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{{short description|South Slavic language}}
{{For-multi|the extinct Oghuric Turkic language|Bulgar language|other uses|Bulgarian (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2016}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2012}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Bulgarian
| nativename = {{lang|bg|български език}}
| image =
| pronunciation = {{IPA|bg|ˈbɤɫɡɐrski||bg-български.ogg}}
| states = {{Plainlist|
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[North Macedonia]]<ref>Loring M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World, 1995, Princeton University Press, p.65 , {{ISBN|0-691-04356-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Djokić |first=Dejan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMyZdvTympMC&dq=Djoki%C4%87,+Dejan+(2003).+Yugoslavism:+Histories+of+a+Failed+Idea&pg=PA1 |title=Yugoslavism: Histories of a Failed Idea, 1918-1992 |date=2003 |publisher=Hurst |isbn=978-1-85065-663-0 |page=122|quote=With such policies the new Yugoslav authorities largely overcame the residual pro-Bulgarian feeling among much of the population, and survived the split with Bulgaria in 1948. Pro-Bulgarians among Macedonians suffered severe repression as a result. However, while occasional trial continued throughout the life of Communist Yugoslavia, the vast bulk took place in the late 1940s. The new authorities were successful in building a distinct national consciousness based on the available differences between Macedonia and Bulgaria proper, and by the time Yugoslavia collapsed in the early 1990s, those who continued to look to Bulgaria were very few indeed.<sup>18</sup> The change from the pre-war situation of unrecognised minority status and attempted assimilation by Serbia to one where the Macedonians were the majority people in their own republic with considerable autonomy within Yugoslavia's federation/con-federation had obvious attractions...<br> ''18 However, in Macedonia today remain those who identify as Bulgarians. Hostility to them remains, even if less than in Communist Yugoslavia, where it was forbidden to proclaim Bulgarian identity, with the partial exception of the Strumica region where the population was allowed more leeway and where most of the 3,000-4,000 Bulgarians in Macedonia in the censuses appearcd. Examples of the continuing hostility are: thc Supreme Court in January 1994 banned the pro-Bulgarian Human Rights Party led by Ilija Ilijevski and the refused registration of another pro-Bulgarian group in Ohrid and other harassment.''}}</ref>
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Moldova]]
* [[Romania]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Serbia]]
* [[Kosovo]]
* [[Albania]]<ref name="Bulgarians in Albania">{{cite web |url=http://www.omda.bg/BULG/news/Bulgaria%20news/Bulgaria_Albania.htm |title=Bulgarians in Albania |website=Omda.bg |access-date=23 April 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504035012/http://www.omda.bg/BULG/news/Bulgaria%20news/Bulgaria_Albania.htm |archive-date=4 May 2008}}</ref>
* [[Greece]]
* [[Turkey]]
}}
| ethnicity = [[Bulgarians]]
| speakers = [[First language|L1]]: 7.6 million in Bulgaria
| date = 2011 census
| ref = <ref name="2011Census"/>
| speakers2 = [[First language|L1]] + [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|7.882250|2}} million in all countries (2023)<ref name=e26>{{e26|bul}}</ref>
| speakers_label = Speakers
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
| fam3 = [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
| fam4 = [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]]
| fam5 = [[Eastern South Slavic]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2 = [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]]
| ancestor3 = [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]
| ancestor4 = [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Bulgarian]]
| ancestor5 = [[Middle Bulgarian]]
| dia1 = '''Eastern Bulgarian'''
| script = {{ubl|[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] ([[Bulgarian alphabet]], since 893)|[[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Banat Bulgarian dialect#Alphabet|Banat Bulgarian Alphabet]]) <small>([[Banat Bulgarian dialect]])</small>|[[Bulgarian Braille]]}}
| nation = {{ubl|[[Bulgaria]]|[[European Union]]}}
| minority = {{Plainlist|
* [[Albania]]
* [[Czech Republic]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vlada.cz/assets/ppov/rnm/dokumenty/mezinarodni-dokumenty/duvodova_zprava_vlada_2005.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714223714/http://www.vlada.cz/assets/ppov/rnm/dokumenty/mezinarodni-dokumenty/duvodova_zprava_vlada_2005.pdf |archive-date=2014-07-14 |url-status=live |title=Národnostní menšiny v České republice a jejich jazyky|trans-title=National Minorities in Czech Republic and Their Language|publisher=Government of Czech Republic|page=2|quote=Podle čl. 3 odst. 2 Statutu Rady je jejich počet 12 a jsou uživateli těchto menšinových jazyků: ..., srbština a ukrajinština|language=cs}}</ref>
* [[Hungary]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Hungary.htm |title=Implementation of the Charter in Hungary|work=Database for the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|publisher=Public Foundation for European Comparative Minority Research|access-date=16 June 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227004902/http://languagecharter.eokik.hu/sites/StatesParties/Hungary.htm|archive-date=27 February 2014}}</ref>
* [[Moldova]]
* [[Romania]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Frawley|first=William|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sl_dDVctycgC|title=International Encyclopedia of Linguistics|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-513977-8|pages=83|language=en}}</ref>
* [[Serbia]]
* [[Turkey]]<ref name=Bayır2013>{{Cite book |last=Bayır |first=Derya |title=Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law |date=2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4094-7254-4 |series=Cultural Diversity and Law |___location=Farnham|url=https://www.academia.edu/37557239| pages=88, 203–204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Toktaş |first1=Şule |last2=Araş |first2=Bulent |date=2009 |title=The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25655744 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=697–720 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x |jstor=25655744 |issn=0032-3195}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Köksal |first=Yonca |date=2006 |title=Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14683850601016390 |journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=501–521 |doi=10.1080/14683850601016390 |s2cid=153761516 |issn=1468-3857|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Özlem2019>{{Cite journal |first=Kader |last=Özlem |date=2019 |title=An Evaluation on Istanbul's Bulgarians as the "Invisible Minority" of Turkey |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=802933 |journal=Turan-Sam |language=English |volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=387–393 |issn=1308-8041}}</ref>
* [[Ukraine]]
}}
| agency = [[Institute for Bulgarian Language]], Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
| iso1 = bg
| iso2 = bul
| iso3 = bul
| glotto = bulg1262
| glottorefname = Bulgarian
| lingua = 53-AAA-hb < [[South Slavic languages|53-AAA-h]]
| map = Distribution of Bulgarian Speakers.png
| mapcaption = The Bulgarian-speaking world:{{image reference needed|date=April 2021}} {{Legend|#0080FF|regions where Bulgarian is the language of the majority}} {{Legend|#88C4FF|regions where Bulgarian is the language of a significant minority}}
| notice = IPA
| dia2 = [[Balkan dialects of Bulgarian|Balkan]]<br>
[[Rup dialects|Rup]]<br>[[Moesian dialects|Moesian]]
| dia3 = '''Western Bulgarian'''
| dia4 = [[Northwestern Bulgarian dialects|Northwestern]]<br>[[Southwestern Bulgarian dialects|Southwestern]]<br>[[Transitional Bulgarian dialects|Transitional]]
}}
{{Contains special characters}}
'''Bulgarian'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Bulgarian.ogg|b|ʌ|l|ˈ|ɡ|ɛər|i|ə|n}}; {{langx|bg|label=none|български език|bŭlgarski ezik}}, {{IPA|bg|ˈbɤɫɡɐrski|pron|bg-български.ogg}}}} is an [[Eastern South Slavic|Eastern South Slavic language]] spoken in [[Southeast Europe]], primarily in [[Bulgaria]]. It is the language of the [[Bulgarians]].
Along with the closely related [[Macedonian language]] (collectively forming the [[East South Slavic languages]]), it is a member of the [[Balkan sprachbund]] and [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] [[dialect continuum]] of the [[Indo-European language family]]. The two languages have several characteristics that set them apart from all other [[Slavic languages]], including the elimination of [[grammatical case|case declension]], the development of a suffixed [[definite article]], and the lack of a verb [[infinitive]]. They retain and have further developed the [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] verb system (albeit analytically). One such major development is the innovation of [[evidentiality|evidential]] verb forms to encode for the source of information: witnessed, inferred, or reported.
It is the official [[Languages of Bulgaria|language of Bulgaria]], and since 2007 has been among the official languages of the [[European Union]].<ref name="Official Languages">{{cite web|title=Council Regulation (EC) No 1791/2006 of 20 November 2006|publisher=Europa web portal|author=EUR-Lex|work=Official Journal of the European Union|date=12 December 2006|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31958R0001:EN:NOT|access-date=2 February 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Languages in Europe – Official EU Languages|publisher=EUROPA web portal|url=http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm|access-date=12 October 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202112407/http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languages-of-europe/doc135_en.htm|archive-date=2 February 2009|df=dmy}}</ref> It is also spoken by the Bulgarian historical communities in [[Bulgarians in Ukraine|Ukraine]], [[Bulgarians in North Macedonia|North Macedonia]], [[Bessarabian Bulgarians|Moldova]], [[Bulgarians in Serbia|Serbia]], [[Bulgarians in Romania|Romania]], [[Bulgarians in Hungary|Hungary]], [[Bulgarians in Albania|Albania]] and [[Bulgarians in Greece|Greece]].
==History==
{{Main|History of Bulgarian}}
One can divide the development of the Bulgarian language into several periods.
* The '''Prehistoric period''' covers the time between the [[Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe|Slavic migration to the eastern Balkans]] ({{circa}} 6th century CE) and the mission of [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] to Great Moravia in 860s.
* '''[[Old Church Slavonic]]''' (9th to 11th centuries) a literary norm of the early southern dialect of the [[Proto-Slavic language]] from which Bulgarian evolved, also referred to as '''Old Bulgarian'''.<ref>The Development of the Bulgarian Literary Language: From Incunabula to First Grammars, Late Fifteenth–Early Seventeenth Century, by Ivan N. Petrov. Lexington Books, 2021; {{ISBN|9781498586085}}, p. 1.</ref> [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] and their disciples used this norm when translating the [[Bible]] and other liturgical literature from [[Greek language|Greek]] into Slavic.
* '''[[Middle Bulgarian]]''' (12th to 15th centuries) – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations occurred. A language of rich literary activity, it served as an official administration language of the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]], [[Walachia]], [[Moldavia]] (until the 19th century) and an important language in the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359950277_Written_Languages_in_Wallachia_during_the_Reign_of_Neagoe_Basarab_1512-1521)</ref> Sultan [[Selim I]] spoke and used it well.<ref>{{cite book |last= Чилингиров |first= Стилиян |authorlink= :bg:Стилиян Чилингиров |title= "Какво е дал българинът на другите народи" |year= 2006 | pages = 60}}</ref>
* '''Modern Bulgarian''' dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar and syntax changes in the 18th and 19th centuries. The present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian [[vernacular]]. The historical development of the Bulgarian language can be described as a transition from a highly [[synthetic language]] (Old Bulgarian) to a fusional inflecting [[synthetic language]] with some analyticity (Modern Bulgarian) with Middle Bulgarian as a midpoint in this transition.
[[File:ZographensisColour.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Codex Zographensis]] is one of the oldest [[manuscript]]s in the Old Bulgarian language, dated from the late 10th or early 11th century]]
''Bulgarian'' was the first Slavic language attested in writing.<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Bulgaria/Language |display=Bulgaria § {{sc|Language and Literature}} |volume=4 |page=785 |first=James David |last=Bourchier}}</ref> As Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, the oldest manuscripts initially referred to this language as ѧзꙑкъ словѣньскъ, "the Slavic language". In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was gradually replaced by the name ѧзꙑкъ блъгарьскъ, the "Bulgarian language". In some cases, this name was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. A most notable example of anachronism is the Service of [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Saint Cyril]] from Skopje (Скопски миней), a 13th-century Middle Bulgarian manuscript from northern [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] according to which St. Cyril preached with "Bulgarian" books among the Moravian Slavs. The first mention of the language as the "Bulgarian language" instead of the "Slavonic language" comes in the work of the Greek clergy of the [[Archbishopric of Ohrid]] in the 11th century, for example in the [[Greek language|Greek]] hagiography of [[Clement of Ohrid]] by [[Theophylact of Ohrid]] (late 11th century).
[[File:Old Bulgarian alphabet.png|left|thumb|[[Cyrillic]]]]
During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the
As a [[Bulgarian National Revival|national revival]] occurred toward the end of the period of Ottoman rule (mostly during the 19th century), a modern Bulgarian literary language gradually emerged that drew heavily on [[Old Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic/Old Bulgarian]] (and to some extent on literary [[Russian language|Russian]], which had preserved many lexical items from Church Slavonic) and later reduced the number of Turkish and other Balkan loans. Today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter. Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот (turnover, rev), непонятен (incomprehensible), ядро (nucleus) and others. Many other loans from French, English and the [[classical language]]s have subsequently entered the language as well.
Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, but its pronunciation is in many respects a compromise between East and West Bulgarian (see especially the phonetic sections below). Following the efforts of some figures of the [[National awakening of Bulgaria]] (most notably [[Neofit Rilski]] and [[Ivan Bogorov]]),<ref>Michal Kopeček. ''Discourses of collective identity in Central and Southeast Europe (1770–1945): texts and commentaries, Volume 1'' (Central European University Press, 2006), p. 248</ref> there had been many attempts to [[Codification (linguistics)|codify]] a [[Standard language|standard]] Bulgarian language; however, there was much argument surrounding the choice of norms. Between 1835 and 1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and "linguistic chaos" ensued.<ref name="Glanville Price 2000 p.45">Glanville Price. ''Encyclopedia of the languages of Europe'' (Wiley-Blackwell, 2000), p.45</ref> Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed,<ref name="Victor Roudometof 2002 p. 92">
Victor Roudometof. ''Collective memory, national identity, and ethnic conflict: Greece, Bulgaria, and the Macedonian question'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002), p. 92
</ref>
and in 1899 the Bulgarian Ministry of Education officially codified<ref name="Glanville Price 2000 p.45"/> a standard Bulgarian language based on the Drinov-Ivanchev orthography.<ref name="Victor Roudometof 2002 p. 92"/>
== Geographic distribution ==
Bulgarian is the official language of [[Languages of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]],<ref>{{cite web| title = Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria| url = https://www.parliament.bg/en/const| language = bg| access-date = 27 October 2020| archive-date = 10 December 2010| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101210221600/https://www.parliament.bg/en/const| url-status = dead}}</ref> where it is used in all spheres of public life. As of 2011, it is spoken as a first language by about 6{{nbsp}}million people in the country, or about four out of every five Bulgarian citizens.<ref name="2011Census">{{Cite book| author = Национален Статистически Институт| title = Преброяване на населението и жилищния фонд през 2011 година| volume = Том 1: Население | issue = Книга 2: Демографски и социални характеристики| year = 2012| place = София| url = https://www.nsi.bg/statlib/bg/lister.php?iid=DO-010007505 | language = bg | pages = 33–34, 190}} Of the 6.64 million people who answered the optional language question in the 2011 census, 5.66 million (or 85.2%) reported being native speakers of Bulgarian (this amounts to 76.8% of the total population of 7.36 million).</ref>
There is also a significant [[Bulgarian diaspora]] abroad. One of the main historically established communities are the [[Bessarabian Bulgarians]], whose settlement in the [[Bessarabia]] region of nowadays Moldova and Ukraine dates mostly to the early 19th century. There were {{sigfig|134396|3}} Bulgarian speakers in [[Languages of Ukraine|Ukraine]] at the 2001 census,<ref>{{cite web| title = Table 19A050501 02. Distribution of the population of Ukraine's regions by native language (0,1)| url = http://database.ukrcensus.gov.ua/MULT/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=19A050501_02&ti=19A050501_02.%20Distribution%20of%20the%20population%20of%20Ukraine%60s%20regions%20by%20native%20language%20%280%2C1%29&path=..%2FDatabase%2FCensus%2F05%2F02%2F01%2F&lang=2&multilang=en| access-date = 15 October 2020| archive-date = 17 October 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201017034016/http://database.ukrcensus.gov.ua/MULT/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=19A050501_02&ti=19A050501_02.%20Distribution%20of%20the%20population%20of%20Ukraine%60s%20regions%20by%20native%20language%20%280%2C1%29&path=..%2FDatabase%2FCensus%2F05%2F02%2F01%2F&lang=2&multilang=en| url-status = dead}}</ref> {{sigfig|41756|3}} in [[Languages of Moldova|Moldova]] as of the 2014 census (of which {{sigfig|15320|3}} were habitual users of the language),<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statistica.md/newsview.php?l=en&id=5582&idc=30 |title=The Population of the Republic of Moldova at the Time of the Census was 2,998,235|date= 31 March 2017|access-date=16 October 2020}} The full data is available in the linked spreadsheet titled "Characteristics - Population", sheets 8 and 9.</ref> and presumably a significant proportion of the 13,200 ethnic Bulgarians residing in neighbouring [[Transnistria]] in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mer.gospmr.org/gosudarstvennaya-sluzhba-statistiki/informacziya/ezhegodnik-gosudarstvennoj-sluzhby-statistiki/statisticheskij-ezhegodnik-2017.html|title=Статистический ежегодник 2017 - Министерство экономического развития Приднестровской Молдавской Республики|website=mer.gospmr.org|access-date=16 October 2020|archive-date=26 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026152825/http://mer.gospmr.org/gosudarstvennaya-sluzhba-statistiki/informacziya/ezhegodnik-gosudarstvennoj-sluzhby-statistiki/statisticheskij-ezhegodnik-2017.html|url-status=dead}} There is no data on the number of speakers.</ref>
Another community abroad are the [[Banat Bulgarians]], who migrated in the 17th century to the Banat region now split between Romania, Serbia and Hungary. They speak the [[Banat Bulgarian dialect]], which has had its own written standard and a historically important literary tradition.
There are Bulgarian speakers in neighbouring countries as well. The regional dialects of Bulgarian and Macedonian form a dialect continuum, and there is no well-defined boundary where one language ends and the other begins. Within the limits of the [[Republic of North Macedonia]] a strong separate Macedonian identity has emerged since the Second World War, even though there still are a small number of citizens who identify their language as Bulgarian. Beyond the borders of North Macedonia, the situation is more fluid, and the pockets of speakers of the related regional dialects [[Bulgarians in Albania|in Albania]] and [[Slavic speakers of Greek Macedonia|in Greece]] variously identify their language as Macedonian or as Bulgarian. [[Bulgarians in Serbia|In Serbia]], there were 7,939 speakers as per 2022 census,<ref>https://popis2022.stat.gov.rs/en-US/5-vestisaopstenja/news-events/20230616-st/?a=0&s=0</ref> mainly concentrated in the so-called [[Western Outlands]] along the border with Bulgaria. Bulgarian is also spoken in Turkey: natively by [[Pomaks]], and as a second language by many [[Bulgarian Turks]] who emigrated from Bulgaria, mostly during the "[[Big Excursion]]" of 1989.
The language is also represented among the diaspora in Western Europe and North America, which has been steadily growing since the 1990s. Countries with significant numbers of speakers include [[Bulgarians in Germany|Germany]], [[Bulgarians in Spain|Spain]], [[Bulgarians in Italy|Italy]], the [[Bulgarians in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] ({{sigfig|38496|3}} speakers in England and Wales as of 2011),<ref>{{cite web| title = DC2210EWr - Main language by proficiency in English (regional)| url = http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/census/2011/DC2210EWR/view/2092957703?rows=main_language&cols=proficiency_in_english| access-date = 18 October 2020}}</ref> [[Bulgarians in France|France]], the [[Bulgarian Americans|United States]], and [[Bulgarian Canadians|Canada]] ({{sigfig|19050|3}} in 2011).<ref>{{Cite web| title = Census Profile | date=8 February 2012 | url = https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=&TABID=1#Note20 | access-date = 27 October 2020 }}</ref>
==Dialects==
{{Main|Bulgarian dialects}}
[[File:Bulgarian dialects by Todor Bozhinov.png|right|thumb|upright=1.6|Map of the Bulgarian dialects within Bulgaria]]
[[File:Bulgarian dialect map-yus.png|right|upright=1.2|thumb|Extent of Bulgarian dialects according to the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences<ref>{{cite book |title=Български диалектен атлас (Bulgarian dialect atlas)|last=Кочев (Kochev)|first=Иван (Ivan) |year=2001 |___location=София |publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences |language=bg |isbn=954-90344-1-0 |oclc=48368312 }}</ref> shown encompassing the [[Eastern South Slavic languages|Eastern South Slavic dialects]]. Subregions are differentiated by pronunciation of ''мъж'' "man" and ''зъб'' "tooth".]]
The language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]] [[yat]] vowel (Ѣ). This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgaria's:
*Western dialects (informally called твърд говор/''tvurd govor'' – "hard speech")
**the former ''yat'' is pronounced "e" in all positions. e.g. млеко (''mlekò'') – milk, хлеб (''hleb'') – bread.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.promacedonia.org/jchorb/st/st_2_b_izt_0.htm |title=Стойков, Стойко. 2002 (1962) Българска диалектология. Стр. 101 |publisher=Promacedonia.org |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>
*Eastern dialects (informally called мек говор/''mek govor'' – "soft speech")
**the former ''yat'' alternates between "ya" and "e": it is pronounced "ya" if it is under stress and the next syllable does not contain a [[front vowel]] (''e'' or ''i'') – e.g. мл'''я'''ко (''ml'''yà'''ko''), хл'''я'''б (''hl'''ya'''b''), and "e" otherwise – e.g. мл'''е'''кар (''ml'''e'''kàr'') – milkman, хл'''е'''бар (''hl'''e'''bàr'') – baker. This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have "ya", or a special "open e" sound, in all positions.
The literary language norm, which is generally based on the Eastern dialects, also has the Eastern alternating reflex of ''yat''. However, it has not incorporated the general Eastern umlaut of ''all'' synchronic or even historic "ya" sounds into "e" before front vowels – e.g. поляна (''polyana'') vs. полени (''poleni'') "meadow – meadows" or even жаба (''zhaba'') vs. жеби (''zhebi'') "frog – frogs", even though it co-occurs with the yat alternation in almost all Eastern dialects that have it (except a few dialects along the yat border, e.g. in the [[Pleven]] region).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.promacedonia.org/jchorb/st/st_2_b_izt_0.htm |title=Стойков, Стойко. 2002 (1962) Българска диалектология. Стр. 99 |publisher=Promacedonia.org |access-date=17 April 2010}}</ref>
More examples of the ''yat'' umlaut in the literary language are:
*''mly'''à'''ko'' (milk) [n.] → ''ml'''e'''kàr'' (milkman); ''ml'''è'''chen'' (milky), etc.
*''sy'''à'''dam'' (sit) [vb.] → ''s'''e'''dàlka'' (seat); ''s'''e'''dàlishte'' (seat, e.g. of government or institution, butt<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rechnik.info/%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%89%D0%B5 |title=Речник на думите в българският език |website=rechnik.info|access-date=28 November 2020}}</ref>), etc.
*''svy'''a'''t'' (holy) [adj.] → ''sv'''e'''tètz'' (saint); ''sv'''e'''tìlishte'' (sanctuary), etc. (in this example, ''ya/e'' comes not from historical ''yat'' but from ''small yus ''(ѧ), which normally becomes ''e'' in Bulgarian, but the word was influenced by Russian and the ''yat'' umlaut)
Until 1945, Bulgarian orthography did not reveal this alternation and used the original [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Slavic]] [[Cyrillic]] letter ''yat'' (Ѣ), which was commonly called двойно е (''dvoyno e'') at the time, to express the historical ''yat'' vowel or at least root vowels displaying the ''ya – e'' alternation. The letter was used in each occurrence of such a root, regardless of the actual pronunciation of the vowel: thus, both ''ml'''ya'''ko'' and ''ml'''e'''kar'' were spelled with (Ѣ). <!--If anyone doubts, as the previous wording seemed to suggest, that the Eastern alternation was already considered literary norm at the time, see e.g. Младенов, Стефан. Български етимологичен речник. 1941. p.XV-XVII.--> Among other things, this was seen as a way to "reconcile" the Western and the Eastern dialects and maintain language unity at a time when much of Bulgaria's Western dialect area was controlled by [[Serbia]] and [[Greece]], but there were still hopes and occasional attempts to recover it. With the 1945 orthographic reform, this letter was abolished and the present spelling was introduced, reflecting the alternation in pronunciation.
This had implications for some grammatical constructions:
*The third person plural pronoun and its derivatives. Before 1945 the pronoun "they" was spelled тѣ (''tě''), and its derivatives took this as the root. After the orthographic change, the pronoun and its derivatives were given an equal share of soft and hard spellings{{clarify|reason=Does this mean that artificial spellings, unrelated to the pronunciation of any dialect, were introduced?|date=March 2024}}:
**"they" – т'''е''' (''te'') → "them" – т'''я'''х (''tyah'');
**"their(s)" – ''t'''e'''hen'' (masc.); ''t'''ya'''hna'' (fem.); ''t'''ya'''hno'' (neut.); ''t'''e'''hni'' (plur.)
*adjectives received the same treatment as тѣ:
**"whole" – ''ts'''ya'''l'' → "the whole{{nbsp}}...": ''ts'''e'''liyat'' (masc.); ''ts'''ya'''lata'' (fem.); ''ts'''ya'''loto'' (neut.); ''ts'''e'''lite'' (plur.)
Sometimes, with the changes, words began to be spelled as other words with different meanings, e.g.:
*свѣт (''svět'') – "world" became свят (''svyat''), spelt and pronounced the same as свят – "holy".
*тѣ (''tě'') – "they" became те (''te'').
In spite of the literary norm regarding the yat vowel, many people living in Western Bulgaria, including the capital [[Sofia]], will fail to observe its rules. While the norm requires the realizations ''vidyal'' vs. ''videli'' (he has seen; they have seen), some natives of Western Bulgaria will preserve their local dialect pronunciation with "e" for all instances of "yat" (e.g. ''videl'', ''videli''). Others, attempting to adhere to the norm, will actually use the "ya" sound even in cases where the standard language has "e" (e.g. ''vidyal'', ''vidyali''). The latter [[hypercorrection#Bulgarian|hypercorrection]] is called свръхякане (''svrah-yakane'' ≈"over-''ya''-ing").
