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{{Tassobox
|nome=Giraffa
|
|nome=Sciacallo dorato <ref name=msw3>{{MSW3|id=14000704}}</ref>
|statocons=LC
|statocons_versione= iucn3.1
|statocons_ref=<ref name="iucn"IUCN>{{IUCN|summ=37449194|autore=Sillero-ZubiriHoffmann, CM. & HoffmannMallon, MD. (Canid Red List Authority) 20082010}}</ref>
|immagine=[[ImmagineFile:GoldenGiraffe jackalMikumi smallNational Park.jpg|230px]]
|didascalia=
|didascalia=<small>Uno sciacallo del Serengeti (''C. a. bea''),<br/>[[Ngorongoro#Il cratere|Cratere di Ngorongoro]], [[Tanzania]]</small>
|dominio=[[Eukaryota]]
<!-- CLASSIFICAZIONE: -->
|dominio=
|regno=[[Animalia]]
|sottoregno=
|superdivisione=
|divisione=
|sottodivisione=
|superphylum=
|phylum=[[Chordata]]
Riga 17 ⟶ 18:
|microphylum=
|nanophylum=
<!-- PER TUTTI: -->
|superclasse=
|classe=[[Mammalia]]
Riga 23:
|infraclasse=
|superordine=
|ordine=[[CarnivoraArtiodactyla]]
|sottordine=
|infraordine=
|superfamiglia=
|famiglia=[[CanidaeGiraffidae]]
|sottofamiglia=
|tribù=
|sottotribù=
|genere='''[[Canis]]Giraffa'''
|genereautore=<small>[[Mathurin-Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], [[1762]]</small>
|genereautore=
|sottogenere=
|specie='''CG. aureuscamelopardalis'''
|sottospecie=
|biautore=([[Carl von Linné|Linnaeus]]
<!-- NOMENCLATURA BINOMIALE: -->
|binome=Giraffa camelopardalis
|biautore=([[Linnaeus]]
|binome=Canis aureus
|bidata=[[1758]])
<!-- NOMENCLATURA TRINOMIALE: -->
|triautore=
|trinome=
|tridata=
<!-- ALTRO: -->
|sinonimi?=
|sinonimi=
|nomicomuni=
|suddivisione=[[Areale]]
|suddivisione_testo=[[File:Giraffa camelopardalis distribution.svg|230px]]
}}
 
La '''giraffa''' ('''''Giraffa camelopardalis''''' {{zoo|[[Carl von Linné|Linnaeus]]|1758}}) è un [[mammifero]] [[Artiodactyla|artiodattilo]] [[africa]]no; è il più alto animale terrestre vivente, nonché il [[ruminante]] di maggiori dimensioni. Il suo [[Nomenclatura binomiale|nome scientifico]] si riferisce al suo aspetto simile a un [[Camelus|cammello]] e alle macchie colorate che ne ornano il manto. È facilmente riconoscibile per il collo e le zampe estremamente lunghi, per i suoi [[ossiconi]] simili a corna e la caratteristica colorazione. Misura 5-6 m di altezza, mentre il peso varia dai circa 1600 kg per i maschi ai circa 830 kg per le femmine. Appartiene alla [[Famiglia (tassonomia)|famiglia]] dei [[Giraffidae|Giraffidi]], così come il suo unico parente attuale, l'[[Okapia johnstoni|okapi]]. Se ne riconoscono nove sottospecie, che differiscono tra loro per la colorazione del mantello.
Lo '''sciacallo dorato''' ('''''Canis aureus''''' <span style="font-variant: small-caps">[[Linnaeus]], [[1758]]</span>) è un [[Canidae|Canide]] di medie dimensioni diffuso in Africa settentrionale e nord-orientale, Europa sud-orientale e centrale (fino ad Austria e Ungheria) <ref name="lapini2">[http://www.canids.org/papers/canis%20aureus%2012_lapini%20et%20al%202009.pdf Lapini L., Molinari P., Dorigo L., Are G. & Beraldo P., 2009. Reproduction of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 1835) in Julian Pre-Alps, with new data on its range-expansion in the High-Adriatic Hinterland (Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae). Boll. Mus. Civ. St. nat. Venezia, 60 (2009): 169-186.]</ref>, Asia Minore, Medio Oriente e Asia sud-orientale. Viene classificato dalla [[IUCN]] tra le [[Lista rossa IUCN#Categorie|specie a rischio minimo]], dato che ha un vastissimo areale dove trova cibo e ripari in abbondanza<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D.|year=2008|id=3744|title=Canis aureus|downloaded=22 March 2009}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern</ref> È una specie molto adattabile, essendo in grado di consumare quasi ogni fonte di cibo disponibile e di vivere in ambienti diversi, comprese le savane africane <ref name="kingdon"/> , le montagne del Caucaso <ref name="soviet"/> e le foreste dell'India <ref name="canid"/> . È il più grande tra tutti gli [[Sciacallo|sciacalli]] ed è l'unica specie che, con 13 sottospecie riconosciute, non vive esclusivamente in Africa <ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Wozencraft | pages = 574 | id=14000704}}</ref> . Sebbene venga spesso raggruppato con gli altri sciacalli (lo [[sciacallo dalla gualdrappa]] e lo [[sciacallo striato]]), le ricerche genetiche indicano che sia molto più imparentato con il [[lupo grigio]] e il [[coyote]] <ref name=genome>Lindblad-Toh ''et al.'' 2005. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7069/pdf/nature04338.pdf Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog.] Nature '''438''': 803-819.</ref> . Oltre alle somiglianze genetiche, anche la forma del cranio è molto più simile a quella delle ultime due specie che a quella degli altri sciacalli <ref name="GJ" /> . Lo sciacallo dorato è entrato a far parte del folclore e della mitologia dei popoli con cui è entrato in stretto contatto: nel folclore indiano è rappresentato come un imbroglione, mentre nella religione dell'[[Antico Egitto]] giocava un ruolo importantissimo sotto le sembianze di [[Anubi]], il dio dell'imbalsamazione. Ritenuto in passato l'antenato di alcune razze domestiche <ref name="lorenz"/> , lo sciacallo dorato può incrociarsi con i cani domestici <ref name="india"/><ref name="sulimov1" /><ref name="sulimov2" /> e alcuni studiosi moderni ritengono che possa aver contribuito alla nascita dei cani da caccia dell'Antico Egitto <ref name="rice"/> .
 
L'areale della giraffa, piuttosto frammentato, si estende dal [[Ciad]], a nord, fino al [[Sudafrica]], a sud, e dal [[Niger]], a ovest, fino alla [[Somalia]], a est. Le giraffe vivono generalmente nelle [[Savana|savane]], nelle [[Prateria|praterie]] e nelle [[Bosco|boscaglie]] aperte. Si nutrono soprattutto di foglie di [[acacia]], che brucano ad altezze non raggiungibili dalla maggior parte degli altri erbivori. Loro unici nemici naturali sono i [[Panthera leo|leoni]], ma i piccoli possono cadere vittima anche di leopardi, [[Crocuta crocuta|iene macchiate]] e [[Lycaon pictus|licaoni]]. Gli esemplari adulti non stringono stretti rapporti sociali con i conspecifici, ma possono raggrupparsi in aggregazioni libere con altri esemplari che si spostano nella stessa direzione. I maschi stabiliscono gerarchie sociali attraverso il cosiddetto ''necking'', cioè combattimenti nei quali il collo viene impiegato come arma. Solo ai maschi dominanti è consentito accoppiarsi con le femmine, che sono le uniche a prendersi cura dell'allevamento dei piccoli.
==Evoluzione==
Diversamente da altre specie di sciacalli che hanno avuto origine in Africa <ref name="genome"/> , lo sciacallo dorato, come il [[Canis lupus|lupo]] <ref name=HiPS>{{cite web | title= Smithsonian National Zoological Park | work= Hiding in Plain Sight | url = http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/SpotlightOnScience/fleischer2003108.cfm | accessdate = August 19, 2006 }}</ref> , fece la prima comparsa in Asia <ref name="genome"/> . The direct ancestor of the golden jackal is thought to be ''Canis kuruksaensis'', a Villafranchian (from late [[Pliocene]] to early [[Pleistocene]]<ref>{{cite doi|dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2010.01.007}}</ref>) canid native to [[Tadjikistan]]. Another prehistoric canid initially thought to be an ancestral jackal, ''Canis arnensis'' which was native to Europe, was later classed as more closely related to the [[coyote]]. Golden jackals likely colonised the European continent during the late [[Pleistocene]].<ref name="mammiferi">{{it icon}}[http://www.minambiente.it/opencms/export/sites/default/archivio/biblioteca/protezione_natura/qcn_14.pdf ''Mammiferi d'Italia'' by Mario Spagnesi and Anna De Marina Marinis. Ministero dell' Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio Direzione Conservazione della Natura, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi"]</ref>
 
