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{{short description|Organic matter, mostly derived from animal feces, which can be used as fertilizer}}
{{About|organic material used as soil fertilizer|animal dung used for other purposes|feces}}
{{Distinguish|Compost}}
{{Redirect|Animal waste|other types of animal waste|metabolic waste}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Animal manure is often a mixture of animal [[feces]] and bedding straw, as in this example from a [[stable]].]]
'''Manure''' is [[organic matter]] that is used as [[organic fertilizer]] in [[agriculture]]. Most manure consists of animal [[feces]]; other sources include [[compost]] and [[green manure]]. Manures contribute to the [[soil fertility|fertility of soil]] by adding organic matter and [[nutrients]], such as [[nitrogen]], that are utilised by [[bacteria]], [[fungus|fungi]], and other organisms in the [[soil]]. Higher organisms then feed on the fungi and bacteria in a chain of life that comprises the [[soil food web]].
==Types==
[[File:Skatole structure.svg|right|thumb|[[Skatole]] is the source of the foul smelling odor of manure.]]
There are in the 21st century three main classes of manures used in [[soil management]]:
===Animal manure===
[[File:Manure pools in Haikou 01.jpg|thumb|[[Concrete]] reservoirs, one new, and one containing cow manure mixed with water. This is common in rural [[Hainan]] Province, [[China]].]]
Most animal manure consists of [[feces]]. Common forms of animal manure include farmyard manure (or farm slurry ([[liquid manure]]).<ref>{{Ullmann|doi=10.1002/14356007.n10_n01|title=Fertilizers, 2. Types|year=2009|last1=Dittmar|first1=Heinrich|last2=Drach|first2=Manfred|last3=Vosskamp|first3=Ralf|last4=Trenkel|first4=Martin E.|last5=Gutser|first5=Reinhold|last6=Steffens|first6=Günter|isbn=978-3527306732}}
</ref> Farmyard manure also contains plant material (often straw), which has been used as bedding for animals and has absorbed the feces and [[urine]]. Agricultural manure in liquid form, known as [[slurry]], is produced by more intensive livestock rearing systems where concrete or slats are used instead of straw bedding. Manure from different animals has different qualities and requires different application rates when used as fertilizer. For example [[horse]]s, [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, [[sheep]], [[chicken]]s, [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]s, [[rabbit]]s, and [[guano]] from [[seabird]]s and [[bat]]s all have different properties.<ref>{{cite web |title=Manure |publisher=[[h2g2]] |date=July 15, 2010 |url=https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A2339624 |access-date=23 July 2017}}</ref> For instance, sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both. Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds, so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, because horses do not digest seeds as cattle do. Cattle manure is a good source of nitrogen as well as organic carbon.<ref name="Bernal">{{cite journal |last1=Bernal |first1=M.P. |last2=Alburquerque |first2=J.A. |last3=Moral |first3=R. |title=Composting of animal manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment. A review |journal=Bioresource Technology |date=November 2009 |volume=100 |issue=22 |pages=5444–5453 |bibcode=2009BiTec.100.5444B |pmid=19119002 |doi=10.1016/j.biortech.2008.11.027}}</ref> Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties.<ref name="Bernal"/><ref name="Lustosa">{{cite journal |last1=Lustosa Filha |first1=Jose |last2=Penido |first2=Evanise |last3=Castro |first3=Patricia |last4=Silva |first4=Carlos |last5=Melo |first5=Leonidas |title=Co-pyrolysis of poultry litter and phosphate and magnesium generates alternative slow-release fertilizer suitable for tropical soils |journal=ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering |date=September 4, 2017 |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=9043–9052 |doi=10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b01935}}</ref>
Animal manures may be adulterated or contaminated with other animal products, such as [[wool]] ([[shoddy]] and other [[hair]]), [[feather]]s, [[blood]], and [[bone]]. Livestock feed can be mixed with the manure due to spillage. For example, chickens are often fed [[meat and bone meal]], an animal product, which can end up becoming mixed with chicken litter.
===Compost===
{{Main|Compost}}
[[File:NRCSAR02028 - Arkansas (239)(NRCS Photo Gallery).jpg|thumb|Compost containing turkey manure and wood chips from bedding material is dried and then applied to pastures for fertilizer.]]
[[Compost]] is the decomposed remnants of organic materials. It is usually of plant origin, but often includes some animal dung or bedding.