=== Shift from {{IPA|/jɛ/}} to {{IPA|/ɛ/}} ===
Bulgarian is the only Slavic language whose literary standard does not naturally contain the [[Iotation|iotated]] ''e'' {{IPA|/jɛ/}} (or its variant, ''e'' after a palatalized consonant {{IPA|/ʲɛ/}}, except in non-Slavic foreign-loaned words). This sound combination is common in all modern Slavic languages (e.g. [[Czech language|Czech]] ''medv'''ě'''d'' {{IPA|/ˈmɛdvjɛt/}} "bear", [[Polish language|Polish]] ''p'''ię'''ć'' {{IPA|/pjɛɲt͡ɕ/}} "five", [[Serbo-Croatian]] '''''je'''len'' {{IPA|/jělen/}} "deer", [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ''нема'''є''''' {{IPA|/neˈmajɛ/}} "there is not", [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ''пишува'''ње''''' {{IPA|/piˈʃuvaɲʲɛ/}} "writing", etc.), as well as some Western Bulgarian dialectal forms – e.g. ''ора̀н'''{{'}}е''''' {{IPA|/oˈraɲʲɛ/}} (standard Bulgarian: ''оране'' {{IPA|/oˈranɛ/}}, "ploughing"),<ref>[http://www.promacedonia.org/jchorb/st/st_2_b_zap_0.htm Bulgarian Dialectology: Western Dialects], Stoyko Stoykov, 1962 (p.144). Retrieved May 2013.</ref> however it is not represented in standard Bulgarian speech or writing. Even where {{IPA|/jɛ/}} occurs in other Slavic words, in Standard Bulgarian it is usually transcribed and pronounced as pure {{IPA|/ɛ/}} – e.g. [[Boris Yeltsin]] is "Eltsin" ([[:bg:Борис Елцин|Борис Елцин]]), [[Yekaterinburg]] is "Ekaterinburg" ([[:bg:Екатеринбург|Екатеринбург]]) and [[Sarajevo]] is "Saraevo" ([[:bg:Сараево|Сараево]]), although – because of the stress and the beginning of the word – [[Jelena Janković]] is "'''Ye'''lena Yankovich" ([[:bg:Йелена Янкович|Йелена Янкович]]).
==Relationship to Macedonian==
{{main|Macedonian language#Relationship to Bulgarian}}
{{Further|Political views on the Macedonian language}}
{{See also|Bulgarian nationalism|Macedonian nationalism|Pluricentric language|Accession of North Macedonia to the European Union}}
[[File:Bulgaro-macedonian-dialect-continuum.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Areas of [[Eastern South Slavic]] languages.]]
Until the period immediately following the [[Second World War]], all Bulgarian and the majority of foreign linguists referred to the [[South Slavic dialect continuum]] spanning the area of modern Bulgaria, [[North Macedonia]] and parts of [[Northern Greece]] as a group of Bulgarian dialects.<ref name=foreigners>Mazon, Andre. ''Contes Slaves de la Macédoine Sud-Occidentale: Etude linguistique; textes et traduction''; Notes de Folklore, Paris 1923, p. 4.</ref><ref>Селищев, Афанасий. Избранные труды, Москва 1968.</ref><ref>''Die Slaven in Griechenland'' von Max Vasmer. Verlag der Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1941. Kap. VI: Allgemeines und sprachliche Stellung der Slaven Griechenlands.</ref><ref>K. Sandfeld, ''Balkanfilologien'' (København, 1926, MCMXXVI).</ref><ref>[[Konstantin Josef Jireček]], ''Die Balkanvölker und ihre kulturellen und politischen Bestrebungen'', Urania, II, Jg. 13, 27. März 1909, p. 195.</ref><ref>Stefan Verković, Описание быта македонских болгар; Топографическо-этнографический очерк Македонии (Петербург, 1889).</ref> In contrast, Serbian sources tended to label them "south Serbian" dialects.<ref>James Minahan. ''One Europe, Many Nations: A Historical Dictionary of European National Groups'', p.438 (Greenwood Press, 2000)</ref><ref>Bernard Comrie. ''The Slavonic Languages'', p.251 (Routledge, 1993).</ref> Some local naming conventions included ''bolgárski'', ''bugárski'' and so forth.<ref>[http://www.promacedonia.org/shklifovi/shklifovi_000_100.pdf Шклифов, Благой and Екатерина Шклифова, Български деалектни текстове от Егейска Македония, София 2003, с. 28–36] (Shklifov, Blagoy and Ekaterina Shklifova. Bulgarian dialect texts from Aegean Macedonia Sofia 2003, p. 28–33)</ref> The codifiers of the standard Bulgarian language, however, did not wish to make any allowances for a [[Pluricentric language|pluricentric]] "Bulgaro-Macedonian" compromise.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wawGFWNuHiwC&q=bulgaro+macedonian+language&pg=PA440|title=Pluricentric Languages: The Codification of Macedonian|first= Michael |last=Clyne|publisher= Walter de Gruyter|year=1992|isbn=978-3110128550| page= 440}}</ref> In 1870 [[Marin Drinov]], who played a decisive role in the standardization of the Bulgarian language, rejected the proposal of [[Parteniy Zografski]] and [[Kuzman Shapkarev]] for a mixed eastern and western Bulgarian/Macedonian foundation of the standard Bulgarian language, stating in his article in the newspaper ''[[Makedonia (Bulgarian newspaper)|Makedoniya]]'': "Such an artificial assembly of written language is something impossible, unattainable and never heard of."<ref>Makedoniya July 31st 1870</ref><ref>Tchavdar Marinov. In Defense of the Native Tongue: The Standardization of the Macedonian Language and the Bulgarian-Macedonian Linguistic Controversies. in Entangled Histories of the Balkans - Volume One. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004250765_010 p. 443</ref><ref>Благой Шклифов, За разширението на диалектната основа на българския книжовен език и неговото обновление. "Македонската" азбука и книжовна норма са нелегитимни, дружество "Огнище", София, 2003 г. [http://www.promacedonia.org/statii/shklifov_2003.htm . стр. 7-10.]</ref>
After 1944 the [[People's Republic of Bulgaria]] and the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] began a policy of making Macedonia into the connecting link for the establishment of a new [[Balkan Federative Republic]] and stimulating here a development of distinct [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]] consciousness.<ref>{{cite book|title=Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Volume 2 |first1=Bernard Anthony |last1=Cook |isbn=978-0-8153-4058-4 |page=808 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hafLHZgZtt4C&pg=PA808|year=2001 |publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref> With the proclamation of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia as part of the Yugoslav federation, the new authorities also started measures that would overcome the pro-Bulgarian feeling among parts of its population and in 1945 a separate [[Macedonian language]] was codified.<ref name="Djokic">{{cite book
|last =Djokić
|first =Dejan
|title =Yugoslavism: Histories of a Failed Idea, 1918–1992
|publisher =C. Hurst & Co. Publishers
|year =2003
|pages =122
|isbn =978-1-85065-663-0}}</ref> After 1958, when the pressure from Moscow decreased, Sofia reverted to the view that the Macedonian language did not exist as a separate language. Nowadays, Bulgarian and Greek linguists, as well as some linguists from other countries, still consider the various Macedonian dialects as part of the broader Bulgarian pluricentric [[dialectal continuum]].<ref name="ucla">[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=42 Language profile Macedonian] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311172655/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=42&menu=004 |date=11 March 2009 }}, UCLA International Institute</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&pg=PA116 |title=Who are the Macedonians? |first=Hugh |last=Poulton |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85065-534-3 |page=116}}</ref> Outside Bulgaria and Greece, Macedonian is generally considered an [[autonomous language]] within the South Slavic dialect continuum.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Trudgill|first=Peter|year=1992|title=Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe|journal=International Journal of Applied Linguistics|volume=2|issue=2|pages=167–177|doi=10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x|quote=However, outside Greece, where the name of the language has been objected to (see Trudgill forthcoming), and Bulgaria, Macedonian's status as a language is generally accepted.}}</ref> Sociolinguists agree that the question whether Macedonian is a dialect of Bulgarian or a language is a political one and cannot be resolved on a purely linguistic basis, because dialect continua do not allow for either/or judgements.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chambers| first1=Jack |last2=Trudgill| first2=Peter| title=Dialectology|url=https://archive.org/details/dialectology00cham_601|url-access=limited| year=1998| publisher=Cambridge University Press| edition=2nd| pages=[https://archive.org/details/dialectology00cham_601/page/n21 7]| quote =Similarly, Bulgarian politicians often argue that Macedonian is simply a dialect of Bulgarian – which is really a way of saying, of course, that they feel Macedonia ought to be part of Bulgaria. From a purely linguistic point of view, however, such arguments are not resolvable, since dialect continua admit of more-or-less but not either-or judgements.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Macedonian conflict: ethnic nationalism in a transnational world|first=Loring M.|last=Danforth|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0691043562| pages=67|quote=Sociolinguists agree that in such situations the decision as to whether a particular variety of speech constitutes a language or a dialect is always based on political, rather than linguistic criteria (Trudgill 1974:15). A language, in other words, can be defined "as a dialect with an army and a navy" (Nash 1989:6).}}</ref>
==
{{Main|Bulgarian phonology}}
Bulgarian possesses a phonology similar to that of the rest of the South Slavic languages, notably lacking Serbo-Croatian's phonemic vowel length and tones and alveolo-palatal affricates. There is a general dichotomy between Eastern and Western dialects, with Eastern ones featuring consonant palatalization before front vowels ({{IPAslink|ɛ}} and {{IPAslink|i}}) and substantial vowel reduction of the low vowels {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, {{IPAslink|ɔ}} and {{IPAslink|a}} in unstressed position, sometimes leading to [[neutralization (linguistics)|neutralisation]] between {{IPAslink|ɛ}} and {{IPAslink|i}}, {{IPAslink|ɔ}} and {{IPAslink|u}}, and {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|ɤ}}. Both patterns have partial parallels in Russian, leading to partially similar sounds. In turn, the Western dialects generally do not have any allophonic palatalization and exhibit minor, if any, vowel reduction.
Standard Bulgarian keeps a middle ground between the macrodialects. It allows palatalizaton only before central and back vowels and only partial reduction of {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}}. Reduction of {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, consonant palatalisation before front vowels and depalatalization of palatalized consonants before central and back vowels is strongly discouraged and labelled as provincial.
