right;"|63
|style="text-align:right;"|65
|style="text-align:right;"|65
|style="text-align:right;"|76
|style="text-align:right;"|65
|-
|[[Ecuador]]
|style="text-align:right;"|30
|style="text-align:right;"|44
|style="text-align:right;"|69
|style="text-align:right;"|74
|style="text-align:right;"|70
|style="text-align:right;"|76
|style="text-align:right;"|105
|style="text-align:right;"|113
|style="text-align:right;"|'''83'''
|style="text-align:right;"|89
|style="text-align:right;"|106
|style="text-align:right;"|108
|style="text-align:right;"|133
|style="text-align:right;"|144
|style="text-align:right;"|120
|style="text-align:right;"|'''50'''
|style="text-align:right;"|45
|style="text-align:right;"|63
|style="text-align:right;"|77
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|style="text-align:right;"|118
|style="text-align:right;"|149
|style="text-align:right;"|''150''
|style="text-align:right;"|''150''
|style="text-align:right;"|179
|-
|[[Mexico]]
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|style="text-align:right;"|24
|style="text-align:right;"|29
|style="text-align:right;"|33
|style="text-align:right;"|48
|style="text-align:right;"|46
|style="text-align:right;"|46
|style="text-align:right;"|62
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|style="text-align:right;"|112
|style="text-align:right;"|112
|style="text-align:right;"|130
|style="text-align:right;"|126
|-
|[[Honduras]]
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|''3''
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|style="text-align:right;"|18
|style="text-align:right;"|21
|style="text-align:right;"|27
|style="text-align:right;"|26
|style="text-align:right;"|27
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|-
|[[Colombia]]
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|''12''
|style="text-align:right;"|''14''
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|style="text-align:right;"|18
|style="text-align:right;"|''19''
|style="text-align:right;"|22
|style="text-align:right;"|20
|style="text-align:right;"|''18''
|style="text-align:right;"|''18''
|-
|[[Venezuela]]
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|0
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|<1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|1
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|5
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|style="text-align:right;"|9
|style="text-align:right;"|11
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|14
|style="text-align:right;"|23
|style="text-align:right;"|18
|style="text-align:right;"|21
|style="text-align:right;"|18
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|-
|colspan=27 style="background:white;"|Entries in ''italics'' indicate gross estimates in the [[FAO]] databases.{{#tag:ref|''Accurate'' statistics on shrimp farming do not exist.<ref name="data">B. Rosenberry: ''[http://www.shrimpnews.com/AnnualReports.html Annual Reports on World Shrimp Farming] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050816212755/http://shrimpnews.com/AnnualReports.html |date=August 16, 2005 }}''; Comments on the quality of aquaculture statistics in the on-line excerpts 2000–2004. Retrieved August 18, 2005.</ref> The [[FAO]] relies on the voluntary reporting of countries for its fisheries databases; if no numbers are reported, the FAO fills in its own "guesstimate". Such estimates are marked in the databases, but these obviously also contain estimates made already by the reporting government agencies, recognizable only by the suspiciously round numbers.|group=Note}} Bolded numbers indicate some recognizable disease events.
|}
</div>
[[File:Litopenaeus vannamei specimen.jpg|thumb|From top to bottom: pieces of the carapace of ''Litopenaeus vannamei''; a harvested healthy ''L. vannamei'' of size 66 (17 [[gram|g]]); a dead ''L. vannamei'' infected by the [[Taura syndrome|Taura syndrome virus]] (TSV). The color of healthy shrimp is determined by the color of the plankton, the type of soil at the pond bottom, and the additional nutrients used. The white color of the shrimp at the bottom is due to the TSV infection.]]
Disease problems have repeatedly impacted the shrimp production negatively. Besides the near-wipeout of ''P. chinensis'' in 1993, there were outbreaks of viral diseases that led to marked declines in the per-country production in 1996/97 in Thailand and repeatedly in Ecuador.<ref name="Jos04_7f">[[#Josueit|Josueit (2004)]], p. 7f.</ref> In Ecuador alone, production suffered heavily in 1989 (IHHN), 1993 (Taura), and 1999 (whitespot).<ref name="FSB03">[[#Briggs|Briggs ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 6.</ref> Another reason for sometimes wild changes in shrimp farm output are the import regulations of the destination countries, which do not allow shrimp contaminated by chemicals or antibiotics to be imported.