Per il suo aspetto peculiare, la giraffa ha affascinato uomini di varie culture, sia antiche che moderne, e compare spesso in pitture, libri e cartoni animati. Sebbene sulla Lista dell'[[IUCN|Unione Internazionale per la Conservazione della Natura]] (IUCN) venga classificata tra le specie a basso rischio, è scomparsa da molte zone del suo areale originario, e alcune sottospecie sono a [[Specie a rischio|rischio di estinzione]]. Tuttavia, le giraffe sono presenti in numerosi [[parchi nazionali]] e riserve di caccia.
==Physical description==
[[File:Jackalskull.jpg|thumb|left|Golden jackal skulls resemble those of wolves and coyotes more than other jackal species<ref name="GJ"/>]]
[[File:Canisanthusskull.jpg|thumb|Skull of a North African jackal. It differs from that of Asian jackals in the higher elevation between the [[Orbit (anatomy)|orbits]]]]
Golden jackals are medium sized canids, and are considered the most typical representative of the [[genus]] ''[[Canis]]''.<ref name="GJ"/> Golden jackals resemble wolves in general appearance, but are smaller, lighter, have proportionately shorter legs, have more elongated torsos and shorter tails.<ref name="soviet"/> The [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] is light or dark brownish. Females have five pairs of [[teat]]s.<ref name="soviet">Heptner, V. G and Naumov, N.P, (editors) ''Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol.II Part 1a, SIRENIA AND CARNIVORA (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears)'', Science Publishers, Inc. USA. 1998. ISBN 1-886106-81-9, pp. 129-64</ref> Golden jackals in India tend to have shorter ears than their North African cousins.<ref name="canid">''A monograph of the canidae'' by St. George Mivart, F.R.S, published by Alere Flammam. 1890</ref> Adults are 74–106&nbsp;cm (29–42&nbsp;in) long, 38–50&nbsp;cm (15–20&nbsp;in) high at the shoulder and weigh 7–15&nbsp;kg (15-33&nbsp;lb).<ref name="kingdon">''East African mammals: an atlas of evolution in Africa, Volume 3, Part 1'' by Jonathan Kingdon, University of Chicago Press, 1977</ref> There is a 12% weight difference between the sexes.<ref name="GJ"/> Unlike other jackal species, golden jackals can bare their fangs.<ref>''The Carnivores'' by R. F. Ewer, published by Cornell University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8014-8493-6</ref> The tail is straighter, shorter and brushier than that of wolves.<ref name="guide">''A guide to the quadrupeds and reptiles of Europe : with descriptions of all the species'' by Lord Clermont, published byLondon : J. Van Voorst, 1859.</ref>
[[File:Volkshakal.JPG|thumb|Stuffed golden jackal and [[grey wolf]] at [[Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences|The Museum of Zoology]], [[St. Petersburg]]. Note the jackal's smaller size and narrower muzzle]]
Their [[skull]]s are less massively built than those of wolves, and have narrower and more pointed muzzles. The projections of the skull are well developed, but weaker than the wolf's.<ref name="soviet"/> In jackals, the anterior incisure of the [[nasal bone]]s has a medial protrusion, unlike wolves.<ref name="Paquet">{{cite book | author = Fred H. Harrington, [[Paul C. Paquet]] | title = Wolves of the World: Perspectives of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation | year = 1982 | isbn = 0815509057 | page = 474}}</ref> There are 18 characteristics which distinguish the skulls of golden jackals from those of domestic dogs; among them, the jackal has a smaller inflation of the [[Frontal bone|frontal region]], a shallower [[forehead]], smaller upward curvature of the [[zygomatic arch]]es and a longer and thinner [[lower jaw]].<ref name="holy">''Mammals of the Holy Land'' by Mazin B. Qumsiyeh, published by Texas Tech University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-89672-364-X</ref> Occasionally, they develop a [[Jackal's horn|horny growth]] on the skull which is associated with magical powers in south-eastern Asia. This horn usually measures half an inch in length, and is concealed by fur.<ref>''Sketches of the natural history of Ceylon'' by Sir James Emerson Tennent, published by Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1861</ref>
 
==Etimologia==
The teeth are similar to those of wolves, but are overall more trenchant in character, particularly in the upper molars, which have higher cusps, are more slender, and less [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terete terete] than in wolves and their cutting ridges much more developed.<ref name="gerrit">[http://ia341026.us.archive.org/3/items/catalogueofmam00brit/catalogueofmam00brit.pdf ''Catalogue of the mammals of Western Europe (Europe exclusive of Russia) in the collection of the British museum'' by Gerrit Smith, (1912)]</ref> The [[canine teeth]] are thinner than the wolf's, and the [[carnassial]]s relatively weaker.<ref name="soviet"/> Also, the [[Cingulum (tooth)|cingulum]] on the external edge of the first upper molar is broader and more distinctly marked.<ref name="Paquet"/> North African jackals tend to have longer carnassials than those living in the Middle East.<ref name="CLAW">{{cite book | author= Macdonald, David | title=The Velvet Claw | year=1992 | isbn= 0563208449 | page= 256 }}</ref>
Il nome «giraffa» trae origine dalla parola [[Lingua araba|araba]] ''zarafa'' (زرافة), forse derivata a sua volta da un termine africano<ref name=OED/>. Tale parola è stata tradotta come «[colei che] cammina veloce»<ref name=kingdon/>. Nel [[Medioevo]] la specie era nota anche come ''jarraf'', ''ziraph'' e ''gerfauntz''<ref name=OED/>. È possibile che il termine derivi dal nome con il quale l'animale è noto in [[lingua somala]], ''Geri''<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=Peust, C.|contributo=Some Cushitic Etymologies|curatore=Dolgopolʹskiĭ, A.; Takács, G.; Jungraithmayr, H|anno=2009|titolo=Semito-Hamitic Festschrift for A.B. Dolgopolsky and H. Jungraithmayr|editore=Reimer|pp=257–60|isbn=3-496-02810-6}}</ref>. Il nome [[Lingua italiana|italiano]] ''giraffa'' risale agli anni '90 del XVI secolo<ref name=OED>{{Cita web|url=http://etymonline.com/?term=giraffe|titolo=Giraffe|editore=Online Etymology Dictionary|accesso=1º novembre 2011}}</ref>. La forma inglese ''Giraffe'', invece, derivata dal [[Lingua francese|francese]] ''girafe'', risale al 1600 circa<ref name=OED/>. Il nome specifico ''camelopardalis'' è il termine con il quale l'animale era noto in [[latino]]<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dcamelopardalis|titolo= camelopardalis|editore=A Latin Dictionary, Perseus Digital Library|accesso=23 novembre 2011}}</ref>.
 
''Kameelperd'' è anche il nome con cui la specie è nota in [[lingua afrikaans]]<ref name=walker>{{Cita libro|autore=Walker, C.|anno=1997|titolo=Signs of the Wild|editore=Struik|p=142|isbn=1-86825-896-3}}</ref>. Tra gli altri nomi africani con cui viene indicato l'animale ricordiamo ''Ekorii'' (ateso), ''Kanyiet'' (elgon), ''Nduida'' (gikuyu), ''Tiga'' (kalenjin e luo), ''Ndwiya'' (kamba), ''Nudululu'' (kihehe), ''Ntegha'' (kinyaturu), ''Ondere'' (lugbara), ''Etiika'' (luhya), ''Kuri'' (ma'di), ''Oloodo-kirragata'' od ''Olchangito-oodo'' (maasai), ''Lenywa'' (meru), ''Hori'' (pare), ''Lment'' (samburu) e ''Twiga'' ([[Lingua swahili|swahili]] e altre lingue minori) nell'Africa orientale<ref name=Kingdon1988/>; e ''Tutwa'' ([[Lingua lozi|lozi]]), ''Nthutlwa'' ([[Lingua tsonga|shangaan]]), ''Indlulamitsi'' ([[Lingua swati|siswati]]), ''Thutlwa'' ([[Lingua tswana|sotho]]), ''Thuda'' ([[Lingua venda|venda]]) e ''Ndlulamithi'' ([[Lingua zulu|zulu]]) nell'Africa meridionale<ref name=walker/>.
The winter fur is generally of a dirty reddish-grey colour, with blackish or rusty red tips on the guard hairs. The facial region, save for the muzzle, is ocherous-rusty-reddish, with a black stripe present above each eye. The lips, cheeks, chin and throat are dirty white. The outsides of the limbs are ocherous-red, with the insides being of a light colour. The summer fur is sparser, coarser and shorter, with the same colour as the winter coat, only brighter and less darkly tinted.<ref name="soviet"/><ref name="lapini1">LAPINI L., 2003 - Canis aureus (Linnaeus, 1758). In: BOITANI L., LOVARI S. & VIGNA TAGLIANTI A. (Curatori), 2003- Fauna d’Italia. Mammalia III. Carnivora-Artiodactyla. Calderini publ., Bologna: 47-58</ref> The hairs of the tail are 4&nbsp;inches long and of a yellowish colour beneath, greyish above, and all tipped with black.<ref name="guide" /> Jackals living in mountainous regions may have a greyer shade of fur than their lowland counterparts,<ref name="GJ">{{cite web | title = Golden Jackal | work = | publisher = Canids.org | url = http://www.canids.org/species/Golden_jackal.pdf | accessdate = 2007-08-15}}</ref> and [[melanistic]] individuals have been reported.<ref name="kingdon" /> Jackals molt twice a year, in Spring and Autumn.<ref name="soviet"/> The colour and texture of the fur tends to vary geographically (see ''[[Golden Jackal#Fur use|Fur use]]'').<ref name="fur" />
 
==Tassonomia ed evoluzione==
==Behaviour==
[[File:Shansitherium tafeli Beijing.jpg|thumb|left|Scheletro di ''[[Shansitherium]]'' al Museo di Storia Naturale di Pechino.]]
===Reproduction and development===
La giraffa e l'[[Okapia johnstoni|okapi]] sono le uniche specie viventi appartenenti alla famiglia dei [[Giraffidae|Giraffidi]]. In passato tale famiglia era molto più numerosa, tanto che ne sono stati descritti più di 10 [[Genere (tassonomia)|generi]] fossili. I Giraffidi fecero la loro prima comparsa circa 8 milioni di anni fa, nell'Europa centro-meridionale, durante il [[Miocene]]. La superfamiglia dei Giraffoidea, così come la famiglia degli [[Antilocapridae|Antilocapridi]] (il cui unico rappresentante attuale è l'[[Antilocapra americana|antilocapra]]), si evolvette a partire da rappresentanti della famiglia estinta dei Paleomericidi<ref name="Mitchell20003">{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Mitchell, G.; Skinner, J. D.|anno=2003|titolo=On the origin, evolution and phylogeny of giraffes ''Giraffa camelopardalis''|rivista=Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa|volume=58 |numero=1|pp=51–73|doi=10.1080/00359190309519935|url=http://www.bringyou.to/GiraffeEvolution.pdf}}</ref>. Il Giraffide conosciuto più antico è il ''Climacoceras'', dall'aspetto simile a un cervo.
[[File:Golden Jackal Revivim.jpg|thumb|A pair of [[Syrian jackal]]s (''C. a. syriacus'') in [[Israel]]]]
In the Trans-Caucasus, [[estrus]] begins in early February and during warm winters in late January. In [[Tajikistan]] and Uzbekistan, the rut extends to early March. [[Spermatogenesis]] in males occurs 10–12 days before the females enter estrus, and during this time, their [[testicle]]s triple in weight. Estrus lasts for 3–4 days. Females failing to mate during this time will undergo a loss of receptivity which lasts for 6–8 days. [[Mating]] occurs during daylight, and concludes with a copulatory tie. In Eurasian jackals, the tie lasts 20–45 minutes<ref name="soviet"/>, while in Africa it is only 4 minutes.<ref name="estes2"/> The pair are [[monogamous]], and will remain together until one of them dies. Males take part in the raising of their young, and will dig burrows for them. The [[gestation period]] lasts 60–63 days.<ref name="soviet"/>
 