===Green manure===
[[Green manure]]s are crops grown for the express purpose of [[plow]]ing them in, thus increasing fertility through the incorporation of nutrients and organic matter into the soil. [[Legume|Leguminous plants]] such as clover are often used for this, as they [[nitrogen fixing|fix nitrogen]] using ''[[Rhizobia]]'' bacteria in specialized [[root nodule|nodes in the root structure]].
Other types of plant matter used as manure include the contents of the [[rumen]]s of slaughtered [[ruminant]]s, [[spent grain]] (left over from [[brewing]] [[beer]]) and [[seaweed]].
==Uses==
{{cleanup section|reason=Focuses on the classical definition of animal manure. Reasonable as the use of other, expanded-definition "manures" is quite trivial, but the resultant lopsided structure may warrant a restructuring of the article. Or we can just hollow this out and merge to [[Feces#Uses of animal feces]].|date=March 2022}}
=== Animal manure ===
[[File:Misthaufen16.JPG|thumb|upright|Pile of animal manure on a wall]]
Animal manure, such as [[chicken manure]] and [[cow dung]], has been used for centuries as a fertilizer for [[farming]]. It can improve the soil structure (aggregation) so that the soil holds more nutrients and water, and therefore becomes more fertile. Animal manure also encourages soil microbial activity which promotes the soil's trace mineral supply, improving plant nutrition. It also contains some nitrogen and other nutrients that assist the growth of plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Suvendu |last2=Jeong |first2=Seung Tak |last3=Das |first3=Subhasis |last4=Kim |first4=Pil Joo |title=Composted Cattle Manure Increases Microbial Activity and Soil Fertility More Than Composted Swine Manure in a Submerged Rice Paddy |date=2017 |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=8 |pages=1702 |issn=1664-302X |pmid=28928727 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2017.01702 |doi-access=free |pmc=5591829}}</ref>
Odor is an obvious and major issue with animal manure. Components in swine manure include low molecular weight carboxylic acids, [[acetic acid|acetic]], [[propionic acid|propionic]], [[butyric acid|butyric]], and [[valeric acid]]s. Other components include [[skatole]] and [[trimethyl amine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ni |first1=Ji-Qin |last2=Robarge |first2=Wayne P. |last3=Xiao |first3=Changhe |last4=Heber |first4=Albert J. |year=2012 |title=Volatile organic compounds at swine facilities: A critical review |journal=Chemosphere |volume=89 |issue=7 |pages=769–788 |bibcode=2012Chmsp..89..769N |pmid=22682363 |doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.04.061}}</ref>
Animal manures with a particularly [[unpleasant odor]] (such as slurries from [[intensive farming|intensive pig farming]]) are usually knifed (injected) directly into the soil to reduce release of the odor. Manure from pigs and cattle is usually spread on fields using a [[manure spreader]]. Due to the relatively lower level of proteins in vegetable matter, [[herbivore]] manure has a milder smell than the dung of [[carnivore]]s or [[omnivore]]s. However, herbivore slurry that has undergone anaerobic [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] may develop more unpleasant odors, and this can be a problem in some agricultural regions. Poultry droppings are harmful to plants when fresh, but after a period of [[compost]]ing are valuable fertilizers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Manure Composting for Livestock & Poultry Production |journal=MontGuide |author1=Thomas Bass |author2=Julia Dafoe |author3=Joel Schumacher |volume=MT201206AG Reviewed 4/17 |url=http://store.msuextension.org/publications/AgandNaturalResources/MT201206AG.pdf}}</ref>
Manure is also commercially composted and bagged and sold as a soil amendment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wortman |first1=Sam E. |last2=Holmes |first2=Ashley A. |last3=Miernicki |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Knoche |first4=Kaelyn |last5=Pittelkow |first5=Cameron M. |title=First-Season Crop Yield Response to Organic Soil Amendments: A Meta-Analysis |date=2017-07-08 |journal=Agronomy Journal |language=en |volume=109 |issue=4 |issn=0002-1962 |page=1210 |bibcode=2017AgrJ..109.1210W |doi=10.2134/agronj2016.10.0627 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Using Manure in the Home Garden |url=https://wimastergardener.org/article/using-manure-in-the-home-garden/ |access-date=2019-07-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026051128/https://wimastergardener.org/article/using-manure-in-the-home-garden/ |archive-date=2020-10-26}}</ref>
In 2018, Austrian scientists offered a method of [[paper]] production from [[elephant]] and cow manure.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Elephant and cow manure for making paper sustainably |date=March 21, 2018 |publisher=[[Science Daily]] |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180321090944.htm |access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref>
[[Dry dung fuel|Dry animal dung]] is used as a fuel in many countries around the world.