Bulgarian has six vowel phonemes, but at least eight distinct phones can be distinguished when reduced allophones are taken into consideration. There is currently no consensus on the number of Bulgarian consonants, with one school of thought advocating for the existence of only 22 consonant phonemes and another one claiming that there are not fewer than 39 consonant phonemes. The main bone of contention is how to treat [[palatalized consonants]]: as separate phonemes or as allophones of their respective plain counterparts.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=van Campen|first1=Joseph|last2=Ornstein|first2=Jacob|journal=Language|volume=35|number=2, Part I|publisher=Linguistic Society of America|year=1959|title=Alternative Analyses of the Bulgarian Nonsyllabic Phonemes|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/410535|pages=266–270|jstor=410535 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ignatova-Tzoneva|first=Dimitrina|journal= Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference on Truths and Lies About Facts, News and Events|volume=1|year=2018|title=За ревизия на становището за състава на българската фонемна система|trans-title=On a Revision of the Stance on the Make-Up of Bulgarian Phonemic Inventory|language=bg|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346627275|isbn=978-619-7404-03-6|pages=7–12}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Sabev|first=Mitko|year=2013|title=The Sound System of Standard Bulgarian|url=http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~llsroach/phon2/b_phon/b_phon.htm|language=en|quote=In other accounts of the Bulgarian sound system a set of the so-called "soft" (i.e. palatal or palatalised) consonants is also included: /pʲ/, /bʲ/, /tʲ/, /dʲ/, /c/ (=kʲ ), /ɟ/ (=gʲ ), /ʦʲ/, /ʣʲ/, /mʲ/, /ɲ/ (=nʲ ), /rʲ/, /fʲ/, /vʲ/, /sʲ/, /zʲ/, /ç/ (=xʲ ), /ʎ/ (=lʲ )]. [ʣʲ] and [ç] do not occur in native words, though they do in foreign names: Дзян [ʣʲan] 'Jian', Хюс/Хюз [çus] 'Hughes'. However, the phonemic status of the "soft" consonants is questionable. Before front vowels they should be regarded as allophones of the corresponding "hard" (i.e. non-palatal or non-palatalised) consonant phonemes, since the palatalisation here is occurs naturally, to facilitate articulation. Before non-front vowels these can be interpreted as combinations of C + /j/.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Choi|first1=Kwon-Jin|journal=Съпоставително езикознание/Contrastive Linguistics|year=1994|volume=19|issue=2|publisher=Sofia University|___location=Sofia|title=Глайдовата система на българския и корейския език|trans-title=The Glide System in Bulgarian and Korean|pages=10–14}}</ref>
The 22-consonant model is based on a general consensus reached by all major Bulgarian linguists in the 1930s and 1940s.<ref>{{citation|last=Kalkandzhiev|first=Petar|title=Българска граматика|trans-title=Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hristo G. Danov|place=Plovdiv|year=1936|page=31|quote=''Меки съгласки са – ж, ш, й, ч, дж; твърди – всички останали; тази делитба обаче в днешния български език е излишна, защото всяка съгласка може да бъде повече или по-малко смекчена, ако се следва от някоя мека самогласка''|trans-quote=Our palatal consonants are ⟨ж⟩ (/ʒ/), ⟨ш⟩ (/ʃ/), ⟨й⟩ (/j/), ⟨ч⟩ (/t͡ʃ/) & ⟨дж⟩ (/d͡ʒ/), while the rest of consonants are hard. Nevertheless, such a division in Contemporary Bulgarian is unnecessary, since every consonant may be palatalised to a greater or smaller extent, if followed by a soft vowel}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Andreychin|first=Lyubomir |title=Основна българска граматика|trans-title=Basic Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hemus|place=Sofia|year=1942|pages=26, 33|quote=Когато мястото на образуване на една съгласна се премести или разшири малко към средата на небцето и на езика (при запазване на другите учленителни особености), нейният изговор получава особен оттенък, който наричаме мек: л – л<sup>ь</sup>, н – н<sup>ь</sup>, т – т<sup>ь</sup>, к – к<sup>ь</sup> и пр.|trans-quote=When a consonant's place of articulation moves or somewhat widens towards the middle of the palate and tongue (while all other articulation characteristics remain unchanged, this articulation is given a particular nuance that we refer to as 'soft': l – l<sup>j</sup>, n – n<sup>j</sup>, t – t<sup>j</sup>, k – k<sup>j</sup> and so on }}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Popov|first=Dimitar|title=Българска граматика|trans-title=Bulgarian Grammar|publisher=Hristo G. Danov|place=Plovdiv|year=1942|page=33}}</ref> In turn, the 39-consonant model was launched in the beginning of the 1950s under the influence of the ideas of Russian linguist [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Trubetzkoy|first=Nikolai|title=Principles of Phonology|___location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|publisher=University of California Press|year=1971|isbn=0-520-01535-5|pages=239–240}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal=Език и литература|year=1950|volume=4|last=Andreychin|first=Lyubomir|title=За меките съгласни в българския език|trans-title=On Bulgarian Palatal Consonants|language=bg|pages=492}}</ref>
Despite frequent objections, the support of the [[Bulgarian Academy of Sciences]] has ensured Trubetzkoy's model virtual monopoly in state-issued phonologies and grammars since the 1960s.<ref>{{Citation|last=Tilkov|first=Dimitar|year=1982|title=Граматика на съвременния български книжовен език|trans-title=Grammar of Contemporary Standard Bulgarian|volume=I Phonetics|publisher=Bulgarian Academy of Sciences|___location=Sofia|language=Bulgarian|pages=126}}</ref> However, its reception abroad has been lukewarm, with a number of authors either calling the model into question or outright rejecting it.<ref>{{citation|last=Mangold|first=Max|title=Увод в езикознанието с оглед и на българския език|trans-title=Introduction into Linguistics Also Taking Account of Bulgarian|publisher=Sofia University|place=Sofia|year=1988|pages=102|quote=According to our inventory, the Bulgarian language has 6 vowels and 22 semivowels, for a total of 28 phonemes}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Townsend|first1=Charles E.|last2=Janda|first2=Laura A.|year=1996|title=COMMON and COMPARATIVE SLAVIC: Phonology and Inflection, with special attention to Russian, Polish, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Bulgarian|publisher=Slavica Publishers, Inc.|___location=Columbus, Ohio|language=English|isbn=0-89357-264-0|pages=286–287|quote=Palatalization is marked by following vowels as in R[ussian]. Extent of distinctive palatalisation is debated; most agree on n/n', l/l', k/k', g/g'. Our inventory lists B[ulgarian] as having some 37 consonants, but this is an idealized number. The real number obviously depends on how many palatalized consonants one recognizes as independent morphophonemes. A great deal of controversy surrounds this question, though, in spite of the large number of phonetic contrasts, phonemic palatalization is more circumscribed than in R. For one thing, phonemic palatalization in B is clearly secondary; we recall that SSL [[South Slavic Languages]] in general suppressed the development of palatalization quite early, and not only in SC [Serbo-Croatian], but also Sln [Slovenian] and Mac [Macedonian] (close as the latter is to B) do not show any phonemic contrasts. For another thing, palatalization in B consonants is distinctive only before non-front vowels, and palatalized consonants never occur in final position or before other consonants.}}</ref> Thus, the Handbook of the [[International Phonetic Association]] only lists 22 consonants in Bulgarian's [[consonant inventory]].<ref>{{Citation|last1=Ternes|first1=Elmer|last2=Vladimirova-Buhtz|first2=Tatjana|year=1999|chapter=Bulgarian|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=33BSkFV_8PEC
|isbn=0-521-63751-1|pages=57|quote=The phonemic analysis underlying the present transcription does not assume the existence of palatalized consonants. An alternative postulates the following palatalized consonants /pʲ, bʲ, tʲ, dʲ, kʲ, gʲ, ʦʲ, ʣʲ, mʲ, nʲ, rʲ, fʲ, vʲ, sʲ, zʲ, xʲ, lʲ/. The nature of palatalization in Bulgarian is different from that in Russian. Its occurrence is very restricted. Before front vowels and [j], palatalization does not go beyond the degree that is conditioned by the inevitable play of coarticulation. Before back vowels, palatalization may unambiguously be interpreted as C plus [j]. In syllable and word final position, it does not occur.}}</ref>
==Alphabet==
<!-- This section is linked from [[Diacritic]] -->
{{Main|Bulgarian alphabet}}
[[File:Bulgarian cursive alphabet.png|upright=1.35|thumb|A modern form of the Bulgarian alphabet, derived from the cursive forms of the letters]]
In 886 AD, the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] introduced the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] which was devised by the [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] in the 850s. The Glagolitic alphabet was gradually superseded in later centuries by the [[Cyrillic script]], developed around the [[Preslav Literary School]], [[Bulgaria]] in the late 9th century.
Several Cyrillic alphabets with 28 to 44 letters were used in the beginning and the middle of the 19th century during the efforts on the codification of Modern Bulgarian until an alphabet with 32 letters, proposed by [[Marin Drinov]], gained prominence in the 1870s. The alphabet of Marin Drinov was used until the orthographic reform of 1945, when the letters [[yat]] (uppercase Ѣ, lowercase ѣ) and big [[yus]] (uppercase Ѫ, lowercase ѫ) were removed from its alphabet, reducing the number of letters to 30.
With the [[accession of Bulgaria to the European Union]] on 1 January 2007, Cyrillic became the third official script of the [[European Union]], following the [[Latin script|Latin]] and [[Greek script]]s.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Leonard Orban|title=Cyrillic, the third official alphabet of the EU, was created by a truly multilingual European|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-07-330_en.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-07-330_en.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=europe.eu|access-date=3 August 2014|date=24 May 2007}}</ref>
==
{{Main|Bulgarian grammar}}
The parts of speech in Bulgarian are divided in ten types, which are categorized in two broad classes: mutable and immutable. The difference is that mutable parts of speech vary grammatically, whereas the immutable ones do not change, regardless of their use. The five classes of mutables are: ''nouns'', ''adjectives'', ''numerals'', ''pronouns'' and ''verbs''. Syntactically, the first four of these form the group of the noun or the nominal group. The immutables are: ''adverbs'', ''prepositions'', ''conjunctions'', ''particles'' and ''interjections''. Verbs and adverbs form the group of the verb or the verbal group.
===
{{Main|Bulgarian nouns}}
Nouns and adjectives have the [[grammatical category|categories]] [[grammatical gender]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical case|case]] (only [[vocative case|vocative]]) and [[definite article|definiteness]] in Bulgarian. Adjectives and adjectival pronouns agree with nouns in number and gender. Pronouns have gender and number and retain (as in nearly all [[Indo-European languages]]) a more significant part of the case system.
===
=====Gender=====
There are three grammatical genders in Bulgarian: ''masculine'', ''feminine'' and ''neuter''. The gender of the noun can largely be inferred from its ending: nouns ending in a consonant ("zero ending") are generally masculine (for example, {{lang|bg|град}} {{IPA|/ɡrat/}} 'city', {{lang|bg|син}} {{IPA|/sin/}} 'son', {{lang|bg|мъж}} {{IPA|/mɤʃ/}} 'man'; those ending in –а/–я (-a/-ya) ({{lang|bg|жена}} {{IPA|/ʒɛˈna/}} 'woman', {{lang|bg|дъщеря}} {{IPA|/dɐʃtɛrˈja/}} 'daughter', {{lang|bg|улица}} {{IPA|/ˈulitsɐ/}} 'street') are normally feminine; and nouns ending in –е, –о are almost always neuter ({{lang|bg|дете}} {{IPA|/dɛˈtɛ/}} 'child', {{lang|bg|езеро}} {{IPA|/ˈɛzɛro/}} 'lake'), as are those rare words (usually loanwords) that end in –и, –у, and –ю ({{lang|bg|цунами}} {{IPA|/tsuˈnami/}} '[[tsunami]]', {{lang|bg|табу}} {{IPA|/tɐˈbu/}} 'taboo', {{lang|bg|меню}} {{IPA|/mɛˈnju/}} 'menu'). Perhaps the most significant exception from the above are the relatively numerous nouns that end in a consonant and yet are feminine: these comprise, firstly, a large group of nouns with zero ending expressing quality, degree or an abstraction, including all nouns ending in –ост/–ест -<nowiki/>{ost/est} ({{lang|bg|мъдрост}} {{IPA|/ˈmɤdrost/}} 'wisdom', {{lang|bg|низост}} {{IPA|/ˈnizost/}} 'vileness', {{lang|bg|прелест}} {{IPA|/ˈprɛlɛst/}} 'loveliness', {{lang|bg|болест}} {{IPA|/ˈbɔlɛst/}} 'sickness', {{lang|bg|любов}} {{IPA|/ljuˈbɔf/}} 'love'), and secondly, a much smaller group of irregular nouns with zero ending which define tangible objects or concepts ({{lang|bg|кръв}} {{IPA|/krɤf/}} 'blood', {{lang|bg|кост}} {{IPA|/kɔst/}} 'bone', {{lang|bg|вечер}} {{IPA|/ˈvɛtʃɛr/}} 'evening', {{lang|bg|нощ}} {{IPA|/nɔʃt/}} 'night'). There are also some commonly used words that end in a vowel and yet are masculine: {{lang|bg|баща}} 'father', {{lang|bg|дядо}} 'grandfather', {{lang|bg|чичо}} / {{lang|bg|вуйчо}} 'uncle', and others.
The plural forms of the nouns do not express their gender as clearly as the singular ones, but may also provide some clues to it: the ending {{lang|bg|–и}} (-i) is more likely to be used with a masculine or feminine noun ({{lang|bg|факти}} {{IPA|/ˈfakti/}} 'facts', {{lang|bg|болести}} {{IPA|/ˈbɔlɛsti/}} 'sicknesses'), while one in {{lang|bg|–а/–я}} belongs more often to a neuter noun ({{lang|bg|езера}} {{IPA|/ɛzɛˈra/}} 'lakes'). Also, the plural ending {{lang|bg|–ове}} {{IPA|/ovɛ/}} occurs only in masculine nouns.
=====Number=====
Two numbers are distinguished in Bulgarian–[[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]. A variety of plural suffixes is used, and the choice between them is partly determined by their ending in singular and partly influenced by gender; in addition, irregular declension and alternative plural forms are common. Words ending in {{lang|bg|–а/–я}} (which are usually feminine) generally have the plural ending {{lang|bg|–и}}, upon dropping of the singular ending. Of nouns ending in a consonant, the feminine ones also use {{lang|bg|–и}}, whereas the masculine ones usually have {{lang|bg|–и}} for polysyllables and {{lang|bg|–ове}} for monosyllables (however, exceptions are especially common in this group). Nouns ending in {{lang|bg|–о/–е}} (most of which are neuter) mostly use the suffixes {{lang|bg|–а, –я}} (both of which require the dropping of the singular endings) and {{lang|bg|–та}}.
With [[cardinal number]]s and related words such as {{lang|bg|няколко}} ('several'), masculine nouns use a special count form in {{lang|bg|–а/–я}}, which stems from the Proto-Slavonic [[dual grammatical number|dual]]: {{lang|bg|два/три стола}} ('two/three chairs') versus {{lang|bg|тези столове}} ('these chairs'); cf. feminine {{lang|bg|две/три/тези книги}} ('two/three/these books') and neuter {{lang|bg|две/три/тези легла}} ('two/three/these beds'). However, a recently developed language norm requires that count forms should only be used with masculine nouns that do not denote persons. Thus, {{lang|bg|двама/трима ученици}} ('two/three students') is perceived as more correct than {{lang|bg|двама/трима ученика}}, while the distinction is retained in cases such as {{lang|bg|два/три молива}} ('two/three pencils') versus {{lang|bg|тези моливи}} ('these pencils').