Sebbene il progressivo allungamento di collo e arti sia riscontrabile in tutto il lignaggio dei Giraffidi, è divenuto più pronunciato in generi come ''[[Giraffokeryx]]'', ''[[Palaeotragus]]'' (possibile antenato dell'okapi), ''[[Samotherium]]'' e ''[[Bohlinia]]''<ref name="Mitchell20003"/>. Il ''Bohlinia'', in seguito ai cambiamenti climatici, migrò in Cina e nell'India settentrionale, dove sarebbe comparso il genere ''Giraffa'', che successivamente, verso 7 milioni di anni fa, si trasferì in Africa. Ulteriori mutamenti climatici portarono alla scomparsa delle giraffe asiatiche, mentre quelle africane sopravvissero e dettero vita a nuove specie. ''G. camelopardalis'' comparve in Africa orientale circa un milione di anni fa, nel [[Pleistocene]]<ref name="Mitchell20003"/>. Alcuni biologi sostengono che l'attuale giraffa discenda da ''G. jumae''<ref name=sim1996/>, mentre altri considerano un candidato più probabile ''G. gracilis''<ref name="Mitchell20003"/>. Si ritiene che la spinta principale per l'evoluzione delle giraffe sia stato il cambiamento climatico, iniziato 8 milioni di anni fa, che portò alla scomparsa delle foreste, sostituite da habitat più aperti<ref name="Mitchell20003"/>. Alcuni ricercatori hanno ipotizzato che un nuovo ambiente e nuove fonti alimentari, come le foglie degli alberi del genere ''[[Acacia]]'', potrebbero aver esposto gli antenati della giraffa a tossine che avrebbero provocato un tasso maggiore di mutazioni e, quindi, di spinta evolutiva<ref name="bada"/>.
In the Trans-Caucasus, cubs are usually born in late March and late April,<ref name="soviet"/> in North-Eastern Italy probably in late April,<ref name="lapini1"/>, in the Serengheti they are born in December and January,<ref name=estes2>''The behavior guide to African mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates'' by Richard Estes, published by University of California Press, 1992, ISBN 0-520-08085-8</ref> while in Nepal, they are born at any time of the year.<ref name="nepal">''Mammals of Nepal: (with reference to those of India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Pakistan)'' by Tej Kumar Shrestha, published by Steven Simpson Books, 1997, ISBN 0-9524390-6-9</ref> Litters usually consist of 3-8 pups, which are born with shut eyelids and with soft fur which ranges in colour from light grey to dark brown. At the age of one month, their fur is shed and replaced with a new pelt of reddish colour with black speckles. The nursing period varies in length according to ___location: in the Caucasus, it lasts 50–70 days, while in Tajikistan, it can last 90 days. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 15–20 days, though they are rarely fed regurtitated food. Cubs have a fast [[growth rate]]: at the age of two days, they weigh 201-214 g, 560-726 g at one month, and 2700-3250 g at four months. Once the lactation period has concluded, the cubs are driven away by their mother,<ref name="soviet"/> though not as assertively as black-backed jackal mothers. Offspring from a previous litter may stay with their parents to help them rear their next litter, though their sexual behaviour is suppressed.<ref name="lapini1"/><ref name="estes2"/> Females become sexually mature at 11 months, while males become so after one year, though they only acquire an adult build after two years.<ref name="kingdon"/>
 
La giraffa fu una delle numerose specie descritte per la prima volta da [[Linnaeus|Carlo Linneo]] nel 1758. Egli la battezzò con il nome binomiale di ''[[Cervus]] camelopardalis''. In seguito, nel 1772, Morten Thrane Brünnich istituì il genere ''Giraffa''<ref name="Dagg1971"/>. Agli inizi del XIX secolo, [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] credette che il lungo collo della giraffa fosse una «caratteristica acquisita», sviluppatasi attraverso generazioni di giraffe ancestrali che si sforzavano di raggiungere le foglie degli alberi più alti<ref name="Prothero 2003"/>. Questa teoria venne in seguito rifiutata, e attualmente gli scienziati spiegano questa caratteristica con la teoria della [[selezione naturale]] darwiniana, secondo la quale le giraffe ancestrali con colli più lunghi erano più avvantaggiate di quelle con colli più corti, e avevano quindi maggiori probabilità di riprodursi e perpetuare i loro geni<ref name="Prothero 2003"/>.
===Diet and hunting===
[[Image:Golden Jackal, navigating Wildebeest, Ngorongoro.jpg|thumb|right|A Serengeti jackal (''C. a. bea'') carefully navigating a herd of [[Blue Wildebeest]] in the [[Ngorongoro National Park]], [[Tanzania]]]]
Golden jackals are opportunistic feeders, being both predators and scavengers, and will readily eat refuse and vegetation during certain seasons. In the [[former Soviet Union]], jackals mainly hunt [[hare]]s, small rodents, [[pheasant]]s, [[partridge]]s, [[duck]]s, [[coot]]s, [[moorhen]]s and [[passerine]]s. They readily eat [[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s, [[frog]]s, [[insects]], [[fish]] and [[mollusc]]s. During the winter period, they will kill many [[nutria]]s and [[waterfowl]]. During such times, jackals will [[Surplus killing|surplus kill]] and cache what they do not eat. Jackals will feed on fruits such as [[pear]]s, [[Crataegus|hawthorn]], [[dogwood]] and the cones of [[Common Medlar]]s. In Spring, they will dig out bulbs and the roots of wild [[sugar cane]]. In Summer, jackals drink regularly, and stick to water bodies. During times of drought, jackals will dig holes in dried channels and drink the water collected in the ground, as well as eating dead fish and birds descending to drink. Near human habitations, jackals will feed near [[slaughterhouse]]s, [[landfill]]s and cattle burial places. In [[Dagestan]] in the 1920s, jackals frequently ate near railway lines, feeding on food remains thrown out of trains by passengers.<ref name="soviet"/> In Hungary, their most frequent prey are [[common vole]]s and [[bank vole]]s.<ref name="hungary">[http://www.vvt.gau.hu/kutatas/HM/taplalkozas_osszehasonlitas_LJHM.pdf ''Feeding habits of golden jackal and red fox in south-western Hungary during winter and spring'' By J. LANSZKi and M. Heltai]</ref> Information on the diet of jackals in North-Eastern Italy is scant, but it is certain that they prey on small [[roe deer]]s and hares.<ref name="lapini1"/> In the [[Serengeti]], golden jackals feed primarily on [[dung beetle]]s, [[grasshopper]]s and [[cricket]]s, though they will also eat [[gerbil]]s, [[springhare]]s, hares, ground birds and their eggs, lizards, snakes, frogs, fishes, bulbs, berries and fallen fruit. Although they readily follow alighting [[old world vulture|vultures]], scavenging only constitutes 3-6% of their diet, due to competition with [[spotted hyena]]s. They tend to only scavenge when an animal dies or when a larger predator makes a kill within their home range. When they come across unfamiliar meat, jackals have been observed to rub the sides of their necks on the food and roll on their backs. During the [[wildebeest]] calving season, golden jackals will feed almost exclusively on their [[afterbirth]].<ref name="kingdon"/> Although capable of killing animals 3 times their size, they usually only target sick or newborn animals. Otherwise, they will rarely attack healthy animals even of their own weight. Overall, African golden jackals do not target mammals as actively as black-backed jackals.<ref name="estes2"/> Jackals in [[Turkey]] have been known to eat the eggs of the [[endangered]] [[green turtle]].<ref>''Predation on green turtle Chelonia mydas nests by wild canids at Akyatan beach, Turkey'' by L. Brown and D. W. Macdonald, Biological Conservation, Volume 71, Issue 1, 1995, Pages 55-60</ref> In India, they consume much fruit and vegetable matter such as [[mango]]es, [[cashew]], [[fishtail palm]] and [[jackfruit]]s, as well as [[melon]]s, [[cucumber]]s and [[maize]].<ref name="kingdon"/> Pairs of jackals have been observed to hunt [[Capped Langur|capped langur]]s in north-western Bangladesh.<ref>''Predation on capped langurs (Presbytis pileata) by cooperatively hunting jackals (Canis aureus)'' by Dr. C. B. Stanford, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley</ref> Immature [[Northern Plains Gray Langur]]s are also rarely preyed upon.<ref>''Colobine monkeys: their ecology, behaviour, and evolution'' by A. Glyn Davies, John F. Oates, published by Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-521-33153-6</ref>
 
===Sottospecie===
Jackals rarely form small packs when hunting, though packs of 8-12 jackals consisting of more than one family have been observed in the summer periods of the Trans-Caucuses. When hunting singly, golden jackals will trot around an area occasionally stopping to sniff and listen. Once prey is located, lone jackals will conceal themselves, quickly approach then pounce. When hunting in pairs or packs, jackals run parallel and overtake their prey in unison. When hunting aquatic rodents or birds, they will run along both sides of narrow rivers or streams, driving their prey from one jackal to another.<ref name="kingdon"/><ref name="soviet"/> Success rates in hunting are greatly increased for jackals working in pairs: in East Africa, golden jackals hunting young [[Thompson's gazelle]]s alone have a success rate of 16%, while those working in pairs or more have one of 67%. When attacking medium sized animals, golden jackals will tear at the victim's abdomen, rarely killing it outright.<ref name="kingdon"/>
[[File:Genetic subdivision in the giraffe based on mitochondrial DNA sequences.png|thumb|400px|right|«Areali approssimativi, colore del manto e relazioni [[Filogenesi|filogenetiche]] tra alcune sottospecie di giraffa basate sul sequenziamento del [[DNA mitocondriale]]. I punti colorati sulla mappa indicano le località dove è stato effettuato il campionamento. L'albero filogenetico è un [[Albero filogenetico|filogramma]] [[Metodo della massima verosimiglianza|di massima verosimiglianza]] basato su campioni prelevati da 266 giraffe. Gli asterischi lungo i rami corrispondono a valori [[Clade|nodali]] di oltre il 90% di supporto [[Ricampionamento|bootstrap]]. Le stelle all'estremità dei rami identificano gli [[Aplotipo|aplotipi]] [[Parafilia|parafiletici]] riscontrati nelle giraffe masai e reticolate»<ref name=GeneticStructure>{{Cita pubblicazione|titolo=Extensive population genetic structure in the giraffe|autore=Brown, D. M.; Brenneman R. A.; Koepfli, K-P.; Pollinger, J. P.; Milá, B.; Georgiadis, N. J.; Louis Jr., E. E.; Grether, G. F.; Jacobs, D. K.; Wayne R. K.|rivista= BMC Biology |anno=2007|volume=5|numero=1|p=57|doi=10.1186/1741-7007-5-57|pmc=2254591|pmid=18154651}}</ref>.]]
Attualmente vengono riconosciute ben nove sottospecie di giraffa (i dati sul numero di esemplari risalgono al 2010):
 