In the 1980s and through much of the 1990s, shrimp farming promised high profits. The investments required for extensive farms were low, especially in regions with low land prices and wages. For many tropical countries, especially those with poorer economies, shrimp farming was an attractive business, offering jobs and incomes for poor coastal populations and has, due to the high market prices of shrimp, provided many developing countries with non-negligible foreign currency earnings. Many shrimp farms were funded initially by the [[World Bank]] or substantially subsidized by local governments.<ref>[[#Lewis|Lewis ''et al.'' (2003)]]</ref>
In the late 1990s, the economic situation changed. Governments and farmers alike were under increasing pressure from NGOs and the consumer countries, who criticized the practices of the trade. [[International trade]] conflicts erupted, such as import bans by consumer countries on shrimp containing antibiotics, the [[United States]]' shrimp import ban against Thailand in 2004 as a measure against Thai shrimp ''fishers'' not using [[turtle excluder device]]s in their nets,<ref name="TFRC04">{{cite web |publisher=Thai Farmers Research Center |url=http://www.krc.co.th/tfrc/cgi/ticket/ticket.exe/8629112002/tfrc/eng/research/res04/may/aagr585b.htm |title=U.S. Bans Shrimp: Thailand Must Adjust |access-date=August 19, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051027221102/http://www.krc.co.th/tfrc/cgi/ticket/ticket.exe/8629112002/tfrc/eng/research/res04/may/aagr585b.htm |archive-date=October 27, 2005}}</ref> or the "anti-[[dumping (pricing policy)|dumping]]" case initiated by U.S. shrimp fishers in 2002 against shrimp farmers worldwide,<ref name="Ros05b">B. Rosenberry: ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060116013038/http://shrimpnews.com/Dumping.html USA Shrimp Fishermen Dump Their Case on the World's Shrimp Farmers]'', ''ShrimpNews'', January 2005. Archived URL last accessed February 15, 2007.</ref> which resulted two years later in the U.S. imposing antidumping [[tariff]]s of the order of about 10% against many producer countries (except China, which received a 112% duty).<ref name="anti_dumping">U.S. Department of Commerce: ''[http://www.trade.gov/media/FactSheet/0105/shrimp_012605.html Amended Final Determinations and Issuance of Antidumping Duty Orders] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170514045605/http://www.trade.gov/media/FactSheet/0105/shrimp_012605.html |date=May 14, 2017 }}'', January 26, 2005. Retrieved February 23, 2010.</ref> Diseases caused significant economic losses. In [[Ecuador]], where shrimp farming was a major export sector (the other two are [[banana]]s and [[oil]]), the [[Whitespot disease|whitespot]] outbreak of 1999 caused an estimated 130,000 workers to lose their jobs.<ref>[[#McClennan|McClennan (2004)]], p. 44.</ref> Furthermore, shrimp prices dropped sharply in 2000.<ref name="prices">B. Rosenberry: ''[http://www.shrimpnews.com/AnnualReports.html Annual Reports on World Shrimp Farming] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050816212755/http://shrimpnews.com/AnnualReports.html |date=August 16, 2005 }}''; Comments on shrimp prices in the on-line excerpts 2000–2004. Retrieved August 18, 2005.</ref> All of these factors contributed to the slowly growing acceptance by farmers that improved farming practices were needed, and resulted in tighter government regulation of the business, both of which internalized some of the [[external cost]]s that were ignored during the boom years.<ref>[[#McClennan|McClennan (2004)]], p. 19.</ref>
=== Socioeconomic aspects ===
Shrimp farming offers significant employment opportunities, which may help alleviate the poverty of the local coastal populations in many areas, if it is properly managed.<ref name="LPCM03_22">[[#Lewis|Lewis ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 22.</ref> The published literature on that topic shows large discrepancies, and much of the available data are of anecdotal nature.<ref name="cons_43">[[#Consortium|World Bank ''et al.'' (2002)]], p. 43.</ref> Estimates of the labor intensity of shrimp farms range from about one-third <ref name="BFS96_14">[[#Barraclough|Barraclough & Finger-Stich (1996)]], p. 14.</ref> to three times more<ref name="IAA01b_76">IAA (2001), [[#IAA_ch6|chapter 6]], p. 76.</ref> than when the same area was used for rice [[Paddy field|paddies]], with much regional variation and depending on the type of farms surveyed. In general, intensive shrimp farming requires more labor per unit area than [[extensive farming]]. Extensive shrimp farms cover much more land area and are often, but not always, located in areas where no agricultural land uses are possible.<ref name="HWH02">[[#Hempel|Hempel ''et al.'' (2002)]], p. 42f.</ref> Supporting industries such as feed production or storage, handling, and trade companies should also not be neglected, even if not all of them are exclusive to shrimp farming.