=====Case=====
{{Main|Bulgarian grammar#Case system|l1=Case system of Bulgarian}}
Cases exist only in the [[personal pronoun|personal]] and some other [[pronoun]]s (as they do in many other modern [[Indo-European languages]]), with [[nominative case|nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[dative case|dative]] and [[vocative case|vocative]] forms. Vestiges are present in a number of phraseological units and sayings. The major exception are [[vocative case|vocative]] forms, which are still in use for masculine (with the endings -е, -о and -ю) and feminine nouns (-[ь/й]о and -е) in the singular.
=====Definiteness (article)=====
In modern Bulgarian, definiteness is expressed by a [[definite article]] which is postfixed to the noun, much like in the [[Scandinavian languages]] or [[Romanian language|Romanian]] (indefinite: {{lang|bg|човек}}, 'person'; definite: {{lang|bg|човек'''ът'''}}, "''the'' person") or to the first nominal constituent of definite noun phrases (indefinite: {{lang|bg|добър човек}}, 'a good person'; definite: {{lang|bg|добри'''ят''' човек}}, "''the'' good person"). There are four singular definite articles. Again, the choice between them is largely determined by the noun's ending in the singular.<ref>{{lang|bg|Пашов, Петър (1999) Българска граматика. Стр. 73–74.}}</ref> Nouns that end in a consonant and are masculine use –ът/–ят, when they are [[grammatical subject]]s, and –а/–я elsewhere. Nouns that end in a consonant and are feminine, as well as nouns that end in –а/–я (most of which are feminine, too) use –та. Nouns that end in –е/–о use –то.
The plural definite article is –те for all nouns except for those whose plural form ends in –а/–я; these get –та instead. When postfixed to adjectives the definite articles are –ят/–я for masculine gender (again, with the longer form being reserved for grammatical subjects), –та for feminine gender, –то for neuter gender, and –те for plural.
====Adjective and numeral inflection====
Both groups agree in gender and number with the noun they are appended to. They may also take the definite article as explained above.
====Pronouns====
{{Main|Bulgarian pronouns}}
Pronouns may vary in gender, number, and definiteness, and are the only parts of speech that have retained case inflections. Three cases are exhibited by some groups of pronouns – nominative, accusative and dative. The distinguishable types of pronouns include the following: personal, relative, reflexive, interrogative, negative, indefinite, summative and possessive.
===Verbal morphology and grammar===
{{Main|Bulgarian verbs}}
A Bulgarian verb has many distinct forms, as it varies in person, number, voice, aspect, mood, tense and in some cases gender.
====Finite verbal forms====
Finite verbal forms are ''simple'' or ''compound'' and agree with subjects in person (first, second and third) and number (singular, plural). In addition to that, past compound forms using participles vary in gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and voice (active and passive) as well as aspect (perfective/aorist and imperfective).
====Aspect====
Bulgarian verbs express [[
In Bulgarian, there is also [[grammatical aspect]]. Three grammatical aspects are distinguishable: neutral, perfect and pluperfect. The neutral aspect comprises the three simple tenses and the future tense. The pluperfect is manifest in tenses that use double or triple auxiliary "be" participles like the past pluperfect subjunctive. Perfect constructions use a single auxiliary "be".
====Mood====
====Tense====
There are three grammatically distinctive positions in time
In the
*''
*''Past imperfect'' is a simple verb form used to express an action which is contemporaneous or subordinate to other past actions; it is made up of an imperfective or a perfective verbal stem and the person/number ending ({{lang|bg|пристигах}} {{IPA|/priˈstiɡɐx/}}, {{lang|bg|пристигнех}} {{IPA|/priˈstiɡnɛx/}}, 'I was arriving');
*''Past aorist'' is a simple form used to express a temporarily independent, specific past action; it is made up of a perfective or an imperfective verbal stem and the person/number ending ({{lang|bg|пристигнах}}, {{IPA|/priˈstiɡnɐx/}}, 'I arrived', {{lang|bg|четох}}, {{IPA|/ˈtʃɛtox/}}, 'I read');
In the indicative there are also the following compound tenses:
*''Future tense'' is a compound form made of the particle {{lang|bg|ще}} {{IPA|/ʃtɛ/}} and present tense ({{lang|bg|ще уча}} {{IPA|/ʃtɛ ˈutʃɐ/}}, 'I will study'); negation is expressed by the construction {{lang|bg|няма да}} {{IPA|/ˈɲamɐ dɐ/}} and present tense ({{lang|bg|няма да уча}} {{IPA|/ˈɲamɐ dɐ ˈutʃɐ/}}, or the old-fashioned form {{lang|bg|не ще уча}}, {{IPA|/nɛ ʃtɛ ˈutʃɐ/}} 'I will not study');
*''Past future tense'' is a compound form used to express an action which was to be completed in the past but was future as regards another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect of the verb {{lang|bg|ща}} {{IPA|/ʃtɤ/}} ('will'), the particle {{lang|bg|да}} {{IPA|/dɐ/}} ('to') and the present tense of the verb (e.g. {{lang|bg|щях да уча}}, {{IPA|/ʃtʲax dɐ ˈutʃɐ/}}, 'I was going to study');
*''Present perfect'' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past but is relevant for or related to the present; it is made up of the present tense of the verb съм {{IPA|/sɤm/}} ('be') and the past participle (e.g. {{lang|bg|съм учил}} {{IPA|/sɤm ˈutʃiɫ/}}, 'I have studied');
*''Past perfect'' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past and is relative to another past action; it is made up of the past tense of the verb съм and the past participle (e.g. {{lang|bg|бях учил}} {{IPA|/bʲax ˈutʃiɫ/}}, 'I had studied');
*''Future perfect'' is a compound form used to express an action which is to take place in the future before another future action; it is made up of the future tense of the verb съм and the past participle (e.g. {{lang|bg|ще съм учил}} {{IPA|/ʃtɛ sɐm ˈutʃiɫ/}}, 'I will have studied');
*''Past future perfect'' is a compound form used to express a past action which is future with respect to a past action which itself is prior to another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect of {{lang|bg|ща}}, the particle {{lang|bg|да}} the present tense of the verb съм and the past participle of the verb (e.g. {{lang|bg|щях да съм учил}}, {{IPA|/ʃtʲax dɐ sɐm ˈutʃiɫ/}}, 'I would have studied').
The four perfect constructions above can vary in aspect depending on the aspect of the main-verb participle; they are in fact pairs of imperfective and perfective aspects. Verbs in forms using past participles also vary in voice and gender.
There is only one simple tense in the [[imperative mood]], the present, and there are simple forms only for the second-person singular, -и/-й (-i, -y/i), and plural, -ете/-йте (-ete, -yte), e.g. уча {{IPA|/ˈutʃɐ/}} ('to study'): {{lang|bg|уч'''и'''}} {{IPA|/oˈtʃi/}}, sg., {{lang|bg|уч'''ете'''}} {{IPA|/oˈtʃɛtɛ/}}, pl.; {{lang|bg|играя}} {{IPA|/ˈiɡrajɐ/}} 'to play': {{lang|bg|игра'''й'''}} {{IPA|/iɡˈraj/}}, {{lang|bg|игра'''йте'''}} {{IPA|/iɡˈrajtɛ/}}. There are compound imperative forms for all persons and numbers in the present compound imperative ({{lang|bg|да играе}}, {{IPA|da iɡˈrae/}}), the present perfect compound imperative ({{lang|bg|да е играл}}, {{IPA|/dɐ ɛ iɡˈraɫ/}}) and the rarely used present pluperfect compound imperative ({{lang|bg|да е бил играл}}, {{IPA|/dɐ ɛ bil iɡˈraɫ/}}).
The [[conditional mood]] consists of five compound tenses, most of which are not grammatically distinguishable. The present, future and past conditional use a special past form of the stem би- (bi – "be") and the past participle ({{lang|bg|бих учил}}, {{IPA|/bix ˈutʃiɫ/}}, 'I would study'). The past future conditional and the past future perfect conditional coincide in form with the respective indicative tenses.
The [[subjunctive mood]] is rarely documented as a separate verb form in Bulgarian, (being, morphologically, a sub-instance of the quasi-[[infinitive]] construction with the particle да and a normal finite verb form), but nevertheless it is used regularly. The most common form, often mistaken for the present tense, is the present subjunctive ({{lang|bg|[по-добре] да отида}} {{IPA|(ˈpɔdobrɛ) dɐ oˈtidɐ/}}, 'I had better go'). The difference between the present indicative and the present subjunctive tense is that the subjunctive can be formed by ''both'' perfective and imperfective verbs. It has completely replaced the infinitive and the supine from complex expressions (see below). It is also employed to express opinion about ''possible'' future events. The past perfect subjunctive ({{lang|bg|[по добре] да бях отишъл}} {{IPA|(ˈpɔdobrɛ) dɐ bʲax oˈtiʃɐl/}}, 'I'd had better be gone') refers to ''possible'' events in the past, which ''did not'' take place, and the present pluperfect subjunctive ({{lang|bg|да съм бил отишъл}} {{IPA|/dɐ sɐm bil oˈtiʃɐl/}}), which may be used about both past and future events arousing feelings of incontinence,{{clarify|date=May 2019}}<!-- inability to control one's bodily functions?--> suspicion, etc.
The [[grammatical mood|inferential mood]] has five pure tenses. Two of them are simple – ''past aorist inferential'' and ''past imperfect inferential'' – and are formed by the past participles of perfective and imperfective verbs, respectively. There are also three compound tenses – ''past future inferential'', ''past future perfect inferential'' and ''past perfect inferential''. All these tenses' forms are gender-specific in the singular. There are also conditional and compound-imperative crossovers. The existence of inferential forms has been attributed to Turkic influences by most Bulgarian linguists.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bubenik|first=Vit|date=August 1995|title=Development of Aspect from Ancient Slavic to Bulgaro-Macedonian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DapxAAAAQBAJ|journal=Historical Linguistics 1995|volume=1|pages=29|isbn=9789027283986|via=Google Books}}</ref> Morphologically, they are derived from the [[#Tense|perfect]].
====Non-finite verbal forms====
Bulgarian has the following [[participle]]s:
*''Present active participle'' (сегашно деятелно причастие) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffixes –ащ/–ещ/–ящ (чет'''ящ''', 'reading') and is used only attributively;
*''Present passive participle'' (сегашно страдателно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffixes -им/аем/уем (чет'''им''', 'that can be read, readable');
*''Past active aorist participle'' (минало свършено деятелно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffix –л– to perfective stems (че'''л''', '[have] read');
*''Past active imperfect participle'' (минало несвършено деятелно причастие) is formed by the addition of the suffixes –ел/–ал/–ял to imperfective stems (чет'''ял''', '[have been] reading');
*''Past passive aorist participle''' (минало свършено страдателно причастие) is formed from aorist/perfective stems with the addition of the suffixes -н/–т (прочете'''н''', 'read'; уби'''т''', 'killed'); it is used predicatively and attributively;
*''Past passive imperfect participle''' (минало несвършено страдателно причастие) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffix –н (прочита'''н''', '[been] read'; убива'''н''', '[been] being killed'); it is used predicatively and attributively;
*''[[Adverbial participle]]'' (деепричастие) is usually formed from imperfective present stems with the suffix –(е)йки (чете'''йки''', 'while reading'), relates an action contemporaneous with and subordinate to the main verb and is originally a Western Bulgarian form.
The participles are inflected by gender, number, and definiteness, and are coordinated with the subject when forming compound tenses (see tenses above). When used in an attributive role, the inflection attributes are coordinated with the noun that is being attributed.