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis camelopardalis|G. c. camelopardalis]]'' {{zoo|Linnaeus|1758}}<ref name= "MacDonald">{{Cita libro|autore=Pellow, R. A.|contributo=Giraffe and Okapi|anno=2001|titolo=The Encyclopedia of Mammals|edizione= 2nd|curatore=MacDonald, D|editore=Oxford University Press|pp=520–27|isbn=0-7607-1969-1}}</ref>, la [[Sottospecie|sottospecie nominale]], è nota come giraffa della [[Nubia]]. Vive nel [[Sudan del Sud]] orientale e nell'[[Etiopia]] sud-occidentale. Si pensa che in natura ne rimangano meno di 250 capi, ma il numero esatto è incerto<ref name=wildstatus>{{Cita web|url= http://www.giraffeconservation.org/giraffe_facts.php?pgid=40 |titolo= Giraffe – The Facts: Current giraffe status? |editore=Giraffe Conservation Foundation |accesso= 21 dicembre 2010}}</ref>. È molto rara in cattività, ma un gruppo è attualmente ospitato allo Zoo di Al Ain, negli [[Emirati Arabi Uniti]]<ref name='"Al Ain exhibits"'>{{Cita web|titolo=Exhibits|url=http://www.awpr.ae/en/Visit/Pages/AfricanMixedExhibit.aspx|editore=Al Ain Zoo|data=25 febbraio 2003|accesso= 21 novembre 2011}}</ref>. Nel 2003, questo gruppo era formato da 14 esemplari<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.uaeinteract.com/docs/Nubian_giraffe_born_in_Al_Ain_zoo/6971.htm|titolo=Nubian giraffe born in Al Ain zoo|editore=UAE Interact|accesso=21 dicembre 2010}}</ref>.
===Interspecific predatory relationships===
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata|G. c. reticulata]]'' {{zoo|De Winton|1899}}<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, nota come giraffa reticolata<ref name= "MacDonald"/> o della [[Corno d'Africa|Somalia]], è originaria del [[Kenya]] nord-orientale, dell'Etiopia meridionale e della [[Somalia]]. Si stima che in natura non ne rimangano più di 5000 esemplari<ref name=wildstatus/>, ma secondo i dati del Sistema Internazionale d'Informazione sulle Specie ve ne sono più di 450 negli zoo di tutto il mondo<ref name=ISIS>{{Cita web|url=https://app.isis.org/abstracts/Abs77545.asp|titolo= Giraffa |editore=ISIS|anno=2010|accesso= 4 novembre 2010}}</ref>
[[Image:Striped Hyena food fight.jpg|thumb|Golden jackals disputing with [[striped hyena]]s over an [[oryx]] carcass, as illustrated by Rev. J.G. Wood]]
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis|G. c. angolensis]]'' {{zoo|Lydekker|1903}}, la giraffa dell'[[Angola]] o della [[Namibia]], è diffusa nella Namibia settentrionale, nello [[Zambia]] sud-occidentale, in [[Botswana]] e nello [[Zimbabwe]] occidentale. Uno studio genetico del 2009 effettuato su membri di questa sottospecie ha rivelato che le popolazioni stanziate nelle regioni settentrionali del [[deserto del Namib]] e nel [[Parco nazionale Etosha|Parco Nazionale di Etosha]] apparterrebbero a una sottospecie separata<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01078.x|autore= Brenneman, R. A.; Louis, E. E. Jr; Fennessy, J. |anno=2009|titolo=Genetic structure of two populations of the Namibian giraffe, ''Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis''|rivista=African Journal of Ecology|volume=47|numero=4|pp=720–28}}</ref>. Si stima che in natura non ve ne siano più di 20.000 esemplari<ref name=wildstatus/>, mentre negli zoo di tutto il mondo ne vengono ospitati circa 20 individui<ref name=ISIS/>.
Golden jackals tend to dominate smaller canid species. In Africa, golden jackals have been observed to kill the cubs of [[black-backed jackal]]s.<ref name="BBJ">{{cite web | title = Black-backed jackal | work = | publisher = Canids.org | url = http://www.canids.org/species/Black-backed_jackal.pdf | accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> In [[Israel]], [[red fox]]es are a commonly occurring predator, and although smaller than jackals, their dietary habits are identical, and the two species are therefore in direct competition with one another. Foxes generally ignore jackal scents or tracks in their territories, though they will avoid close physical proximity with jackals themselves. Studies have shown that in areas where jackals became very abundant, the population size of foxes decreased significantly, apparently because of competitive exclusion.<ref name="RF">{{cite web | title = Behavioural responses of red foxes to an increase in the presence of golden jackals: a field experiment | work = | publisher = Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University | url = http://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/zoology/members/yom-tov/articles/Behavioural_responses_of_red_foxes.pdf | accessdate = 2007-07-31}}</ref> Conversely, jackals are shown to vacate areas inhabited by [[Gray Wolf|wolves]]. Wolves are often actively intolerant of jackals in their established territories and have been known to approach jackal-calling stations at a quick trotting pace, presumably to chase off the competitors.<ref name="GW">{{cite web | title = Conservation Action Plan for the golden jackal (''Canis aureus'') in Greece | work = | publisher = WWF Greece | url = http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Action%20Plans/Greece%20Golden%20Jackal%20Action%20Plan%202004.pdf | accessdate = 2007-07-31}}</ref> The jackal's recent expansion throughout eastern and western Europe has been attributed to historical declines in wolf populations. The present diffusion of the golden jackal in the Northern Adriatic Hinterland seems to be in rapid expansion <ref name="lapini2"/> in various areas where the wolf is absent or very rare (see also:<ref name="udine">{{it icon}}[http://www.altofriuli.com/ambiente/?id_evento=1266&layout=leggi_evento ''Scoperto in Val Tagliamento lo sciacallo dorato'' by Maria Clementi]</ref><ref name="slovenia">[http://web.bf.uni-lj.si/bi/NATURA-SLOVENIAE/pdf/NatSlo_10_1_5.pdf ''First record of a golden jackal (Canis aureus) in the Savinja Valley (Northern Slovenia)'' by Miha KROFEL and Hubert POTOČNIK of the Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia]</ref>). In Africa, golden jackals often eat alongside [[African wild dog]]s, and will stand their ground if the dogs try to harass them.<ref name="estes2"/> In South-eastern Asia, golden jackals have been known to hunt alongside [[dhole]] packs,<ref name="thai">Lekagul, B. & McNeely, J. ''Mammals of Thailand'', Darnsutha Press; Second edition edition (January 1, 1988), ISBN 9748680614</ref> and there is one record of a golden jackal pack adopting a male [[Ethiopian wolf]].<ref>[http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-485-01-0001.pdf ''Canis simensis'' by Claudio Sillero-Zubiri and Dada Gottelli. Published 2 December 1994 by The American Society of Mammologists]</ref>
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis antiquorum|G. c. antiquorum]]'' ({{zoo|Swainson|1835}})<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, la giraffa del [[Kordofan]], ha una distribuzione che comprende il [[Ciad]] meridionale, la [[Repubblica Centrafricana]], il [[Camerun]] settentrionale e la [[Repubblica Democratica del Congo]] nord-orientale. In passato le popolazioni stanziate in Camerun venivano classificate come appartenenti a ''G. c. peralta'', ma tale visione si è rivelata incorretta<ref name=WestAfricaGiraffe>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Hassanin, A.; Ropiquet, A.; Gourmand, B-L.; Chardonnet, B.; Rigoulet, J.|anno=2007|titolo= Mitochondrial DNA variability in Giraffa camelopardalis: consequences for taxonomy, phylogeography and conservation of giraffes in West and central Africa|rivista=Comptes Rendus Biologies|volume=330|numero=3|pp= 173–83|pmid= 17434121|doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2007.02.008}}</ref>. In natura non ne rimangono più di 3000 capi<ref name=wildstatus/>. Riguardo agli esemplari presenti in cattività, è stato difficile valutarne il numero, data la confusione che si era creata con ''G. c. peralta''. Infatti, nel 2007, è stato dimostrato che tutte le ''G. c. peralta'' ospitate negli zoo europei erano ''G. c. antiquorum''<ref name=WestAfricaGiraffe/>. Dopo eventuali correzioni, il numero di esemplari in cattività è stato stimato sulle 65 unità<ref name=ISIS/>.
* ''[[Giraffa tippelskirchi|G. c. tippelskirchi]]'' {{zoo|Matschie|1898}}<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, nota come giraffa [[masai]]<ref name= "MacDonald"/> o del [[Kilimangiaro]], vive nelle regioni centrali e meridionali del Kenya e in [[Tanzania]]. In natura non ne rimangono più di 40.000<ref name=wildstatus/> e negli zoo ve ne sono circa 100 esemplari<ref name=ISIS/>.
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi|G. c. rothschildi]]'' {{zoo|Lydekker|1903}}<ref name= "MacDonald"/> è nota come giraffa di [[Lionel Walter Rothschild|Rothschild]]<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, del Baringo o dell'[[Uganda]]. Il suo areale comprende parte dell'Uganda e del Kenya<ref name=iucn/>. La sua presenza nel Sudan del Sud è incerta<ref name=IUCNrothschildi>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Fennessy, J.; Brown, D.|year=2008|id=174469|title=Giraffa camelopardalis ssp. rothschildi|downloaded=2009-3-13}}</ref>. Si ritiene che in natura ne rimangano meno di 700 capi<ref name=wildstatus/>, ma negli zoo ve ne sono più di 450<ref name=ISIS/>.
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa|G. c. giraffa]]'' {{zoo|von Schreber|1784}}, la giraffa del [[Sudafrica]], è diffusa nel Sudafrica settentrionale, nel Botswana meridionale, nello Zimbabwe meridionale e nel [[Mozambico]] sud-occidentale. Si stima che in natura non ne rimangano più di 12.000<ref name=wildstatus/>, ma circa 45 capi sono ospitati negli zoo di tutto il mondo<ref name=ISIS/>.
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis thornicrofti|G. c. thornicrofti]]'' {{zoo|Lydekker|1911}}<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, detta giraffa di Thornicroft<ref name= "MacDonald"/> o della [[Rhodesia]], vive unicamente nella [[Luangwa (fiume)|valle del Luangwa]], nello Zambia orientale. Non ne rimangono più di 1500 capi in natura<ref name=wildstatus/> e nessun esemplare è attualmente ospitato negli zoo<ref name=ISIS/>.
* ''[[Giraffa camelopardalis peralta|G. c. peralta]]'' {{zoo|Thomas|1898}}<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, nota comunemente come giraffa dell'Africa occidentale<ref name= "MacDonald"/>, del [[Niger]] o della [[Nigeria]]<ref name=IUCNperalta>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Fennessy, J.; Brown, D.|year=2008|id=136913|title=Giraffa camelopardalis ssp. peralta|downloaded=2012-03-05}}</ref>, è [[Endemismo|endemica]] del Niger sud-occidentale<ref name=iucn/>. In natura ne rimangono meno di 220 esemplari<ref name=wildstatus/>. In passato le giraffe presenti in Camerun erano considerate appartenenti a questa sottospecie, ma oggi si preferisce inserirle in ''G. c. antiquorum''<ref name=WestAfricaGiraffe/>. Questo errore portò a una certa confusione riguardo al numero di esemplari ospitati negli zoo, ma nel 2007 venne stabilito che tutte le «''G. c. peralta''» ospitate negli zoo europei erano ''G. c. antiquorum''<ref name=WestAfricaGiraffe/>.
[[File:Giraffe koure niger 2006.jpg|thumb|Rarissima giraffa dell'Africa occidentale.]]
Le varie sottospecie di giraffa si distinguono per l'aspetto del manto. Le giraffe reticolate e masai rappresentano due forme limite: le prime hanno macchie nettamente delineate, mentre le seconde hanno macchie dai contorni molto frastagliati<ref name=estes/>. Vi sono inoltre ulteriori differenze nella larghezza delle linee che separano tali macchie. La giraffa dell'Africa occidentale ha linee molto spesse, mentre nelle giraffe della Nubia e in quelle reticolate tali linee sono piuttosto sottili<ref name=Kingdon1988/>. La prima presenta inoltre una colorazione più chiara di tutte le altre sottospecie<ref name=Kingdon1988/>.
 