Typically, workers on a shrimp farm can get better wages than with other employment. A global estimate from one study is that a shrimp farm worker can earn 1.5–3 times as much as in other jobs;<ref name="cons_45">[[#Consortium|World Bank ''et al.'' (2002)]], p. 45.</ref> a study from India arrived at a salary increase of about 1.6,<ref name="IAA01b_76"/> and a report from Mexico states the lowest paid job at shrimp farms was paid in 1996 at 1.22 times the average worker salary in the country.<ref name="LPCM03_1">[[#Lewis|Lewis ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 1.</ref>
NGOs have frequently criticized that most of the profits went to large conglomerates instead of to the local population. While this may be true in certain regions, such as [[Ecuador]], where most shrimp farms are owned by large companies, it does not apply in all cases. For instance in Thailand, most farms are owned by small local entrepreneurs, although there is a trend to [[vertical integration|vertically integrate]] the industries related to shrimp farming from feed producers to food processors and trade companies. A 1994 study reported a farmer in Thailand could increase their income by a factor of ten by switching from growing rice to farming shrimp.<ref name="BFS96_17">[[#Barraclough|Barraclough & Finger-Stich (1996)]], p. 17.</ref> An Indian study from 2003 arrives at similar figures for shrimp farming in the [[East Godavari]] district in [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="KRGN03">[[#Kumaran|Kumaran ''et al.'' (2003)]]</ref>
Whether the local population benefits from shrimp farming is also dependent on the availability of sufficiently trained people.<ref name="BFS96_15">[[#Barraclough|Barraclough & Finger-Stich (1996)]], p. 15.</ref> Extensive farms tend to offer mainly seasonal jobs during harvest that do not require much training. In Ecuador, many of these positions are known to have been filled by migrant workers.<ref>[[#McClennan|McClennan (2004)]], p. 55.</ref> More intensive farms have a need for year-round labor in more sophisticated jobs.
=== Marketing ===
{{Main|Shrimp marketing}}
For commercialization, shrimp are graded and marketed in different categories. From complete shrimp (known as "head-on, shell-on" or HOSO) to peeled and deveined (P&D), any presentation is available in stores. The animals are graded by their size uniformity and then also by their count per weight unit, with larger shrimp attaining higher prices.
== Ecological impacts ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Brackish water]] -->
[[File:Mangrove lagoon.jpg|right|thumb|Mangrove estuaries provide a habitat for many animals and plants.]]
[[File:ShrimpFarming Honduras L7 1987-99.jpg|thumb|Two false-color images show the widespread conversion of natural mangrove swamps to shrimp farms along the Pacific Coast of [[Honduras]] between 1987 and 1999. The shrimp farms appear as rows of rectangles. In the older image (bottom), mangrove swamps stretch across the estuaries of several rivers; one shrimp farm is already visible in the upper left quadrant. By 1999 (top image), much of the region had been converted to blocks of shrimp ponds.]]
[[File:Shrimp pond bottom pyrite.jpg|thumb|right|Toxic sludge oozing out of the bottom of a shrimp pond of a farm in Indonesia after the harvest. The liquid pictured here contained [[sulfuric acid]] resulting from [[oxidation]] of [[pyrite]] contained in the soil. Such contamination of a pond leads to stunted growth of the shrimp and increased mortality rates; the growth of the plankton is reduced drastically.<ref name="pyrite_effects">[[#Tanavud|Tanavud ''et al.'' (2001)]], p. 330.</ref> [[Liming (soil)|Liming]] can be applied to counteract to some extent the acidification of the water in ponds on [[acid sulfate soil]],<ref name="liming">[[#Wilkinson|Wilkinson (2002)]]</ref> such as mangrove soils.<ref name="ASS">[[#Fitzpatrick|Fitzpatrick ''et al.'' (2006)]]</ref>]]