====Reflexive verbs====
Bulgarian uses [[reflexive verb]]al forms (i.e. actions which are performed by the [[Agent (grammar)|agent]] onto him- or herself) which behave in a similar way as they do in many other Indo-European languages, such as French and Spanish. The reflexive is expressed by the invariable particle '''''se''''',<ref group=note>Unlike in French and Spanish, where {{lang|fr|se}} is only used for the 3rd person, and other particles, such as {{lang|fr|me}} and {{lang|es|te}}, are used for the 1st and 2nd persons singular, e.g. {{lang|fr|je me lave}}/{{lang|es|me lavo}} – I wash myself.</ref> originally a [[clitic]] form of the accusative reflexive pronoun. Thus –
*''miya'' – I wash, ''miya se'' – I wash myself, ''miesh se'' – you wash yourself
*''pitam'' – I ask, ''pitam se'' – I ask myself, ''pitash se'' – you ask yourself
When the action is performed on others, other particles are used, just like in any normal verb, e.g. –
*''miya te'' – I wash you
*''pitash me'' – you ask me
Sometimes, the reflexive verb form has a similar but not necessarily identical meaning to the non-reflexive verb –
*''kazvam'' – I say, ''kazvam se'' – my name is ({{lit|I call myself}})
*''vizhdam'' – I see, ''vizhdame se'' – "we see ourselves" ''or'' "we meet each other"
In other cases, the reflexive verb has a completely different meaning from its non-reflexive counterpart –
*''karam'' – to drive, ''karam se'' – to have a row with someone
*''gotvya'' – to cook, ''gotvya se'' – to get ready
*''smeya'' – to dare, ''smeya se'' – to laugh
;Indirect actions
When the action is performed on an indirect object, the particles change to '''''si''''' and its derivatives –
*''kazvam si'' – I say to myself, ''kazvash si'' – you say to yourself, ''kazvam ti'' – I say to you
*''peya si'' – I am singing to myself, ''pee si'' – she is singing to herself, ''pee mu'' – she is singing to him
*''gotvya si'' – I cook for myself, ''gotvyat si'' – they cook for themselves, ''gotvya im'' – I cook for them
In some cases, the particle ''si'' is ambiguous between the indirect object and the possessive meaning –
*''miya si ratsete'' – I wash my hands, ''miya ti ratsete'' – I wash your hands
*''pitam si priyatelite'' – I ask my friends, ''pitam ti priyatelite'' – I ask your friends
*''iskam si topkata'' – I want my ball (back)
The difference between transitive and intransitive verbs can lead to significant differences in meaning with minimal change, e.g. –
*''haresvash me'' – you like me, ''haresvash mi'' – I like you (lit. you are pleasing to me)
*''otivam'' – I am going, ''otivam si'' – I am going home
The particle ''si'' is often used to indicate a more personal relationship to the action, e.g. –
*''haresvam go'' – I like him, ''haresvam si go'' – no precise translation, roughly translates as "he's really close to my heart"
*''stanahme priyateli'' – we became friends, ''stanahme si priyateli'' – same meaning, but sounds friendlier
*''mislya'' – I am thinking (usually about something serious), ''mislya si'' – same meaning, but usually about something personal and/or trivial
===Adverbs===
The most [[productivity (linguistics)|productive]] way to form adverbs is to derive them from the neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective—e.g. {{lang|bg|бързо}} (fast), {{lang|bg|силно}} (hard), {{lang|bg|странно}} (strange)—but adjectives ending in {{lang|bg|-ки}} use the masculine singular form (i.e. ending in {{lang|bg|-ки}}), instead—e.g. {{lang|bg|юнашки}} (heroically), {{lang|bg|мъжки}} (bravely, like a man), {{lang|bg|майсторски}} (skillfully). The same pattern is used to form adverbs from the (adjective-like) ordinal numerals, e.g. {{lang|bg|първо}} (firstly), {{lang|bg|второ}} (secondly), {{lang|bg|трето}} (thirdly), and in some cases from (adjective-like) cardinal numerals, e.g. {{lang|bg|двойно}} (twice as/double), {{lang|bg|тройно}} (three times as), {{lang|bg|петорно}} (five times as).
The remaining adverbs are formed in ways that are no longer productive in the language. A small number are original (not derived from other words), for example: {{lang|bg|тук}} (here), {{lang|bg|там}} (there), {{lang|bg|вътре}} (inside), {{lang|bg|вън}} (outside), {{lang|bg|много}} (very/much) etc. The rest are mostly fossilized case forms, such as:
*Archaic locative forms of some adjectives, e.g. {{lang|bg|добре}} (well), {{lang|bg|зле}} (badly), {{lang|bg|твърде}} (too, rather), and nouns {{lang|bg|горе}} (up), {{lang|bg|утре}} (tomorrow), {{lang|bg|лете}} (in the summer), {{lang|bg|зиме}} (in winter)
*Archaic instrumental forms of some adjectives, e.g. {{lang|bg|тихом}} (quietly), {{lang|bg|скришом}} (furtively), {{lang|bg|слепешком}} (blindly), and nouns, e.g. {{lang|bg|денем}} (during the day), {{lang|bg|нощем}} (during the night), {{lang|bg|редом}} (one next to the other), {{lang|bg|духом}} (spiritually), {{lang|bg|цифром}} (in figures), {{lang|bg|словом}} (with words); or verbs: {{lang|bg|тичешком}} (while running), {{lang|bg|лежешком}} (while lying), {{lang|bg|стоешком}} (while standing)
*Archaic accusative forms of some nouns: {{lang|bg|днес}} (today), {{lang|bg|нощес}} (tonight), {{lang|bg|сутрин}} (in the morning), {{lang|bg|зимъс}} (in winter)
*Archaic genitive forms of some nouns: {{lang|bg|довечера}} (tonight), {{lang|bg|снощи}} (last night), {{lang|bg|вчера}} (yesterday)
*Homonymous and etymologically identical to the feminine singular form of the corresponding adjective used with the definite article: {{lang|bg|здравата}} (hard), {{lang|bg|слепешката}} (gropingly); the same pattern has been applied to some verbs, e.g. {{lang|bg|тичешката}} (while running), {{lang|bg|лежешката}} (while lying), {{lang|bg|стоешката}} (while standing)
*Derived from cardinal numerals by means of a non-productive suffix: {{lang|bg|веднъж}} (once), {{lang|bg|дваж}} (twice), {{lang|bg|триж}} (thrice)
Adverbs can sometimes be reduplicated to emphasize the qualitative or quantitative properties of actions, moods or relations as performed by the subject of the sentence: "{{lang|bg|бавно-бавно}}" ("rather slowly"), "{{lang|bg|едва-едва}}" ("with great difficulty"), "{{lang|bg|съвсем-съвсем}}" ("quite", "thoroughly").
===
{{Original research|section|date=October 2015}}
====Questions====
Questions in Bulgarian which do not use a question word (such as who? what? etc.) are formed with the particle {{lang|bg|ли|italic=no}} after the verb; a subject is not necessary, as the verbal conjugation suggests who is performing the action:
*{{lang|bg|Идваш}} – 'you are coming'; {{lang|bg|Идваш ли?}} – 'are you coming?'
While the particle {{lang|bg|ли}} generally goes after the verb, it can go after a noun or adjective if a contrast is needed:
*{{lang|bg|Идваш ли с нас?}} – 'are you coming with us?';
*{{lang|bg|С нас ли идваш?}} – 'are you coming with ''us''<nowiki>'</nowiki>?
A verb is not always necessary, e.g. when presenting a choice:
*{{lang|bg|Той ли?}} – 'him?'; {{lang|bg|Жълтият ли?}} – 'the yellow one?'<ref group=note>The word {{Wikt-lang|bg|или}} ('either') has a similar etymological root: {{lang|bg|и|italic=no}} + {{lang|bg|ли|italic=no}} ('and') – e.g. ({{lang|bg|или) {{lang|bg|Жълтият или червеният|italic=no}}}} – '(either) the yellow one or the red one.'</ref>
Rhetorical questions can be formed by adding {{lang|bg|ли}} to a question word, thus forming a "double interrogative" –
*{{lang|bg|Кой?}} – 'Who?'; {{lang|bg|Кой ли?!}} – 'I wonder who(?)'
The same construction {{lang|bg|+не|italic=no}} ('no') is an emphasized positive –
*{{lang|bg|Кой беше там?}} – 'Who was there?' – {{lang|bg|Кой ли не!}} – 'Nearly everyone!' (lit. 'I wonder who ''wasn't'' there')
====Significant verbs====
=====Be (''Съм'')=====
The verb {{lang|bg|съм}} {{IPA|/sɤm/}}<ref group=note>{{lang|bg|съм|italic=no}} is pronounced similar to English ''"sum"''.</ref> – 'to be' is also used as an [[auxiliary verb|auxiliary]] for forming the [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]], the [[grammatical voice|passive]] and the [[conditional mood|conditional]]:
*past tense – {{IPA|/oˈdariɫ sɐm/}} – 'I have hit'
*passive – {{IPA|/oˈdarɛn sɐm/}} – 'I am hit'
*past passive – {{IPA|/bʲax oˈdarɛn/}} – 'I was hit'
*conditional – {{IPA|/bix oˈdaril/}} – 'I would hit'
Two alternate forms of {{lang|bg|съм}} exist:
*{{lang|bg|бъда}} {{IPA|/ˈbɤdɐ/}} – interchangeable with съм in most tenses and moods, but never in the [[present indicative]] – e.g. {{IPA|/ˈiskɐm dɐ ˈbɤdɐ/}} ('I want to be'), {{IPA|/ʃtɛ ˈbɤdɐ tuk/}} ('I will be here'); in the imperative, only бъда is used – {{IPA|/bɤˈdi tuk/}} ('be here');
*{{lang|bg|бивам}} {{IPA|/ˈbivɐm/}} – slightly archaic, imperfective form of бъда – e.g. {{IPA|/ˈbivɐʃɛ zaˈplaʃɛn/}} ('he used to get threats'); in contemporary usage, it is mostly used in the negative to mean "ought not", e.g. {{IPA|/nɛ ˈbivɐ dɐ ˈpuʃiʃ/}} ('you shouldn't smoke').<ref group=note>It is a common reply to the question {{lang|bg-latn|Kak e?}} {{IPA|/ˈkak ɛ/}} 'How are things?' ({{lit|how is it?}}) – {{IPA|/ˈbivɐ/}} 'alright' (lit. 'it [repetitively] is') or {{IPA|/ˈkak si/}} 'How are you?' -<nowiki/>{{IPA|/ˈbivɐm/}} 'I'm OK'.</ref>
=====Will (''Ще'')=====
The impersonal verb {{lang|bg|ще}} ({{lit|it wants}})<ref group=note>{{lang|bg|ще|italic=no}} – from the verb {{lang|bg|ща|italic=no}} – 'to want.' The present tense of this verb in the sense of 'to want' is archaic and only used colloquially. Instead, {{lang|bg|искам|italic=no}} {{IPA|/ˈiskɐm/}} is used.</ref> is used to for forming the (positive) future tense:
*{{IPA|/oˈtivɐm/}} – 'I am going'
*{{IPA|/ʃtɛ oˈtivɐm/}} – 'I will be going'
The negative future is formed with the invariable construction {{lang|bg|няма да}} {{IPA|/ˈɲamɐ dɐ/}} (see {{lang|bg|няма}} below):<ref group=note>Formed from the impersonal verb {{lang|bg|няма}} ({{lit|it does not have}}) and the subjunctive particle {{lang|bg|да}} {{IPA|/dɐ/}} ('that')</ref>
*{{IPA|/ˈɲamɐ dɐ oˈtivɐm/}} – 'I will not be going'
The past tense of this verb – щях {{IPA|/ʃtʲax/}} is conjugated to form the past conditional ('would have' – again, with да, since it is ''[[irrealis]]''):
*{{IPA|/ʃtʲax dɐ oˈtidɐ/}} – 'I would have gone;' {{IPA|/ʃtɛʃɛ da otidɛʃ/}} 'you would have gone'
=====Have/Don't have (''Имам and нямам'')=====
The verbs {{lang|bg|имам}} {{IPA|/ˈimɐm/}} ('to have') and {{lang|bg|нямам}} {{IPA|/ˈɲamɐm/}} ('to not have'):
*the third person singular of these two can be used impersonally to mean 'there is/there are' or 'there isn't/aren't any,'<ref group=note>They can also be used on their own as a reply, with no object following: {{lang|bg|има}} – 'there are some'; {{IPA|/ˈɲamɐ/}} – 'there aren't any' – compare German {{lang|de|keine}}.</ref> e.g.
**{{IPA|/imɐ ˈvrɛmɛ/}} ('there is still time' – compare Spanish ''hay'');
**{{IPA|/ˈɲamɐ ˈnikoɡo/}} ('there is no one there').
*The impersonal form няма is used in the negative future – (see ще above).
**{{lang|bg|няма}} used on its own can mean simply 'I won't' – a simple refusal to a suggestion or instruction.
====Conjunctions and particles====
=====But=====
In Bulgarian, there are several conjunctions all translating into English as "but", which are all used in distinct situations. They are {{lang|bg|но}} ({{Transliteration|bg|no}}), {{lang|bg|ама}} ({{Transliteration|bg|amà}}), {{lang|bg|а}} ({{Transliteration|bg|a}}), {{lang|bg|ами}} ({{Transliteration|bg|amì}}), and {{lang|bg|ала}} ({{Transliteration|bg|alà}}) (and {{lang|bg|обаче}} ({{Transliteration|bg|obache}}) – "however", identical in use to {{lang|bg|но}}).
While there is some overlapping between their uses, in many cases they are specific. For example, {{Transliteration|bg|ami}} is used for a choice – {{Transliteration|bg|ne tova, ami onova}} – "not this one, but that one" (compare Spanish {{lang|es|sino}}), while {{Transliteration|bg|ama}} is often used to provide extra information or an opinion – {{Transliteration|bg|kazah go, ama sgreshih}} – "I said it, but I was wrong". Meanwhile, {{Transliteration|bg|a}} provides contrast between two situations, and in some sentences can even be translated as "although", "while" or even "and" – {{Transliteration|bg|az rabotya, a toy blee}} – "I'm working, and he's daydreaming".
Very often, different words can be used to alter the emphasis of a sentence – e.g. while {{Transliteration|bg|pusha, no ne tryabva}} and {{Transliteration|bg|pusha, a ne tryabva}} both mean "I smoke, but I shouldn't", the first sounds more like a statement of fact ("...but I mustn't"), while the second feels more like a ''judgement'' ("...but I oughtn't"). Similarly, {{Transliteration|bg|az ne iskam, ama toy iska}} and {{Transliteration|bg|az ne iskam, a toy iska}} both mean "I don't want to, but he does", however the first emphasizes the fact that ''he'' wants to, while the second emphasizes the ''wanting'' rather than the person.