Secondo i risultati ottenuti nel corso di uno studio del 2007 effettuato sulla genetica di sei sottospecie - le giraffe dell'Africa occidentale, di Rothschild, reticolate, masai, dell'Angola e del Sudafrica -, queste ultime andrebbero classificate come specie separate. Sulla base del grado di [[deriva genetica]] riscontrata nel DNA nucleare e [[DNA mitocondriale|mitocondriale]] (mtDNA), gli studiosi hanno dedotto che le giraffe appartenenti a queste popolazioni sono isolate da un punto di vista riproduttivo e si accoppiano tra loro solo raramente, perfino quando non vi è alcun ostacolo naturale a frapporsi tra esse<ref name=GeneticStructure/>, come nel caso delle giraffe di Rothschild, reticolate e masai. La sottospecie nota come giraffa masai potrebbe inoltre essere costituita da varie specie separate dalla Rift Valley. Le giraffe reticolate e masai presentano la maggiore diversità nel DNA mitocondriale, dovuta al fatto che la specie ha avuto origine nell'Africa orientale. Le popolazioni settentrionali discendono dalle prime, mentre quelle meridionali dalle seconde. Sembra che le giraffe scelgano partner che presentano lo stesso tipo di manto, sulla base di una sorta di ''imprinting'' che si sviluppa quando sono in tenera età<ref name=GeneticStructure/>. Le conseguenze di questa scoperta sulla conservazione delle giraffe sono state riassunte da David Brown, autore principale dello studio, con queste parole, rilasciate al [[BBC News]]: «Raggruppare tutte le giraffe in un'unica specie nasconde il fatto che alcune forme particolari sono sull'orlo dell'estinzione. Alcune di queste popolazioni sono costituite da poche centinaia di esemplari e necessitano di una protezione immediata»<ref>{{Cita news|editore=BBC News|titolo=Not one but 'six giraffe species'|autore= Lever, A-M.|data=21 dicembre 2007|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7156146.stm |accesso=4 marzo 2009}}</ref>.
In Africa, golden jackals tend to be warier toward [[lion]]s than black-backed jackals.<ref name="estes2"/> In India, lone jackals expelled from their pack have been known to form [[Commensalism|commensal relationship]]s with [[tiger]]s. These solitary jackals, known as ''kol-bahl'', will attach themselves to a particular tiger, trailing it at a safe distance in order to feed on the big cat's kills. A ''kol-bahl'' will even alert a tiger to a kill with a loud ''pheal''. Tigers have been known to tolerate these jackals: one report describes how a jackal confidently walked in and out between three tigers walking together a few feet away from each other.<ref name="perry">{{cite book | author = Perry, Richard | title = The World of the Tiger | year = 1965 | pages = 260 | id = ASIN: B0007DU2IU}}</ref> Tigers will however kill jackals on occasion: the now extinct tigers of the Amu-Darya region were known to frequently eat jackals.<ref name="USSR">Heptner, V. G. & Sludskii, A. A. 1992. [http://books.google.com/books?id=UxWZ-OmTqVoC&pg=PA177&dq=mammals+of+the+soviet+union+tigers+bears#v=onepage&q=jackals&f=false Mammals of the Soviet Union]. Vol. II, part 2, Carnivores(Feloidea), p. 177. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 784 pp. ISBN 90-04-08876-8</ref>
 
La giraffa dell'Africa occidentale è più strettamente imparentata con le giraffe di Rothschild e con quelle reticolate che con la giraffa del Kordofan. I suoi antenati potrebbero essere migrati dall'Africa orientale a quella settentrionale, per poi essere stati spinti più a sud dall'avanzare del deserto del Sahara. Al massimo della sua estensione, il [[lago Ciad]] potrebbe aver costituito una barriera tra le giraffe dell'Africa occidentale e quelle del Kordofan nel corso dell'[[Olocene]]<ref name=WestAfricaGiraffe/>.
Jackals will feed alongside [[spotted hyena]]s, though they will be chased if they approach too closely. Spotted hyenas will sometimes follow jackals during the gazelle fawning season, as jackals are effective at tracking and catching young animals. Hyenas do not take to eating jackal flesh readily: four hyenas were reported to take half an hour in eating one. Overall, the two animals typically ignore each other when there is no food or young at stake.<ref name="Kruuk">''Interactions between Hyenas and other Carnivorous Animals'' from Hans Kruuk’s ''The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour'' The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637, 1972</ref> Jackals will confront a hyena approaching too closely to their dens by taking turns in biting the hyena's hocks until it retreats.<ref name="estes2"/> [[Striped hyena]]s have been known to prey on golden jackals in [[Kutch]], India; one striped hyena den contained three dead jackals.<ref name="GJ"/>
 
==Descrizione e anatomia==
They are aggressive toward vultures on carcasses and will attack them if they land too close to them.<ref name="estes2"/>
[[File:Giraffe08 - melbourne zoo.jpg|thumb|Primo piano della testa di un esemplare allo [[Zoo di Melbourne]].]]
[[File:Giraffe skeleton.jpg|thumb|Scheletro di giraffa al Museo di Osteologia di [[Oklahoma City]].]]
Nel pieno dello sviluppo la giraffa misura 5-6 m di altezza; i maschi sono più alti delle femmine<ref name="Dagg1971">{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Dagg, A. I.|anno=1971|titolo=Giraffa camelopardalis|rivista=Mammalian Species|volume=5|pp=1–8|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-005-01-0001.pdf|doi=10.2307/3503830|numero=5}}</ref>. Il peso medio è di 1600 kg nei maschi adulto e di 830 kg nelle femmine adulte<ref name="Skinner1990">{{Cita libro|autore=Skinner, J. D.; Smithers, R. H. M.|anno=1990|titolo=The mammals of the southern African subregion|pp=616–20|editore=University of Pretoria|isbn=0-521-84418-5}}</ref>. Malgrado il collo e le zampe molto lunghi, la giraffa ha un corpo relativamente corto<ref name=anatomy/>. Posti ai lati della testa, gli occhi, grandi e sporgenti, consentono una buona visione dei dintorni, data anche l'altezza alla quale si trovano<ref name=Williams/>. La giraffa vede a colori<ref name=Williams/> e ha, inoltre, udito e [[olfatto]] molto sviluppati<ref name="Prothero 2003"/>. Grazie a una serie di muscoli, è in grado di chiudere le narici per difendersi da tempeste di sabbia e formiche<ref name=Williams/>. La lingua prensile è lunga circa 50 cm. Di colore nero-violaceo, forse come difesa dalle scottature dei raggi del sole, viene utilizzata per brucare il fogliame, nonché per il ''grooming'' e la pulizia del naso<ref name=Williams/>. Anche il labbro superiore è prensile e viene utilizzato ugualmente per strappare le foglie dai rami. Le labbra, la lingua e l'interno della bocca sono ricoperte da [[Papilla linguale|papille]] che proteggono queste strutture dalle punture delle spine<ref name="Dagg1971"/>.
[[File:Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata-atTobuZoo-2012.ogv|thumb|Coppia di giraffe allo Zoo di Tobu (Giappone).]]
 
Il manto è ricoperto da chiazze o macchie (che possono essere di colore arancione, [[Castagno (colore)|castano]], marrone o quasi nero<ref name="Prothero 2003"/>) separate da peli chiari (generalmente bianchi o color [[Crema (colore)|crema]]<ref name="Prothero 2003"/>). Il manto dei maschi diviene più scuro con l'età<ref name=estes>{{Cita libro|titolo=The Behavior Guide to African Mammals: including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates|autore=Estes, R.|editore=University of California Press|pp=202–07|anno=1992|isbn=0-520-08085-8}}</ref>. Il manto chiazzato ha una funzione di [[camuffamento]], e consente all'animale di mimetizzarsi tra le zone di luce e ombra tipiche della savana arbustiva<ref name="Mitchell20003"/><ref name= "MacDonald"/>. La pelle al di sotto delle aree scure potrebbe avere anche una funzione di [[termoregolazione]], dal momento che ospita numerosi capillari sanguigni e grosse ghiandole sudoripare<ref name=Mitchell2004>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Mitchell, G.; Skinner, J.D.|anno=2004|titolo=Giraffe thermoregulation: a review|rivista=Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa: Proceedings of a Colloquium on Adaptations in Desert Fauna and Flora|volume=59|numero=2|pp=49–57|issn=0035-919X|url=http://www.sabinet.co.za/abstracts/royalsa/royalsa_v59_n2_a13.html|doi=10.1080/00359190409519170}}</ref>. Ciascun individui ha una disposizione delle macchie unica<ref name=estes/>. La pelle della giraffa è di colore prevalentemente grigio<ref name="Skinner1990"/>. È anche piuttosto spessa, e l'animale è quindi in grado di correre rapidamente tra la boscaglia senza ferirsi con le spine della vegetazione<ref name=Williams/>. Il manto può fungere da difesa chimica, dato che è impregnato di sostanze repellenti per i parassiti che conferiscono all'animale un odore caratteristico. Nel mantello vi sono almeno undici sostanze chimiche aromatiche principali, sebbene l'odore tipico sia dovuto soprattutto all'[[indolo]] e al [[Scatolo|3-metilindolo]]. Poiché i maschi hanno un odore più pungente delle femmine, si ritiene che esso abbia anche una funzione sessuale<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Wood, W. F.; Weldon, P. J.|anno=2002|titolo=The scent of the reticulated giraffe (''Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata'')|rivista=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology|volume=30|numero=10|pp=913–17|doi=10.1016/S0305-1978(02)00037-6}}</ref>. Lungo il collo dell'animale corre una criniera costituita da brevi peli eretti<ref name="Dagg1971"/>. La coda, lunga un metro, termina in un ciuffo di peli lunghi e scuri, e viene usata per scacciare gli insetti<ref name=Williams/>.
===Vocalisations===
The vocabulary of golden jackals is similar to that of dogs and Seitz (1959) noted seven different sounds. He remarked that different subspecies can be recognised by differences in their howls. Among African canids, golden jackals have the most dog-like vocalisations.<ref name="kingdon"/> The cry of a golden jackal consists of a long wailing howl which is repeated three or four times, each repetition in a note a little higher than the preceding, and then a succession of usually three quick yelps, also repeated two or three times. It was commonly rendered in [[English language|English]] as ''"Dead Hindoo, where, where, where."''<ref name="canid"/> When in the vicinity of tigers or leopards, jackals will emit an alarm call often rendered as "''Pheal''."<ref name="canid"/><ref name="india"/> Groups will occasionally howl in chorus, which is thought to reinforce family bonds, as well as advertise territorial status.<ref name="estes2" /> Tamed jackals have been known to imitate the calls of their human captors.<ref name="rice" /> Jackals may howl for different reasons, such as to call other jackals or to seemingly announce changes in weather. They have been recorded to howl upon hearing church bells, sirens or the whistles of steam engines and boats. They typically howl at dawn, midday and the evening hours.<ref name="soviet"/>
 