Shrimp farms of all types, from extensive to super-intensive, can cause severe ecological problems wherever they are located. For extensive farms, huge areas of [[mangrove]]s were cleared, reducing [[biodiversity]]. During the 1980s and 1990s, about 35% of the world's mangrove forests had vanished. Shrimp farming was a major cause of this, accounting for over a third of it according to one study;<ref name="VBY01">[[#Valiela|Valiela ''et al.'' (2001)]]</ref> other studies report between 5% and 10% globally, with enormous regional variability. Other causes of mangrove destruction are population pressure, logging, pollution from other industries, or conversion to other uses such as salt pans.<ref>[[#Lewis|Lewis ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 9.</ref> Mangroves, through their roots, help stabilize a coastline and capture sediments; their removal has led to a marked increase of [[erosion]] and less protection against floods. Mangrove estuaries are also especially rich and productive [[ecosystems]] and provide the spawning grounds for many species of fish, including many commercially important ones.<ref name="ISA00"/> Many countries have protected their mangroves and forbidden the construction of new shrimp farms in tidal or mangrove areas. The enforcement of the respective laws is often problematic, though, and especially in the least developed countries such as Bangladesh, [[Myanmar]], or Vietnam the conversion of mangroves to shrimp farms remains an issue for areas such as the [[Myanmar Coast mangroves]].<ref>[[#Lewis|Lewis ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 13.</ref>
Intensive farms, while reducing the direct impact on the mangroves, have other problems. Their nutrient-rich effluents (industrial shrimp feeds disintegrate quickly, as little as 30% are actually eaten by the shrimp with a corresponding economic loss to the farmer, the rest is wasted<ref name="Ros04a"/>) are typically discharged into the environment, seriously upsetting the ecological balance. These waste waters contain significant amounts of chemical [[fertilizer]]s, [[pesticide]]s, and [[antibiotic]]s that cause [[pollution]] of the environment. Furthermore, releasing antibiotics in such ways injects them into the [[food chain]] and increases the risks of bacteria becoming [[antibiotic resistance|resistant]] against them.<ref name="Owen04">{{cite news |author=James Owen |date=June 21, 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070131085526/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/06/0621_040621_shrimpfarm_2.html |archive-date=January 31, 2007 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/06/0621_040621_shrimpfarm_2.html |title=Shrimp's success hurts Asian environment, group says |publisher=[[National Geographic News]] |access-date=August 20, 2007}}</ref> However, most aquatic bacteria, unlike bacteria associated with terrestrial animals, are not [[zoonotic]]. Only a few disease transfers from animals to humans have been reported.<ref name="cdc_rebuttal">{{cite web |publisher=National Aquaculture Association (NAA) |url=http://www.nationalaquaculture.org/pdf/CDC%20Response%20to%20the%20Record.pdf |title=Antibiotic Use in Aquaculture: Center for Disease Control Rebuttal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070813204310/http://www.nationalaquaculture.org/pdf/CDC%20Response%20to%20the%20Record.pdf |archive-date=August 13, 2007 |date=December 20, 1999 |access-date=November 26, 2007}}</ref>
Prolonged use of a pond can lead to an incremental buildup of a sludge at the pond's bottom from waste products and excrement.<ref name="NACA03">[[#NACA|NACA/MPEDA (2003)]], p. 8.</ref> The sludge can be removed mechanically, or dried and plowed to allow biodecomposition, at least in areas without acid problems. Flushing a pond never completely removes this sludge, and eventually, the pond is abandoned, leaving behind a wasteland, with the soil made unusable for any other purposes due to the high levels of salinity, acidity, and toxic chemicals. A typical pond in an extensive farm can be used only a few years. An Indian study estimated the time to rehabilitate such lands to about 30 years.<ref name="ISA00"/> [[Thailand]] has banned inland shrimp farms since 1999 because they caused too much destruction of agricultural lands due to [[soil salination|salination]].<ref name="AGL00"/> A Thai study estimated 60% of the shrimp farming area in Thailand was abandoned in the years 1989–1996.<ref name="HL01"/> Many of these problems stem from using mangrove land that has high natural [[pyrite]] content ([[acid sulfate soil]]) and poor drainage. The shift to semi-intensive farming requires higher elevations for drain harvesting and low [[sulfide]] (pyrite) content to prevent acid formation when the soils shift from [[Hypoxia (environmental)|anaerobic]] to aerobic conditions.