{{Transliteration|bg|Ala}} is interesting in that, while it feels archaic, it is often used in poetry and frequently in children's stories, since it has quite a moral/ominous feel to it.
Some common expressions use these words, and some can be used alone as interjections:
*{{Transliteration|bg|da, ama ne}} ({{lit|yes, but no}}) – means "you're wrong to think so".
*{{Transliteration|bg|ama}} can be tagged onto a sentence to express surprise: {{Transliteration|bg|ama toy spi!}} – "he's sleeping!"
*{{lang|bg|ами!}} – "you don't say!", "really!"
=====Vocative particles=====
Bulgarian has several abstract particles which are used to strengthen a statement. These have no precise translation in English.<ref group=note>Perhaps most similar in use is the tag "man", but the Bulgarian particles are more abstract still.</ref> The particles are strictly informal and can even be considered rude by some people and in some situations. They are mostly used at the end of questions or instructions.
*{{lang|bg|бе}} ({{Transliteration|bg|be}}) – the most common particle. It can be used to strengthen a statement or, sometimes, to indicate derision of an opinion, aided by the tone of voice. (Originally purely masculine, it can now be used towards both men and women.)
**{{Transliteration|bg|kazhi mi, be}} – tell me (insistence); {{Transliteration|bg|taka li, be?}} – is that so? (derisive); {{Transliteration|bg|vyarno li, be?}} – you don't say!.
*{{lang|bg|де}} ({{Transliteration|bg|de)}} – expresses urgency, sometimes pleading.
**{{Transliteration|bg|stavay, de!}} – come on, get up!
*{{lang|bg|ма}} ({{Transliteration|bg|ma}}) (feminine only) – originally simply the feminine counterpart of {{Transliteration|bg|be}}, but today perceived as rude and derisive (compare the similar evolution of the vocative forms of feminine names).
*{{lang|bg|бре}} ({{Transliteration|bg|bre}}, masculine), {{lang|bg|мари}} ({{Transliteration|bg|mari}}, feminine) – similar to {{Transliteration|bg|be}} and {{Transliteration|bg|ma}}, but archaic. Although informal, can sometimes be heard being used by older people.
=====Modal particles=====
These are "tagged" on to the beginning or end of a sentence to express the mood of the speaker in relation to the situation. They are mostly [[interrogative]] or slightly [[imperative mood|imperative]] in nature. There is no change in the grammatical mood when these are used (although they may be expressed through different grammatical moods in other languages).
*{{lang|bg|нали}} ({{Transliteration|bg|nalì}}) – is a universal affirmative tag, like "isn't it"/"won't you", etc. (it is invariable, like the French {{lang|fr|n'est-ce pas}}). It can be placed almost anywhere in the sentence, and does not always require a verb:
**{{Transliteration|bg|shte doydesh, nali?}} – you are coming, aren't you?; {{Transliteration|bg|nali iskaha?}} – didn't they want to?; {{Transliteration|bg|nali onzi?}} – that one, right?;
**it can express quite complex thoughts through simple constructions – {{Transliteration|bg|nali nyamashe?}} – "I thought you weren't going to!" or "I thought there weren't any!" (depending on context – the verb {{Transliteration|bg|nyama}} presents general negation/lacking, see "nyama", above).
*{{lang|bg|дали}} ({{Transliteration|bg|dalì}}) – expresses uncertainty (if in the middle of a clause, can be translated as "whether") – e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|dali shte doyde?}} – "do you think he will come?"
*{{lang|bg|нима}} ({{Transliteration|bg|nimà}}) – presents disbelief ~"don't tell me that{{nbsp}}..." – e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|nima iskash?!}} – "don't tell me you want to!". It can be used on its own as an [[interjection]] – {{Transliteration|bg|nima!}}
*{{lang|bg|дано}} ({{Transliteration|bg|danò}}) – expresses wish – {{Transliteration|bg|shte doyde}} – "he will come"; {{Transliteration|bg|dano doyde}} – "may he come". Grammatically, {{Transliteration|bg|dano}} is entirely separate from the verb {{lang|bg|желая}} ({{Transliteration|bg|zhelàya}}) – "to wish".
*{{lang|bg|нека}} ({{Transliteration|bg|nèka}}) – means "let('s)" – e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|neka doyde}} – "let him come"; when used in the first person, it expresses extreme politeness: {{Transliteration|bg|neka da otidem...}} – "let us go" (in colloquial situations, {{Transliteration|bg|hayde}}, below, is used instead).
**{{lang|bg|neka}}, as an interjection, can also be used to express judgement or even [[schadenfreude]] – {{Transliteration|bg|neka mu!}} – "he deserves it!".
=====Intentional particles=====
These express intent or desire, perhaps even pleading. They can be seen as a sort of [[cohortative mood|cohortative]] side to the language. (Since they can be used by themselves, they could even be considered as verbs in their own right.) They are also highly informal.
*{{lang|bg|хайде}} ({{Transliteration|bg|hàide}}) – "come on", "let's"
**e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|hayde, po-barzo}} – "faster!"
*{{lang|bg|я}} ({{Transliteration|bg|ya}}) – "let me" – exclusively when asking someone else for something. It can even be used on its own as a request or instruction (depending on the tone used), indicating that the speaker wants to partake in or try whatever the listener is doing.
**{{Transliteration|bg|ya da vidya}} – let me see; {{Transliteration|bg|ya?}} or {{Transliteration|bg|ya!}} – "let me.../give me..."
*{{lang|bg|недей}} ({{Transliteration|bg|nedèi}}) (plural {{Transliteration|bg|nedèyte}}) – can be used to issue a negative instruction – e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|nedey da idvash}} – "don't come" ({{Transliteration|bg|nedey}} + subjunctive). In some dialects, the construction {{Transliteration|bg|nedey idva}} ({{Transliteration|bg|nedey}} + [[preterite]]) is used instead. As an interjection – {{Transliteration|bg|nedei!}} – "don't!" (See section on [[Bulgarian grammar#Mood|imperative mood]]).
These particles can be combined with the vocative particles for greater effect, e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|ya da vidya, be}} (let me see), or even exclusively in combinations with them, with no other elements, e.g. {{Transliteration|bg|hayde, de!}} (come on!); {{Transliteration|bg|nedey, de!}} (I told you not to!).
====Pronouns of quality====
Bulgarian has several pronouns of quality which have no direct parallels in English – {{lang|bg-latn|kakav}} (what sort of); {{lang|bg-latn|takuv}} (this sort of); {{lang|bg-latn|onakuv}} (that sort of – colloq.); {{lang|bg-latn|nyakakav}} (some sort of); {{lang|bg-latn|nikakav}} (no sort of); {{lang|bg-latn|vsyakakav}} (every sort of); and the relative pronoun {{lang|bg-latn|kakavto}} (the sort of ... that ... ). The adjective {{lang|bg-latn|ednakuv}} ("the same") derives from the same radical.<ref group=note>Like the [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstratives]], these take the same form as pronouns as they do as adjectives – ie. {{lang|bg-latn|takuv}} means both "this kind of{{nbsp}}..." (adj.) and ''this kind of person/thing'' (pron., depending on the context).</ref>
Example phrases include:
*{{lang|bg-latn|kakav chovek?!}} – "what person?!"; {{lang|bg-latn|kakav chovek e toy?}} – what sort of person is he?
*{{lang|bg-latn|ne poznavam takuv}} – "I don't know any (people like that)" (lit. "I don't know this sort of (person)")
*{{lang|bg-latn|nyakakvi hora}} – lit. "some type of people", but the understood meaning is "a bunch of people I don't know"
*{{lang|bg-latn|vsyakakvi hora}} – "all sorts of people"
*{{lang|bg-latn|kakav iskash?}} – "which type do you want?"; {{lang|bg-latn|nikakav!}} – "I don't want any!"/"none!"
An interesting phenomenon is that these can be strung along one after another in quite long constructions, e.g.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!word
!literal meaning
!sentence
!meaning of sentence as a whole
|-
|–
|–
|{{lang|bg-latn|edna kola}}
|a car
|-
|{{lang|bg-latn|takava}}
|this sort of
|{{lang|bg-latn|edna '''takava''' kola ... }}
|this car '''(that I'm trying to describe)'''
|-
|{{lang|bg-latn|nikakva}}
|no sort of
|{{lang|bg-latn|edna takava '''nikakva''' kola}}
|this '''worthless''' car (that I'm trying to describe)
|-
|{{lang|bg-latn|nyakakva}}
|some sort of
|{{lang|bg-latn|edna takava '''nyakakva''' nikakva kola}}
|this '''sort of''' worthless car (that I'm trying to describe)
|}
An extreme, albeit colloquial, example with almost no intrinsic lexical meaning – yet which is meaningful to the Bulgarian ear – would be :
*"{{lang|bg-latn|kakva e taya takava edna nyakakva nikakva?!}}"
*inferred translation – "what kind of no-good person is she?"
*literal translation: "what kind of – is – this one here (she) – this sort of – one – some sort of – no sort of"
The subject of the sentence is simply the pronoun "{{lang|bg-latn|taya}}" (lit. "this one here"; colloq. "she").
Another interesting phenomenon that is observed in colloquial speech is the use of {{lang|bg-latn|takova}} (neuter of {{lang|bg-latn|takyv}}) not only as a substitute for an adjective, but also as a substitute for a verb. In that case the base form {{lang|bg-latn|takova}} is used as the third person singular in the present indicative and all other forms are formed by analogy to other verbs in the language. Sometimes the "verb" may even acquire a derivational prefix that changes its meaning. Examples:
* {{lang|bg-latn|takovah ti shapkata}} – I did something to your hat (perhaps: I took your hat)
* {{lang|bg-latn|takovah si ochilata}} – I did something to my glasses (perhaps: I lost my glasses)
* {{lang|bg-latn|takovah se}} – I did something to myself (perhaps: I hurt myself)
Another use of {{lang|bg-latn|takova}} in colloquial speech is the word {{lang|bg-latn|takovata}}, which can be used as a substitution for a noun, but also, if the speaker does not remember or is not sure how to say something, they might say {{lang|bg-latn|takovata}} and then pause to think about it:
* {{lang|bg-latn|i posle toy takovata...}} – and then he [no translation] ...
* {{lang|bg-latn|izyadoh ti takovata}} – I ate something of yours (perhaps: I ate your dessert). Here the word {{lang|bg-latn|takovata}} is used as a substitution for a noun.
As a result of this versatility, the word {{lang|bg-latn|takova}} can readily be used as a euphemism for taboo subjects. It is commonly used to substitute, for example, words relating to reproductive organs or sexual acts:
* {{lang|bg-latn|toy si takova takovata v takovata i}} - he [verb] his [noun] in her [noun]
Similar "meaningless" expressions are extremely common in spoken Bulgarian, especially when the speaker is finding it difficult to describe or express something.
====Miscellaneous====
*The commonly cited phenomenon of Bulgarian people shaking their head for "yes" and nodding for "no" is true, but the shaking and nodding are ''not'' identical to the Western gestures. The "nod" for ''no'' is actually an ''upward'' movement of the head rather than a downward one, while the shaking of the head for ''yes'' is not completely horizontal, but also has a slight "wavy" aspect to it. This makes the Bulgarian gestures for yes and no compatible with the Western ones, and allows one to use either system unambiguously.
**A [[dental click]] {{IPA|[ǀ]}} (similar to the English "tsk") also means "no" (informal), as does ''ъ-ъ'' {{IPA|[ʔəʔə]}} (the only occurrence in Bulgarian of the [[glottal stop]]). The two are often said with the upward 'nod'.
**The head-shaking gesture used to signify "no" in Western Europe may also be used interrogatively, with the meaning of "what is it?" or "what's wrong?".
*Bulgarian has an extensive vocabulary covering [[Kinship terminology|family relationships]]. The biggest range of words is for uncles and aunts, e.g. ''chicho'' (your father's brother), ''vuicho'' (your mother's brother), svako (your aunt's husband); an even larger number of synonyms for these three exists in the various dialects of Bulgarian, including ''kaleko, lelincho, tetin'', etc. The words do not only refer to the closest members of the family (such as ''brat'' – brother, but ''batko''/''bate'' – older brother, ''sestra'' – sister, but ''kaka'' – older sister), but extend to its furthest reaches, e.g. ''badzhanak'' from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''bacanak'' (the relationship of the husbands of two sisters to each other) and ''etarva'' (the relationships of two brothers' wives to each other). For all in-laws, there are specific names, e.g. a woman's husband's brother is her ''dever'' and her husband's sister is her ''zalva''. In the traditional rural extended family before 1900, there existed separate subcategories for different brothers-in-law/sisters-in-law of a woman with regard to their age relative to hers, e.g. instead of simply a ''dever'' there could be a ''braino'' (older), a ''draginko'' (younger), or an ''ubavenkyo'' (who is still a child).