===Cranio e ossiconi===
==Range==
Entrambi i sessi possiedono prominenti strutture simili a corna dette [[ossiconi]], costituite da [[tessuto cartilagineo]] ossificato ricoperto da uno strato di pelle, fuse con il cranio all'altezza delle [[Osso parietale|ossa parietali]]<ref name=estes/>. Essendo vascolarizzati, gli ossiconi potrebbero giocare un ruolo nella termoregolazione<ref name=Mitchell2004/>, ma vengono utilizzati anche nei combattimenti tra maschi<ref name="sim2010"/>. Il loro aspetto è utile per determinare il sesso o l'età di un determinato esemplare: gli ossiconi di femmine e giovani sono sottili e presentano ciuffi di pelo all'estremità, mentre quelli dei maschi adulti terminano con una sorta di protuberanza e tendono a essere privi di pelo all'estremità<ref name=estes/>. Sulla parte anteriore del cranio vi è anche una sorta di prominenza mediana, più pronunciata nei maschi<ref name="Dagg1971"/>. I maschi sviluppano depositi di [[Calcio (elemento)|calcio]] che con l'avanzare dell'età formano delle specie di bernoccoli sul cranio<ref name="Prothero 2003"/>. Il cranio della giraffa è alleggerito da una serie di seni<ref name=anatomy/>. Tuttavia, nei maschi adulti, il cranio diviene più pesante, e nel corso dei combattimenti viene impiegato come una mazza<ref name=estes/>. La mascella superiore presenta un [[palato]] scanalato ed è priva dei denti frontali<ref name=Williams/>. I [[molari]] hanno una superficie più ruvida di quella della maggior parte degli altri mammiferi<ref name=Williams/>.
[[File:Jackalvarieties.jpg|thumb|Two geographical variants of golden jackal. Asian jackal (above), North African jackal (below)]]
In [[Africa]], golden jackals are widespread in the North and North-eastern portions of the continent, being present from [[Senegal]] on Africa's west coast to [[Egypt]] in the East. This range includes [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Libya]] in the north to [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]] and [[Tanzania]] in the south. Golden jackals also occur in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], and have a patchy distribution in [[Europe]]. In their European range, jackals are found in the [[Balkans]], [[Hungary]] and south-western [[Ukraine]]. They are found also in [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and north-eastern [[Italy]]<ref name="iucn"/><ref name="lapini1"/> (Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto), where their distribution has recently increased encompassing also the Region Trentino Alto Adige.<ref name="lapini2">Lapini L., Molinari P., Dorigo L., Are G. & Beraldo P., 2009. Reproduction of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 1835) in Julian Pre-Alps, with new data on its range-expansion in the High-Adriatic Hinterland (Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae). Boll. Mus. Civ. St. nat. Venezia, 60 (2009): 169-186.</ref>. To the east, their range includes [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], then east and south to [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and parts of [[Indochina]].<ref name="iucn"/>
 
===Zampe, locomozione e postura===
==Habitat==
Le zampe anteriori e posteriori della giraffa hanno all'incirca la stessa lunghezza. Il [[Radio (anatomia)|radio]] e l'[[ulna]] delle zampe anteriori sono articolate dal [[carpo]], che, sebbene sia una struttura equivalente al polso umano, funziona come un ginocchio<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=MacClintock, D.; Mochi, U.|anno=1973|titolo=A natural history of giraffes|editore=Scribner|p=30|isbn=0-684-13239-7}}</ref>. Il piede raggiunge i 30 cm di diametro, e lo zoccolo è alto 15 cm nei maschi e 10 cm nelle femmine<ref name=Williams/>. La parte posteriore di ogni zoccolo è bassa e i nodelli sono vicini al suolo, sì da permettere al piede di sostenere meglio il peso dell'animale<ref name="Dagg1971"/>. Le giraffe sono prive di speroni e ghiandole interdigitali. L'osso pelvico, sebbene relativamente corto, ha un [[osso iliaco]] allungato alle estremità superiori<ref name="Dagg1971"/>.
Golden jackals are typically lowland dwellers: in the Caucasus and Trans-Caucasus, they rarely ascend into mountains higher than 600 metres [[AMSL]], though jackals in [[Borzhomi]] have been found in heights of 900–1050 metres AMSL and 840 metres AMSL in [[Armenia]]. The presence of golden jackals and their choice of habitat is determined largely by food abundance, the presence of water and the presence of thick brush where they can conceal themselves from both their prey and enemies. They are especially abundant in areas where there is no prolongued freezing period for water bodies and where it is likely for waterfowl to overwinter. Although not maximally adapted for cold areas, golden jackals can withstand temperatures as low as -25° or even -35°. During times of heavy snowfall, jackals can only travel through paths made by humans or large animals.<ref name="soviet"/> Although the most desert adapted of jackals,<ref name="estes2"/> they avoid waterless deserts, being found there only on their very edges. On the coasts of the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, their favoured habitats are impassable thickets of spiny bushes with tunnels created by larger animals such as [[wild boar]].<ref name="soviet"/> In North-eastern Africa, golden jackals avoid competition with other jackal species by inhabiting short grass plains, as opposed to the woodland areas favoured by side-striped jackals and the intermediate areas preferred by black-backed jackals.<ref name="estes2"/> In Italy the species breeds both near lowland towns (Udine surroundings) and in Pre-Alpine valleys (High River [[Natisone]]/[[Nadiza]] Valley in the Eastern Province of Udine), dwelling also in various localities of the Alpine Mountain Chain up to 1000 AMSL (San Vito di Cadore surroundings, Val Pusteria/Pustertal).<ref name="lapini2"/><ref name="lapini1"/> Sub-adult vagrants, however, have been recorded also in some urban areas of the Venetian floodplain, both in Venice (San Donà di Piave) and Treviso (Preganziol) Provinces.<ref name="lapini2"/> They hunt along the shores or canals of water bodies. In [[Middle Asia]] and [[Kazakhstan]] they prefer tugai thickets, thickets in abandoned irrigated lands and reed floodlands. In areas with little dense vegetation, such as the [[Gissar Valley|Gissar]] and [[Fergana Valley]]s, jackals reside in low hillocks, where they take refuge in dry channels, caves and abandoned fox dens.<ref name="soviet"/>
 
La giraffa ha due soli tipi di andatura: il passo e il galoppo. Mentre cammina, muove con ambedue le zampe dell'uno, poi con ambedue quelle dell'altro lato, simultaneamente<ref name=estes/>. Quando galoppa, muove le zampe posteriori attorno a quelle anteriori prima che queste ultime si spostino in avanti<ref name="Prothero 2003"/> e tiene la coda raggomitolata<ref name=estes/>. L'animale si affida a movimenti avanti e indietro della testa e del collo per mantenere l'equilibrio e il contro-momento durante il galoppo<ref name=Kingdon1988/>. La giraffa può raggiungere punte di velocità di 60 km/h<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|cognome=Garland|nome=T|coautori=Janis, C. M.|anno=1993|titolo=Does metatarsal/femur ratio predict maximal running speed in cursorial mammals?|url=http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlandJanis1993.pdf|rivista=Journal of Zoology|volume=229|numero=1|pp=133–51|doi= 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1993.tb02626.x}}</ref> e mantenere un'andatura di 50 km/h per alcuni chilometri<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=Rafferty, John. P|anno=2011|titolo=Grazers (Britannica Guide to Predators and Prey)|editore=Britannica Educational Publishing|p=194|isbn=1-61530-336-7}}</ref>.
==Subspecies==
Though widespread, golden jackals do not display geographical variation to the same extent as wolves. Indian and North African jackals were once considered separate species, on account of differing coat colours, and the lengths of the ears being shorter in the Indian kind. However, unlike differing wolf subspecies, which display no great differences in the form of the skull or the proportions of the teeth, such differences are apparent in Asiatic and North African forms of golden jackal.<ref name=canid/> There are 13 subspecies of the golden jackal currently recognised, both on the basis of morphology and genetics:<ref name=MSW3/><ref name="lapini1"/>
 