The global nature of the shrimp farming business, and in particular the shipment of [[broodstock]] and hatchery products, throughout the world have not only introduced various shrimp species as [[exotic species]], but also distributed the diseases the shrimp may carry worldwide. As a consequence, most broodstock shipments require health certificates and/or to have specific pathogen free (SPF) status. Many organizations lobby actively for consumers to avoid buying farmed shrimp; some also advocate the development of more [[sustainability|sustainable]] farming methods.<ref name="WRM01">World Rainforest Movement: ''[http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/51/production.html Unsustainable versus sustainable shrimp production] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051111165126/http://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin/51/production.html |date=November 11, 2005 }}'', WRM Bulletin 51, October 2001. Retrieved August 20, 2007.</ref> A joint programme of the [[World Bank]], the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA), the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], and the [[FAO]] was established in August 1999 to study and propose improved practices for shrimp farming.<ref name="Cons02">[[#Consortium|World Bank ''et al.'' (2002)]]</ref> Some existing attempts at sustainable export-oriented shrimp farming marketing the shrimp as "ecologically produced" are criticized by NGOs as being dishonest and trivial window-dressing.<ref name="Roen03">[[#Rönnbäck03|Rönnbäck (2003)]], p. 5.</ref>
Yet, the industry has been slowly changing since about 1999. It has adopted the "best management practices"<ref name="NACA_cert">NACA: ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080505001550/http://www.enaca.org/modules/mydownloads/viewcat.php?cid=101 Codes and Certification]''; [[Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific]] (NACA). Retrieved August 19, 2005.</ref> developed by the World Bank program, for example, and others.<ref name="boyd">[[#Boyd|Boyd ''et al.'' (2002)]]</ref> and instituted educational programs to promote them.<ref name="GAA04a">{{cite web |publisher=Global Aquaculture Alliance |url=http://www.gaalliance.org/resp.html |title=Responsible Aquaculture Program |access-date=August 19, 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090314082910/http://gaalliance.org/resp.html |archive-date=March 14, 2009 }}</ref> Due to the mangrove protection laws enacted in many countries, new farms are usually of the semi-intensive kind, which are best constructed outside mangrove areas anyway. There is a trend to create even more tightly controlled environments in these farms, with the hope to achieve better disease prevention.<ref>[[#McClennan|McClennan (2004)]], p. 47.</ref> Waste water treatment has attracted considerable attention; modern shrimp farms routinely have effluent treatment ponds where sediments are allowed to settle at the bottom and other residuals are filtered. As such improvements are costly, the World Bank program also recommends low-intensity [[polyculture]] farming for some areas. Since it has been discovered that mangrove soils are effective in filtering waste waters and tolerate high [[nitrate]] levels, the industry has also developed an interest in mangrove [[reforestation]], although its contributions in that area are still minor.<ref>[[#Lewis|Lewis ''et al.'' (2003)]], p. 47.</ref> The long-term effects of these recommendations and industry trends cannot be evaluated conclusively yet.
Still, it was reported in 2012 that one pound of frozen shrimp adds one ton of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, more than ten times that generated to produce the same weight of beef raised on cleared rainforest land.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2012/02/your-shrimp-cocktail-ruining-planet/48901/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223041620/http://www.theatlanticwire.com/global/2012/02/your-shrimp-cocktail-ruining-planet/48901 |archive-date=February 23, 2012 |title=Your Shrimp Cocktail Is Ruining the Planet - Global - The Atlantic Wire}}</ref>
== Social changes ==
Shrimp farming in many cases has far-reaching effects on the local coastal population. Especially in the boom years of the 1980s and 1990s, when the business was largely unregulated in many countries, the very fast expansion of the industry caused significant changes that sometimes were detrimental to the local population. Conflicts can be traced back to two root causes: competition for common resources such as land and water, and changes induced by wealth redistribution.