====Issues====
[[File:ASC Leiden - W.E.A. van Beek Collection - Dogon agriculture 05 - The women of a neighborhood ward with manure on their way to the field of one of them, Tireli, Mali 1990.jpg|thumb|The women of a neighborhood ward with manure on their way to the field of one of them, Tireli, Mali 1990]]
Any quantity of animal manure may be a source of [[pathogen]]s or food spoilage organisms which may be carried by [[fly|flies]], [[rodent]]s, or a range of other vector organisms and cause disease or put food safety at risk.
In intensive agricultural land use, animal manure is often not used as targeted as mineral fertilizers, and thus, the nitrogen utilization efficiency is poor. Animal manure can become a problem in terms of excessive use in areas of intensive agriculture with high numbers of livestock and too little available farmland.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}
Manure can emit the [[greenhouse gas emissions|greenhouse gas]] [[nitrous oxide]], contributing to [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Managing manure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions |language=en |website=agric.wa.gov.au |url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/managing-manure-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions |access-date=2022-04-15 |archive-date=2023-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230615211705/https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/climate-change/managing-manure-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=====Livestock antibiotics=====
In 2007, a [[University of Minnesota]] study<ref name=UMinn>{{cite web |author=Staff |title=Livestock Antibiotics Can End Up in Human Foods |publisher=ENS Newswire |date=2007-07-12 |url=http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2007/2007-07-12-01.asp |access-date=2012-11-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070916092217/http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/jul2007/2007-07-12-01.asp |archive-date=2007-09-16}}</ref><ref name="dolliver-2007">{{cite journal |last1=Dolliver |first1=Holly |last2=Kumar |first2=Kuldip |last3=Gupta |first3=Satish |title=Sulfamethazine Uptake by Plants from Manure-Amended Soil |journal=Journal of Environmental Quality |date=July 2007 |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=1224–1230 |bibcode=2007JEnvQ..36.1224D |pmid=17596632 |doi=10.2134/jeq2006.0266}}</ref> indicated that foods such as corn, lettuce, and potatoes have been found to accumulate [[antibacterial|antibiotics]] from soils spread with animal manure that [[environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant|contains these drugs]].
[[Organic food]]s may be much more or much less likely to contain antibiotics, depending on their sources and treatment of manure. For instance, by [[Soil Association]] Standard 4.7.38, most organic [[agronomy|arable farmers]] either have their own supply of manure (which would, therefore, not normally contain drug residues) or else rely on green manure crops for the extra fertility (if any nonorganic manure is used by organic farmers, then it usually has to be rotted or composted to degrade any [[environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant|residues of drugs]] and eliminate any pathogenic bacteria—Standard 4.7.38, Soil Association organic farming standards). On the other hand, as found in the University of Minnesota study, the non-usage of artificial fertilizers, and resulting exclusive use of manure as fertilizer, by organic farmers can result in significantly greater accumulations of antibiotics in organic foods.<ref name=UMinn/>
==See also==
{{Div col}}
* [[Album graecum]]
* [[Anaerobic digestion]]
* [[Barn cleaner]]
* [[Biosolids]]
* [[Chicken manure]]
* [[Coprophilous fungus]]
* [[Cow dung]]
* [[Dry dung fuel]]
* [[Earthen manure storage]]
* [[Liquid manure]]
* [[Manure spreader]]
* [[Reuse of human excreta]]
{{Div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Manure}}
* [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13765-013-3184-8 Application and environmental risks of livestock manure]
* [http://manureexpo.org North American Manure Expo]
* [https://www.manuremanagement.cornell.edu/ Cornell Manure Program]
* [https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo38641 County-Level Estimates of Nitrogen and Phosphorus from Animal Manure for the Conterminous United States, 2002] [[United States Geological Survey]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150906145821/http://wqic.nal.usda.gov/agricultural-environmental-management/manure-management Manure Management, Water Quality Information Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101227124550/http://www.extension.org/animal+manure+management Livestock and Poultry Environmental Learning Center], an [http://www.extension.org eXtension] community of practice about animal manure management
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100403100643/http://www.extension.org/pages/Antibiotics_and_Hormones_in_Animal_Manure_Webcast Antibiotics and Hormones in Animal Manure (Webcast)]: A two part webcast series about the science available on potential risks and best management practices related to antibiotics and hormones from animal manure
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Manure| ]]
[[Category:Feces]]
[[Category:Organic fertilizers]]
[[Category:Soil improvers]]
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