Quando riposa, la giraffa sorregge il corpo sulle zampe ripiegate<ref name=Kingdon1988>{{Cita libro|autore=Kingdon, J. |anno=1988|titolo=East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Volume 3, Part B: Large Mammals|pp=313–37|editore=University Of Chicago Press |isbn=0-226-43722-1}}</ref>. Per sdraiarsi, l'animale si inginocchia sulle zampe anteriori e poi abbassa il resto del corpo. Per rialzarsi, sposta avanti le ginocchia e distende le zampe posteriori per sollevare le anche. In seguito distende le zampe anteriori. A ogni passo, l'animale fa oscillare la testa<ref name=Williams/>. La giraffa dorme per 4,6 ore al giorno, soprattutto di notte, ad intervalli<ref name=sleep/>. Generalmente dorme distesa, ma alcuni esemplari, specialmente quelli più anziani, sono stati visti dormire in piedi. Durante le brevi fasi intermittenti di «sonno profondo», quando è distesa, la giraffa ripiega il collo e poggia la testa sull'anca o sulla coscia; gli studiosi ritengono che questa posizione indichi i periodi di [[Rapid eye movement|sonno paradosso]]<ref name=sleep>{{Cita pubblicazione|cognome=Tobler, I.; Schwierin, B.|titolo=Behavioural sleep in the giraffe (''Giraffa camelopardalis'') in a zoological garden|anno=1996|rivista=Journal of Sleep Research|volume=5|numero=1|pp=21–32|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2869.1996.00010.x|nome1=I.|cognome2=Schwierin|nome2=B.|pmid=8795798}}</ref>. Se la giraffa vuole inchinarsi per bere, it either spreads its front legs or bends its knees.<ref name=estes/> Giraffes would probably not be competent swimmers as their long legs would be highly cumbersome in the water,<ref name = "swim">{{Cita pubblicazione| doi = 10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.04.007 |autore= Henderson, D. M.; Naish, D. |anno= 2010 |titolo= Predicting the buoyancy, equilibrium and potential swimming ability of giraffes by computational analysis |rivista= Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume= 265 |numero= 2|pp= 151–59 | pmid = 20385144 }}</ref> although they could possibly float.<ref name="Naish">{{Cite magazine| last = Naish | first = D. | author-link = Darren Naish |date= January 2011 | year = 2011| title = Will it Float? | periodical = [[Scientific American]] | issn = 0036-8733 | volume = 304 | issue = 1 | page = 22| url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=will-it-float}}</ref> When swimming, the thorax would be weighed down by the front legs, making it difficult for the animal to move its neck and legs in harmony<ref name = "swim"/><ref name="Naish"/> or keep its head above the surface.<ref name = "swim"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable" width=100% font=90%
|- bgcolor="#115a6c"
!Subspecies
!Trinomial authority
!Description
!Range
!Synonyms
|----
|'''Algerian jackal'''<br/>''Canis a. algirensis''
[[File:Algerianjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Johann Andreas Wagner|Wagner]], 1841
|Darker than ''C. a. aureus'', with a tail marked with three dusky rings. Is equal in size to the [[red fox]]<ref name=smith/>
|[[Algeria]], [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]]
|<small>''barbarus'' (C. E. H. Smith, 1839)</small><br/>
<small>''grayi'' (Hilzheimer, 1906)</small><br/>
<small>''tripolitanus'' (Wagner, 1841)</small>
|----
|'''Senegalese jackal'''<br/>''[[Senegalese Jackal|Canis a. anthus]]''
[[File:Senegalthousdog.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Frédéric Cuvier|F. Cuvier]], 1820
| At least an inch higher at the shoulder, and several inches longer than ''C. a. lupaster'' with larger ears, a more dog-like head and a more gaunt build. The tail is shorter and not as hairy. The nose and forehead are greyish-buff, while the throat and under parts are white. It lacks the black ring round the neck, nor the stippled arrangement of black points on the back characteristic of ''C. a. lupaster''.<ref name="smith">[http://ia341305.us.archive.org/2/items/naturalhistoryof139smit/naturalhistoryof139smit.pdf ''The natural history of dogs : canidae or genus canis of authors ; including also the genera hyaena and proteles'' (1839) by Charles Hamilton Smith and Sir William Jardine, published by Edinburgh : W.H. Lizars]</ref>
|[[Senegal]]
|<small>''senegalensis'' (C. E. H. Smith, 1839)</small>
|----
|'''Common jackal'''<br/>''[[Common Jackal|Canis a. aureus]]''
[[File:Commonjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Linnaeus]], 1758
| The [[nominate subspecies]]. It is large with soft, pale fur with predominantly sandy tones<ref name=soviet/>
|Middle Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Arabian Peninsula, Baluchistan, northwestern India<ref name=soviet/>
|<small>''balcanicus'' (Brusina, 1892)</small><br/>
<small>''caucasica'' (Kolenati, 1858)</small><br/>
<small>''dalmatinus'' (Wagner, 1841)</small><br/>
<small>''hadramauticus'' (Noack, 1896)</small><br/>
<small>''hungaricus'' (Ehik, 1938)</small><br/>
<small>''kola'' (Wroughton, 1916)</small><br/>
<small>''lanka'' (Wroughton, 1916)</small><br/>
<small>''maroccanus'' (Cabrera, 1921)</small><br/>
<small>''typicus'' (Kolenati, 1858)</small><br/>
<small>''vulgaris'' (Wagner, 1841)</small>
|----
|'''Serengeti jackal'''<br/>''Canis a. bea''
[[File:Golden Jackal, Serengeti.jpg|150 px]]
|Heller, 1914
|
|[[Kenya]], Northern [[Tanzania]]
|
|----
|'''Siamese jackal'''<br/>''Canis a. cruesemanni''
[[File:Siamjackals.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Paul Matschie|Matschie]], 1900
|Smaller than ''C. a. indicus''. Its status as a separate subspecies has been disputed by certain authors, who point out that its classification as such is based solely on observations on captive animals<ref name="thai"/>
|[[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]] to east India
|----
|''Canis a. ecsedensis''
|Kretzoi, 1947
|
|
|<small>''minor'' (Mojsisovico, 1897)</small>
|----
|'''Indian jackal'''<br/>''[[Indian Jackal|Canis a. indicus]]''
[[File:Indianjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1833
|Its fur is a mixture of black and white, with buff on the shoulders, ears and legs. The buff colour is more pronounced in specimens from high altitudes. Black hairs predominate on the middle of the back and tail. The belly, chest and the sides of the legs are creamy white, while the face and lower flanks are grizzled with grey fur. Adults grow to a length of 100&nbsp;cm (39&nbsp;in), 35–45&nbsp;cm (14–18&nbsp;in) in height and 8–11&nbsp;kg (18-24&nbsp;lb) in weight.<ref name="nepal"/> Has been known to form [[Commensalism|commensal relationships]] with [[tiger]]s; trailing them in order to eat their kills, and alerting them to intruders or kills with loud cries.<ref name=perry/> The [[karyotype]] of the Indian jackal is quite different (2N=78; NF=84) from that of its Eurasian and African counterparts (2N=80).<ref name="lapini1"/>
|India, [[Nepal]]
|
|----
|'''Egyptian jackal'''<br/>''[[Egyptian Jackal|Canis a. lupaster]]''
[[File:Egyptianjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich and Ehrenberg]], 1833
|A large, wolf-like subspecies standing some 41&nbsp;cm (16&nbsp;in) in shoulder-height, with a total length of about 127&nbsp;cm (50&nbsp;in).<ref name=lydekker/> It seems to be larger than ''C. a. moreoticus''.<ref name=GW/> The skull is almost indistinguishable in size from that of the [[Indian Wolf]], though the teeth of ''C. a. lupaster'' are less heavily built.<ref name="lydekker2">[http://ia311027.us.archive.org/2/items/gameanimalsofind00lyde/gameanimalsofind00lyde.pdf ''The great and small game of India, Burma, and Tibet,'' (1907) by Richard Lydekker, published by London, R. Ward, limited]</ref> It is stoutly built, with proportionately short ears. The pelt is yellowish grey on the upper parts, and is mingled with black, which tends to collect in streaks and spots. The muzzle, the backs of the ears, and the outer surfaces of both pairs of limbs are reddish yellow, the margins of the mouth arc white, and the terminal half of the tail is darker than the back, with a black tip.<ref name="lydekker">[http://ia360634.us.archive.org/2/items/gameanimalsofafr00lyde/gameanimalsofafr00lyde.pdf ''The game animals of Africa'' (1908) by Richard Lydekker, published by London, R. Ward, limited]</ref>
|[[Egypt]]
|<small>''sacer'' (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)</small>
|----
|'''European jackal'''<br/>''[[European jackal|Canis a. moreoticus]]''
[[File:Turkishjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1835
| One of the largest in the world, with animals of both sexes averaging 120–125&nbsp;cm (47–49&nbsp;in) in total length and 10-14,9&nbsp;kg (20-33&nbsp;lb) in body weight.<ref name="lapini1"/><ref name=GW/> The fur is coarse, and is generally brightly coloured with blackish tones on the back. The thighs, upper legs, ears and forehead are bright reddish chestnut<ref name=soviet/>
|South-eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Caucasus
|<small>''graecus'' (Wagner, 1841)</small>
|----
|'''Sri Lankan jackal'''<br/>''[[Sri Lankan Jackal|Canis a. naria]]''
|[[R. C. Wroughton|Wroughton]], 1916
| Measures 67–74&nbsp;cm (26½-29&nbsp;inches) and weighs 5-8.6&nbsp;kg (12-19&nbsp;lbs). The winter coat is shorter, smoother and not as shaggy than that of ''C. a. indicus''. The coat is also darker on the back, being black and speckled with white. The underside is more pigmented on the chin, hind throat, chest and forebelly, while the limbs are rusty ochreous or rich tan. Moulting occurs earlier in the season than with ''C. a. indicus'', and the pelt generally does not lighten in colour.<ref name="pocock">[http://ia341313.us.archive.org/0/items/PocockMammalia2/pocock2.pdf ''Fauna of British India: Mammals Volume 2'' by R. I. Pocock, printed by Taylor and Francis, 1941]</ref>
|Southern India, [[Sri Lanka]]
|<small>''lanka'' (Wroughton, 1838)</small>
|----
|''Canis a. riparius''
|[[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich and Ehrenberg]], 1832
| A dwarf subspecies measuring only a dozen inches in shoulder height. Generally of a greyish-yellow colour, mingled with only a small proportion of black. The muzzle and legs are more decidedly yellow, and the under-parts are white<ref name=lydekker/>
|Somaliland and coast of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]
|<small>''hagenbecki'' (Noack, 1897)</small><br/>
<small>''mengesi'' (Noack, 1897)</small><br/>
<small>''somalicus'' (Lorenz, 1906)</small>
|----
|'''Variegated jackal'''<br/>''[[Variegated jackal|Canis a. soudanicus]]''
[[File:Paintedthousdog.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], 1903
|Smaller and more lightly built than ''C. a. lupaster'', standing 38&nbsp;cm (15&nbsp;in) at the shoulder, and 102&nbsp;cm (40&nbsp;in) in length. Compared with the wolf-like ''C. a. lupaster'', ''C. a. soudanicus'' is built more like a greyhound. The ears are somewhat larger than in ''C. a. lupaster'' and the body colour is generally pale stone-buff, with blotches of black<ref name=lydekker/>
|[[Sudan]] and [[Somaliland]]
|<small>''doederleini'' (Hilzheimer, 1906)</small><br/>
<small>''nubianus'' (Cabrera, 1921)</small><br/>
<small>''thooides'' (Hilzheimer, 1906)</small><br/>
<small>''variegatus'' (Cretzschmar, 1826)</small>
|----
|'''Syrian jackal'''<br/>''[[Syrian Jackal|Canis a. syriacus]]''
[[File:Canis aureus revivim2.JPG|150 px]]
|[[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich and Ehrenberg]], 1833
|It weighs 5–12&nbsp;kg (11–27&nbsp;lb), and has a body length of 60–90&nbsp;cm (24–35&nbsp;in).<ref name="holy"/> Distinguished by its brown ears. Each hair of the back consists of four distinct colours; white at the root, then black, above which foxy-red, and the point black<ref name=smith/>
|[[Israel]], western [[Jordan]]
|
|----
|}
 