A significant problem causing much conflict in some regions, for instance in [[Bangladesh]], are the land use rights. With shrimp farming, a new industry expanded into coastal areas and started to make exclusive use of previously public resources. In some areas, the rapid expansion resulted in the local coastal population being denied access to the coast by a continuous strip of shrimp farms with serious impacts on the local fisheries. Such problems were compounded by poor ecological practices that caused a degradation of common resources (such as excessive use of [[freshwater]] to control the salinity of the ponds, causing the [[water table]] to sink and leading to the salination of freshwater [[aquifer]]s by an inflow of salt water).<ref name="BFS96_23">[[#Barraclough|Barraclough & Finger-Stich (1996)]], p. 23ff.</ref> With growing experience, countries usually introduced stronger governmental regulations and have taken steps to mitigate such problems, for instance through land [[zoning]] legislations. Some late adopters have even managed to avoid some problems through proactive legislation, e.g. Mexico.<ref>[[#McClennan|McClennan (2004)]], p. 95.</ref> The situation in Mexico is unique owing to the strongly government-regulated market. Even after the liberalisation in the early 1990s, most shrimp farms are still owned and controlled by locals or local co-ops (''{{lang|es|[[ejido]]s}}'').<ref name="DeW00">[[#DeWalt|DeWalt (2000)]]</ref>
Social tensions have occurred due to changes in the [[wealth distribution]] within populations. The effects of this are mixed, though, and the problems are not unique to shrimp farming. Changes in the distribution of wealth tend to induce changes in the power structure within a community. In some cases, there is a widening gap between the general population and local elites who have easier access to credits, subsidies, and permits and thus are more likely to become shrimp farmers and benefit more.<ref name="HWH02_44">[[#Hempel|Hempel ''et al.'' (2002)]], p. 44.</ref> In Bangladesh, on the other hand, local elites were opposing shrimp farming, which was controlled largely by an urban elite.<ref name="BFS96_37">[[#Barraclough|Barraclough & Finger-Stich (1996)]], p. 37.</ref> Land concentrations in a few hands has been recognized to carry an increased risk of social and economic problems developing, especially if the landowners are non-local.<ref name="HWH02_44"/>
In general, it has been found that shrimp farming is accepted best and introduced most easily and with the greatest benefits for the local communities if the farms are owned by local people instead of by restricted remote élites or large companies because local owners have a direct interest in maintaining the environment and good relations with their neighbors, and because it avoids the formation of large-scale land property.<ref name="Cons02_47">[[#Consortium|World Bank ''et al.'' (2002)]], p. 47.</ref>
== Sustainable practices ==
Although shrimp farming has disrupted social structures, it is possible for both commercial industries and independent farmers to succeed. Closed system shrimp aquaculture for instance, is becoming widely used in the US and is making its way to Southeast Asia. This system takes place indoors in moderate sized pools which efficiently circulates the water. In some cases filter feeders such as shellfish and other fish are introduced in the system, feeding off nutrients in the water that would otherwise be cycled out. This option is more environmentally safe than large scale intensive farming practices. Unfortunately, this system is capital intensive and would be difficult for small scale, independent shrimp farmers to acquire. However, this would be an excellent alternative for larger shrimp industries in Thailand.
Another alternative would be to revert to traditional shrimp farming practices, without overstocking and the use of harmful chemicals. This would be an ideal option for small scale shrimp farmers supplying for their own community as well as creating an independent food source.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sustainable Alternatives of Shrimp Aquaculture |url=http://mangroveactionproject.org/issues/shrimp-farming/sustainable-alternatives-of-shrimp-aquaculture |website=Mangrove Action Project |access-date=23 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119192317/http://mangroveactionproject.org/issues/shrimp-farming/sustainable-alternatives-of-shrimp-aquaculture |archive-date=19 November 2012}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{Portal|Crustaceans}}
* [[Freshwater prawn farm]]ing shares many characteristics and problems with marine shrimp farming. Unique problems are introduced by developmental life cycle of the main species (the [[giant river prawn]], ''Macrobrachium rosenbergii'').<ref name="New02">[[#New|New (2002)]], pp. xiii–xiv.</ref> The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding [[crayfish]] and [[crab]]s) in 2003 was about 280,000 tonnes, of which China produced some 180,000 tonnes, followed by India and Thailand with some 35,000 tonnes each. China also produced about 370,000 tonnes of [[Chinese mitten crab]] (''Eriocheir sinensis'').{{#tag:ref|Data extracted from the [http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/static?dom=collection&xml=global-aquaculture-production.xml FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database] for freshwater crustaceans. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Retrieved June 28, 2005.|group=Note}}
* [[Shrimp fishery]]
* [[Krill fishery]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=Note}}
== References ==
{{reflist|24em}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|32em}}