*As with many Slavic languages, the [[double negative]] in Bulgarian is grammatically correct, while some forms of it, when used instead of a single negative form, are grammatically incorrect. The following are literal translations of grammatically correct Bulgarian sentences that utilize a double or multiple negation: "Никой никъде никога нищо не е направил." (multiple negation without the use of a compound double negative form, i.e. using a listing of several successive single negation words) – "Nobody never nowhere nothing did not do." (translated as "nobody has ever done anything, anywhere"); "Никога не съм бил там." (double negation without the use of a compound double negative form, i.e. using a listing of several successive single negation words) – I never did not go there ("[I] have never been there"); Никога никакви чувства не съм имал! – I never no feelings had not have! (I have never had any feelings!). The same applies for Macedonian.
==Syntax==
{{main|Bulgarian grammar}}
Bulgarian employs [[clitic doubling]], mostly for emphatic purposes. For example, the following constructions are common in colloquial Bulgarian:
:{{lang|bg|Аз (го) дадох подаръка на Мария.}}
:(lit. "I gave ''it'' the present to Maria.")
:{{lang|bg|Аз (ѝ го) дадох подаръка на Мария.}}
:(lit. "I gave ''her it'' the present to Maria.")
The phenomenon is practically obligatory in the spoken language in the case of inversion signalling information structure (in writing, clitic doubling may be skipped in such instances, with a somewhat bookish effect):
:{{lang|bg|Подаръка (ѝ) го дадох на Мария.}}
:(lit. "The present [''to her''] ''it'' I-gave to Maria.")
:{{lang|bg|На Мария ѝ (го) дадох подаръка.}}
:(lit. "To Maria ''to her'' [''it''] I-gave the present.")
Sometimes, the doubling signals syntactic relations, thus:
:{{lang|bg|Петър и Иван ги изядоха вълците.}}
:(lit. "Petar and Ivan ''them'' ate the wolves.")
:Transl.: "Petar and Ivan were eaten by the wolves".
This is contrasted with:
:{{lang|bg|Петър и Иван изядоха вълците.}}
:({{lit|Petar and Ivan ate the wolves}})
:Transl.: "Petar and Ivan ate the wolves".
In this case, clitic doubling can be a colloquial alternative of the more formal or bookish passive voice, which would be constructed as follows:
:{{lang|bg|Петър и Иван бяха изядени от вълците.}}
:({{lit|Petar and Ivan were eaten by the wolves.}})
Clitic doubling is also fully obligatory, both in the spoken and in the written norm, in clauses including several special expressions that use the short accusative and dative pronouns such as "{{lang|bg|играе ми се}}" (I feel like playing), студено ми е (I am cold), and боли ме ръката (my arm hurts):
:{{lang|bg|На мен ми се спи, а на Иван му се играе.}}
:(lit. "To me ''to me'' it-feels-like-sleeping, and to Ivan ''to him'' it-feels-like-playing")
:Transl.: "I feel like sleeping, and Ivan feels like playing."
:{{lang|bg|На нас ни е студено, а на вас ви е топло.}}
:(lit. "To us ''to us'' it-is cold, and to you-plur. ''to you-plur.'' it-is warm")
:Transl.: "We are cold, and you are warm."
:{{lang|bg|Иван го боли гърлото, а мене ме боли главата.}}
:(lit. Ivan ''him'' aches the throat, and me ''me'' aches the head)
:Transl.: Ivan has sore throat, and I have a headache.
Except the above examples, clitic doubling is considered inappropriate in a formal context.
==Vocabulary==
{{Main|Bulgarian vocabulary}}
Most of the vocabulary of modern Bulgarian consists of terms inherited from Proto-Slavic and local Bulgarian innovations and formations of those through the mediation of [[Old Bulgarian|Old]] and [[Middle Bulgarian]]. The native terms in Bulgarian account for 70% to 80% of the lexicon.
The remaining 20% to 30% are loanwords from a number of languages, as well as derivations of such words. Bulgarian adopted also a few words of [[Thracian language|Thracian]] and [[Bulgar language|Bulgar]] origin. The languages which have contributed most to Bulgarian as a way of foreign vocabulary borrowings are:
*[[Latin language|Latin]] 26%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
*[[Greek language|Greek]] 23%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
*[[French language|French]] 15%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
*[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] (including [[Arabic language|Arabic]] via Ottoman Turkish) 14%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
*[[Russian language|Russian]] 10%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages">{{cite book|last1=Corbett|first1=Professor Greville|last2=Comrie|first2=Professor Bernard|title=The Slavonic Languages|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136861444|pages=240}}</ref>
*[[Italian language|Italian]] 4%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
*[[German language|German]] 4%,<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
*[[English language|English]] 4%.<ref name="The Slavonic Languages"/>
The classical languages [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] are the source of many words, used mostly in international terminology. Many Latin terms entered Bulgarian during the time when present-day Bulgaria was part of the Roman Empire and also in the later centuries through Romanian, Aromanian, and Megleno-Romanian during Bulgarian Empires. The loanwords of Greek origin in Bulgarian are a product of the influence of the liturgical language of the Orthodox Church. Many of the numerous loanwords from another Turkic language, [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and, via Ottoman Turkish, from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] were adopted into Bulgarian during the long period of [[Ottoman Bulgaria|Ottoman]] rule, but have been replaced with native Bulgarian terms. Furthermore, after the independence of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, Bulgarian intellectuals imported many [[French language]] vocabulary. In addition, both specialized (usually coming from the field of [[science]]) and commonplace [[English language|English]] words (notably abstract, commodity/service-related or technical terms) have also penetrated Bulgarian since the second half of the 20th century, especially since 1989. A noteworthy portion of this English-derived terminology has attained some unique features in the process of its introduction to native speakers, and this has resulted in peculiar derivations that set the newly formed loanwords apart from the original words (mainly in pronunciation), although many loanwords are completely identical to the source words. A growing number of international neologisms are also being widely adopted, causing controversy between younger generations who, in general, are raised in the era of digital [[globalization]], and the older, more conservative educated [[Linguistic purism|purists]].
{{bar box
| width =
| title = Bulgarian lexis according to word origin<ref>{{cite book|last1=Corbett|first1=Professor Greville|last2=Comrie|first2=Professor Bernard|title=The Slavonic Languages|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136861444|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=euI4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA239|page=239|quote=The relative weight of inherited Proto-Slavonic material can be estimated from Nikolova (1987) – a study of a 100,000-word corpus of conversational Bulgarian. Of the 806 items occurring there more than ten times, approximately 50 per cent may be direct reflexes of Proto Slavonic forms, nearly 30 per cent are later Bulgarian formations and 17 per cent are foreign borrowings}}</ref>
| titlebar = #ddd
| bars =
{{bar percent|Directly inherited from [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]]|red|50}}
{{bar percent|Later formations|lightgreen|30}}
{{bar percent|Foreign borrowings|gold|17}}
}}
{{bar box
| width =
| title = Foreign borrowings in Bulgarian (1955–59)<ref name="The Slavonic Languages">{{cite book|last1=Corbett|first1=Professor Greville|last2=Comrie|first2=Professor Bernard|title=The Slavonic Languages|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136861444|pages=240}}</ref>
| titlebar = #ddd
| bars =
{{bar percent|Latin|gold|26}}
{{bar percent|Greek|gold|23}}
{{bar percent|French|gold|15}}
{{bar percent|Ottoman Turkish, Arabic|gold|14}}
{{bar percent|Russian|gold|10}}
{{bar percent|Italian|gold|4}}
{{bar percent|German|gold|4}}
{{bar percent|English|gold|4}}
{{bar percent|Other|gold|2}}
}}
== Sample text ==
[[File:Universal Declaration of Human Rights - bul - eu - Art1.ogg|thumb|Bulgarian pronunciation]]
Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Bulgarian:
:{{lang|bg|Всички хора се раждат свободни и равни по достойнство и права. Те са надарени с разум и съвест и следва да се отнасят помежду си в дух на братство.}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=ohchr.org|url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/udhr/pages/Language.aspx?LangID=blg}}</ref>
The [[Romanization of Bulgarian|romanization]] of the text into [[Latin alphabet]]:
:{{Transliteration|bg|Vsichki hora se razhdat svobodni i ravni po dostoynstvo i prava. Te sa nadareni s razum i sŭvest i sledva da se otnasyat pomezhdu si v duh na bratstvo.}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Държавен вестник |url=https://dv.parliament.bg/DVWeb/showMaterialDV.jsp?idMat=16943 |access-date=2023-04-27 |website=dv.parliament.bg}}</ref>
Bulgarian pronunciation transliterated in broad [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:
:['fsit͡ʃki 'xɔrɐ sɛ 'raʒdɐt svo'bɔdni i 'ravni po dos'tɔjnstvo i prɐ'va. 'tɛ sɐ nɐdɐ'rɛni s 'razom i 'sɤvɛst i 'slɛdvɐ dɐ sɛ ot'nasjɐt pomɛʒ'du si v 'dux nɐ 'bratstvo.]
Article 1 of the ''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'' in English:
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights|website=un.org}}</ref>
==See also==
{{South Slavic languages sidebar}}
*[[Abstand and ausbau languages]]
*[[Balkan sprachbund]]
*[[Banat Bulgarian language]]
*[[Bulgarian name]]
*[[Macedonian language]]
*[[Slavic language (Greece)]]
*[[Swadesh list of Slavic languages]]
*[[Torlakian dialect]]
*[[The BABEL Speech Corpus]]
== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note|30em}}
== Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |first=Vittore |last=Pisani |title=Old Bulgarian Language |___location=Sofia |publisher=Bukvitza |year=2012 |isbn=978-9549285864 |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/107841186/Vittore-Pisani-mater-Europa11111 |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305185131/https://www.scribd.com/doc/107841186/Vittore-Pisani-mater-Europa11111 |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last1=Comrie |first1=Bernard |last2=Corbett |first2=Greville G. |year=1993 |title=The Slavonic Languages |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-04755-5}}
*{{citation
|last=Klagstad Jr.
|first=Harold L.
|year=1958
|pages=42–54
|title=The Phonemic System of Colloquial Standard Bulgarian
|publisher=American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages
}}
*{{citation
|last1=Ternes
|first1=Elmer
|last2=Vladimirova-Buhtz
|first2=Tatjana
|year=1999
|chapter=Bulgarian
|pages=55–57
|title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-63751-0
}}
*Бояджиев и др. (1998) ''Граматика на съвременния български книжовен език. Том 1. Фонетика''
*Жобов, Владимир (2004) ''Звуковете в българския език''
*Кръстев, Боримир (1992) ''Граматика за всички''
*Пашов, Петър (1999) ''Българска граматика''
*{{citation |trans-title=[[Bulgarian etymological dictionary]] |title=Български етимологичен речник |year=1971–2011 |editor=[[Vladimir I. Georgiev]] |volume=I-VII |publisher=Българска академия на науките|display-editors=etal}}
* [[s:Notes on the Grammar of the Bulgarian language|Notes on the Grammar of the Bulgarian language]] – 1844 – Smyrna (now [[İzmir]]) – [[Elias Riggs]]
==External links==
{{Sister project links |auto=1|wikt=Bulgarian |commons=Category:Bulgarian language |b=Bulgarian |display=Bulgarian language|voy=Bulgarian phrasebook|iw=bg}}
'''Linguistic reports'''
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/bulgarian.htm Bulgarian at Omniglot]
*[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Bulgarian_Swadesh_list Bulgarian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh list appendix])
*[http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/bulg1262 Information about the linguistic classification of the Bulgarian language (from Glottolog)]
*[http://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_bul The linguistic features of the Bulgarian language (from WALS, The World Atlas of Language Structures Online)]
*[http://phoible.org/languages/bul Information about the Bulgarian language] from the [[PHOIBLE]] project.
*[https://www.unicode.org/cldr/charts/25/summary/bg.html Locale Data Summary for the Bulgarian language] from [[Unicode]]'s [[CLDR]]
*{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/journal-of-turkish-linguistics-full-vol|title=Iranic-Turkish-Bulgarian language Contact from a contact-semantic point of view|work=Corinna Leschber, Institute for Linguistic and Cross-Cultural Studies}}
'''Dictionaries'''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130707060850/http://www.bulgariandictionary.com/index.php?lang=EN&main=0 Eurodict — multilingual Bulgarian dictionaries]
*[http://rechnik.info Rechnik.info — online dictionary of the Bulgarian language]
*[http://rechnik.chitanka.info Rechko — online dictionary of the Bulgarian language]
*[http://sa.dir.bg/ Bulgarian–English–Bulgarian Online dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607031848/http://sa.dir.bg/ |date=7 June 2013 }} from [http://sa.dir.bg/sa.htm SA Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515093145/http://sa.dir.bg/sa.htm |date=15 May 2013 }}
*[http://1nk.us/dict/index.html?word=dictionary Online Dual English–Bulgarian dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081229230949/http://1nk.us/dict/index.html?word=dictionary |date=29 December 2008 }}
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?l=Bulgarian Bulgarian bilingual dictionaries]
*[http://www.newobjects.com/dict.asp English, Bulgarian bidirectional dictionary]
'''Courses'''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190114153310/https://unilang.org/course.php?res=60 Bulgarian for Beginners], UniLang
{{Bulgarian language|state=expanded}}
{{Bulgarian dialects|state=expanded}}
{{Languages of Bulgaria}}
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{{Bulgaria topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Bulgarian language| ]]
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[[Category:Languages of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
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