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*{{cite book|author=Indian Aquaculture Authority |url=http://aquaculture.tn.nic.in/pdf/farming.pdf |title=Shrimp Aquaculture and the Environment – An Environment Impact Assessment Report |date=April 2001 |ref=IAA_ch2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716081932/http://aquaculture.tn.nic.in/pdf/farming.pdf |archive-date=July 16, 2011 }}
*{{cite book |author=Indian Aquaculture Authority |url=http://aquaculture.tn.nic.in/pdf/FAO%20Aqua41-79.pdf |title=Shrimp Aquaculture and the Environment – An Environment Impact Assessment Report |date=April 2001 |ref=IAA_ch6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051009043541/http://aquaculture.tn.nic.in/pdf/FAO%20Aqua41-79.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2005 |df=mdy-all }}
*{{cite web |author=ISAN |year=2000 |publisher=International Shrimp Action Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051103051029/http://www.shrimpaction.com/SHRIMP~1.PDF |archive-date=November 3, 2005 |url=http://www.shrimpaction.com/SHRIMP~1.PDF |title=Prawn to Trade, Prawn to Consume |access-date=August 20, 2007 |ref=ISAN}}
*{{cite conference|author=Josueit, H. |url=http://www.globefish.org/files/SHRIMPMadrid_171.pdf |title=An overview on the world shrimp market |publisher=FAO GlobeFish |conference=Presentation given at World Shrimp Markets 2004 |___location=Madrid, Spain |date=October 26–27, 2004 |ref=Josueit |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928001747/http://www.globefish.org/files/SHRIMPMadrid_171.pdf |archive-date=September 28, 2007 }}
*{{cite journal |author=Kumaran, M., P. Ravichandran, B. P. Gupta & A. Nagavel |year=2003 |url=http://library.enaca.org/AquacultureAsia/Articles/July-Sept-2003/4kumaran-sept03.pdf |title=Shrimp farming practices and its socio-economic consequences in East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, India – a case study |journal=Aquaculture Asia |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=48–52 |ref=Kumaran}}
*{{cite book |author=Lewis, Roy R. III, Michael J. Philipps, Barry Clough & Donald J. Macintosh |year=2003 |url=http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/Case/Thematic/FinalMangrove.pdf |title=Thematic Review on Coastal Wetland Habitats and Shrimp Aquaculture |publisher=World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment |ref=Lewis}}
*{{cite thesis |last=McClennan |first=Caleb |url=http://repository01.lib.tufts.edu:8080/fedora/get/tufts:UA015.012.DO.00040/bdef:TuftsPDF/getPDF |title=White Spot Syndrome Virus – The Economic, Environmental and Technical Implications of the Development of Latin American Shrimp Farming |degree=[[Master of Arts]] in Law and Diplomacy |publisher=[[Tufts University]] |date=February 2, 2004 |format=[[Portable Document Format|PDF]] |ref=McClennan |access-date=January 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100803155457/http://repository01.lib.tufts.edu:8080/fedora/get/tufts:UA015.012.DO.00040/bdef:TuftsPDF/getPDF |archive-date=August 3, 2010 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}
*{{cite book |author=Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) & Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) |year=2003 |url=http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/manual/ShrimpHealthManual.pdf |title=Shrimp Health Management Extension Manual |___location=India |ref=NACA}}
*{{cite book |author=New, Michael B. |year=2002 |url=http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/Publications/FAO_Macrobrachium_manual_2003.pdf |title=Farming Freshwater Prawns |series=FAO Fisheries Technical Paper |volume=428 |issn=0429-9345 |ref=New}}
*{{cite book |publisher=[[World Organisation for Animal Health]] (OIE) |year=2009 |edition=6th |title=Manual of Diagnostic Tests for Aquatic Animals 2011 |isbn=978-92-9044-758-0 |id=A169 |url=http://www.oie.int/en/international-standard-setting/aquatic-manual/access-online/ |ref=OIE}}
*{{cite book |author=[[Isabel Pérez Farfante|Pérez Farfante, Isabel]] & Brian F. Kensley |year=1997 |title=Penaeoid and Sergestoid Shrimps and Prawns of the World (Keys and Diagnoses for the Families and Genera) |series=Mémoires du Muséum |volume=#175 |publisher=[[Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle]] |___location=Paris |isbn=2-85653-510-0 |ref=PerezFarfante}}
*{{cite book |author=Rönnbäck, Patrik |year=2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060204233149/http://www-mkb.slu.se/mkb/rakodling/Shrimp-webb.pdf |archive-date=February 4, 2006 |url=http://www-mkb.slu.se/mkb/rakodling/Shrimp-webb.pdf |title=Shrimp aquaculture – State of the art |series=Swedish EIA Centre Report |volume=1 |publisher=[[Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]] |___location=Uppsala |isbn=91-576-6113-8 |ref=Rönnbäck01}}
*{{cite book |author=Rönnbäck, Patrik |year=2003 |url=http://www.scampi.nu/pdf/rap-inter-shrimp-naturland.pdf |title=Critical Analysis of Certified Organic Shrimp Aquaculture in Sidoarjo, Indonesia |publisher=[[Swedish Society for Nature Conservation]] |ref=Rönnbäck03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724191011/http://www.scampi.nu/pdf/rap-inter-shrimp-naturland.pdf |archive-date=July 24, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}
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* B. Rosenberry: ''[http://www.shrimpnews.com/About.html#Factors Shrimp Feeds]'', ShrimpNews, August 2004. URL last accessed June 28, 2005.
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*{{cite book |author=Tacon, Albert G. J. |year=2002 |title=Thematic Review of Feeds and Feed Management Practices in Shrimp Aquaculture |url=http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/Case/Thematic/FinalFeed.pdf |publisher=World Bank/NACA/WWF/FAO Consortium Program on Shrimp Farming and the Environment |ref=Tacon}}
*{{cite journal |author=Tanavud, Charlchai, Chao Yongchalermchai, Abdollah Bennui & Omthip Densrisereekul1 |year=2001 |title=The expansion of inland shrimp farming and its environmental impacts in Songkla Lake basin |journal=Kasetsart Journal: Natural Science |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=326–343 |url=http://www.thaiscience.info/Article%20for%20ThaiScience/Article/4/Ts-4%20the%20expansion%20of%20inland%20shrimp%20farming%20and%20its%20environmental%20impacts%20in%20songkla%20lake%20basin.pdf |access-date=October 12, 2007 |ref=Tanavud |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722000539/http://www.thaiscience.info/Article%20for%20ThaiScience/Article/4/Ts-4%20the%20expansion%20of%20inland%20shrimp%20farming%20and%20its%20environmental%20impacts%20in%20songkla%20lake%20basin.pdf |archive-date=July 22, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Valiela |first1=Ivan |first2=Jennifer L.|last2=Bowen|first3=Joanna K.|last3=York |year=2001 |title=Mangrove forests: one of the world's threatened major tropical environments |journal=[[BioScience]] |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=807–815 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0807:MFOOTW]2.0.CO;2 |url=https://www.sfu.ca/~ianh/geog315/readings/Valiela.pdf |ref=Valiela|doi-access=free }}
*{{cite book |author=van Wyk, Peter, M. Davis-Hodgkins, R. Laramore, K. L. Main, J. Mountain & J. Scarpa |year=1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713124810/http://www.hboi.edu/aqua/training_pubs.html |archive-date=July 13, 2007 |url=http://www.hboi.edu/aqua/training_pubs.html |title=Farming Marine Shrimp in Recirculating Freshwater Systems |publisher=[[Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution]] |ref=Wyk}}
*{{cite journal |author=Wilkinson, Simon |year=2002 |url=http://library.enaca.org/AquacultureAsia/April-June-2002.pdf |title=The use of lime, gypsum, alum and potassium permanganate in water quality management |journal=Aquaculture Asia |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=12–14 |ref=Wilkinson}}
*{{cite book |author=World Bank, NACA, WWF and FAO |year=2002 |title=Shrimp Farming and the Environment. A World Bank, NACA, WWF and FAO Consortium Program "To analyze and share experiences on the better management of shrimp aquaculture in coastal areas" |id=Synthesis report. Work in Progress for Public Discussion. Published by the Consortium. 119 pages. |url=http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/Publications/DraftSynthesisReport-21-June.pdf |access-date=January 13, 2012 |ref=Consortium}}
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Shrimp farms}}
*{{cite book |author=[[Lipke Holthuis]] |year=1980 |url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/FI/document/sidp/AC477E_01Shrimp/AC477E00.pdf |title=FAO Species Catalogue, Vol. I: Shrimps and Prawns of the World |series=FAO Fisheries Synopsis 125 |volume=1 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |isbn=92-5-100896-5}}
* McQuaid, J.: ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060925073249/http://www.pulitzer.org/year/1997/public-service/works/5-5/ Thailand transformed by shrimp boom]'', March 28, 1996. Part of a series for which the newspaper ''The Times-Picayune'', New Orleans, won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in the category [[Pulitzer Prize for Public Service|"public service"]] in 1997.
* [http://www.enaca.org/ Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA)] has many of the World Bank ''et al.'' reports and a lot of current information about shrimp farming in Asia.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180809170411/http://scampi.nu/ Scampi.nu] is a Swedish web site critical of shrimp farming that has many excellent links to English articles.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030220014508/http://www.wwf.org.hk/eng/maipo/geiwei/ Mai Po ''gei wai''] is a [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]]–managed extensive shrimp farm in [[Hong Kong]].
* [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] [https://web.archive.org/web/20060225192059/http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/SeafoodWatch/web/sfw_factsheet.aspx?gid=20 'Seafood Guide'] offers good information on choosing seafood that is caught using sustainable and environmentally aware methods.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722010636/http://www.ejfoundation.org/page211.html Environmental Justice Foundation] The Environmental Justice Foundation has created several video and written reports about the damaging shrimp farming causes to coastal habitats.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110830112619/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/aquaculture/shrimp-farming/ Shrimp farming], from [[Greenpeace]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101101021355/http://aciar.gov.au/publication/CoP01 Australian Prawn Farming Manual] Download page of the 159 page PDF published by The State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries
{{fishing industry topics|expanded=aquaculture}}
{{fisheries and fishing}}
{{Commercial fish topics}}
[[Category:Decapods]]
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