===Neck===
==Diseases and parasites==
[[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - High-rise living.jpg|thumb|left|An adult male giraffe feeding high up on an acacia]]
[[File:Jackal head 2.JPG|thumb|The head of a golden jackal before being preserved and examined for [[rabies]] infection in the brain]]
The giraffe has an extremely elongated neck, which can be up to {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} in length, accounting for much of the animal's vertical height.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|29}} The long neck results from a disproportionate lengthening of the [[cervical vertebrae]], not from the addition of more vertebrae. Each cervical vertebra is over {{convert|28|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=anatomy>{{Cita libro|autore=Swaby, S.|anno=2010|contributo=Giraffe|curatore=Harris, T.|titolo=Mammal Anatomy: An Illustrated Guide|editore=Marshall Cavendish Corporation|pp=64–84|isbn=0-7614-7882-5}}</ref>{{rp|71}} They comprise 52–54 percent of the length of the giraffe's [[vertebral column]], compared with the 27–33 percent typical of similar large ungulates, including the giraffe’s closest living relative, the [[okapi]].<ref name=bada>{{Cita pubblicazione| doi = 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2008.00458.x |cognome= Badlangana |nome= L. N. |coautori= Adams, J. W.; Manger P. R. |titolo= The giraffe ''(Giraffa camelopardalis)'' cervical vertebral column: A heuristic example in understanding evolutionary processes? |rivista= Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume= 155 |numero= 3 |pp= 736–57 |anno= 2009}}</ref> This elongation largely takes place after birth, as giraffe mothers would have a difficult time giving birth to young with the same neck proportions as adults.<ref name=van>{{Cita pubblicazione| doi = 10.1002/jez.b.21353 |cognome= Van Sittert |nome= S. J. |coautori= Skinner, J. D.; Mitchell, G. |titolo= From fetus to adult – An allometric analysis of the giraffe vertebral column |rivista= Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B Molecular and Developmental Evolution |volume= 314B |numero= 6 |pp= 469–79 |anno= 2010}}</ref> The giraffe's head and neck are held up by large muscles and a [[nuchal ligament]], which are anchored by long dorsal spines on the anterior [[thoracic vertebrae]], giving the animal a hump.<ref name="Dagg1971"/>
Golden jackals can carry diseases and parasites harmful to human health; among them [[rabies]] and [[Leishmania donovani|Donovan's leishmania]] (which although harmless to jackals, can cause [[leishmaniasis]] in people). Jackals in southwestern Tajikistan have been recorded to carry 16 species of [[cestode]]s, [[roundworm]]s and [[acanthocephala]]ns (''[[Sparganosis|Sparganum mansoni]]'', ''[[Diphyllobothrium mansonoides]]'', ''Taenia hydatigena'', ''[[Taenia pisiformis|T. pisiformis]]'', ''T. ovis'', ''Hydatigera taeniaeformis'', ''Diphylidium caninum'', ''mesocestoides lineatus'', ''[[Ancylostoma caninum]]'', ''[[Uncinaria stenocephala]]'', ''[[Dioctophyma renale]]'', ''[[Toxocara canis]]'', ''[[Toxascaris leonina]]'', ''[[Dracunculus medinensis]]'', ''Filariata'' and ''Macracanthorhynchus catulinum''). Jackals infected with ''D. medinensis'' can infect water bodies with their eggs, and cause [[dracunculiasis]] in people who drink from them. Jackals may also play a large part in spreading coenurosis in sheep and cattle, and [[canine distemper]] in dogs.<ref name=soviet/> Jackals in the Serengeti are known to carry the [[canine parvovirus]], [[canine herpesvirus]], [[canine coronavirus]] and [[canine adenovirus]].<ref name=GJ/> In July 2006, a Romanian jackal was found to be carrying ''[[Trichinella britovi]]''.<ref>[http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/reprint/44/2/457.pdf ''First Identification of Trichinella sp. in Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) in Romania'' by R. Blaga, C. Gherman, D. Seucom, V. Cozma, and P. Boireau. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 44(2), 2008, pp. 457–459 © Wildlife Disease Association 2008]</ref> Jackals consuming fish and molluscs can be infected with [[metagonimiasis]], which was recently diagnosed in a male jackal from North-Eastern Italy.<ref name="lapini2"/> In Tajikistan, at least twelve [[tick]] species are known to be carried by golden jackals (which include ''[[Ixodes]]'', ''Rhipicephalus turanicus'', ''R. leporis'', ''R. rossicus'', ''[[Rhipicephalus sanguineus|R. sanguineus]]'', ''R. pumilio'', ''R. schulzei'', ''[[Hyalomma]] anatolicum'', ''H. scupense'' and ''H. asiaticum''), four [[flea]] species (''[[Pulex irritans]]'', ''Xenopsylla nesokiae'', ''[[Dog flea|Ctenocephalides canis]]'' and ''[[Ctenocephalides felis|C. felis]]'') and one species of [[louse]] (''Trichodectes canis'').<ref name=soviet/> In North-Eastern Italy the species is a carrier of the tick species ''[[Ixodes ricinus]]'' and ''[[Dermacentor reticulatus]]''.<ref name="lapini2"/>
 
The giraffe's neck vertebrae have [[ball and socket joint]]s.<ref name=anatomy/>{{rp|71}} In particular, the [[Atlas (anatomy)|atlas]]&ndash;[[Axis (anatomy)|axis]] joint (C1 and C2) allows the animal to tilt its head vertically and reach more branches with the tongue.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|29}} The point of articulation between the cervical and thoracic vertebrae of giraffes is shifted to lie between the first and second thoracic vertebrae (T1 and T2), unlike most other ruminants where the articulation is between the seventh cervical vertebra (C7) and T1.<ref name=bada/><ref name=van/> This allows C7 to contribute directly to increased neck length and has given rise to the suggestion that T1 is actually C8, and that giraffes have added an extra cervical vertebra.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Solounias, N.|anno=1999|titolo=The remarkable anatomy of the giraffe's neck|rivista=Journal of Zoology|volume=247|numero=2|pp=257–68|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb00989.x|url=http://www.ikhebeenvraag.be/mediastorage/FSDocument/73/download.pdf}}</ref> However, this proposition is not generally accepted, as T1 has other morphological features, such as an articulating [[rib]], deemed diagnostic of thoracic vertebrae, and because exceptions to the mammalian limit of seven cervical vertebrae are generally characterized by increased [[neurological disorder|neurological anomalies]] and maladies.<ref name=bada/>
==Relationships with humans==
===Role in mythology and literature===
[[File:Tutanhkamun jackal.jpg|thumb|left|Life sized [[Anubis]] statue from the [[Tomb of Tutankhamun]] ([[Cairo Museum]])]]
[[Image:T2JB005 - Good luck go with you, O chief of the wolves.JPG|thumb|[[Tabaqui]] ('''left''') torments [[Father Wolf]] and his family, as illustrated in page 5 of the 1895 edition of ''The Two [[Jungle Book]]s'' by [[Rudyard Kipling]]]]
The [[Ancient Egypt]]ian god of embalming, [[Anubis]], was portrayed as a jackal-headed man, or as a jackal wearing ribbons and holding a flagellum. Anubis was always shown as a jackal or dog coloured black, the color of regeneration, death, and the night. It was also the color that the body turned during [[mummification]]. The reason for Anubis' animal model being canine is based on what the ancient Egyptians themselves observed of the creature - dogs and jackals often haunted the edges of the desert, especially near the cemeteries where the dead were buried. In fact, it is thought that the Egyptians began the practice of making elaborate graves and tombs to protect the dead from desecration by jackals. [[Duamutef]], one of the [[Four Sons of Horus]] and a protection god of the [[Canopic jar]]s, was also portrayed as having jackal-like features.
 
There are two main hypotheses regarding the evolutionary origin and maintenance of elongation in giraffe necks.<ref name=sim2010>{{Cita pubblicazione| doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00711.x |cognome= Simmons |nome= R. E.|coautori= Altwegg, R. |titolo= Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique of ideas on the evolution of giraffe |rivista= Journal of Zoology |volume= 282 |numero= 1 |pp= 6–12 |anno= 2010}}</ref> The "competing [[browsing (predation)|browsers]] hypothesis" was originally suggested by [[Charles Darwin]] and only challenged recently. It suggests that competitive pressure from smaller browsers, such as [[kudu]], [[steenbok]] and [[impala]], encouraged the elongation of the neck, as it enabled giraffes to reach food that competitors could not. This advantage is real, as giraffes can and do feed up to {{convert|4.5|m|abbr=on}} high, while even quite large competitors, such as kudu, can only feed up to about {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} high.<ref name=dt1990>{{Cita pubblicazione| doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2028.1990.tb01136.x |cognome= du Toit |nome= J. T. |titolo= Feeding-height stratification among African browsing ruminants |rivista= African Journal of Ecology |volume= 28 |numero= 1 |pp= 55–62 |anno= 1990 |url= http://courses.biology.utah.edu/goller/7406/Goller7406/duToitPdfs/Feedingheightstrat_1990.pdf}}</ref> There is also research suggesting that browsing competition is intense at lower levels, and giraffes feed more efficiently (gaining more leaf biomass with each mouthful) high in the canopy.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore= Cameron, E. Z.; du Toit, J. T. |titolo= Winning by a Neck: Tall Giraffes Avoid Competing with Shorter Browsers|rivista= American Naturalist |volume= 169|numero= 1|pp= 130–35|anno= 2007| doi = 10.1086/509940 |pmid= 17206591 |url= http://www.cnr.usu.edu/files/uploads/faculty/winning_by_a_neck-du_Toit.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore= Woolnough, A. P.; du Toit, J. T. |titolo= Vertical zonation of browse quality in tree canopies exposed to a size-structured guild of African browsing ungulates|rivista= Oecologia |volume= 129|numero= 1|pp= 585–90|anno= 2001| doi = 10.1007/s004420100771|url=http://courses.biology.utah.edu/goller/7406/Goller7406/duToitPdfs/Verticalzonation_2001.pdf}}</ref> However, scientists disagree about just how much time giraffes spend feeding at levels beyond the reach of other browsers,<ref name=sim1996/><ref name=sim2010/><ref name=dt1990/><ref name=sexdiff>{{Cita pubblicazione|doi= 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1991.tb01190.x |autore= Young, T. P.; Isbell, L. A. |titolo= Sex differences in giraffe feeding ecology: energetic and social constraints|rivista= Ethology |volume= 87|numero= 1–2|pp= 79–89|anno= 1991 |dio = 10.1007/s004420100771|url=http://tpyoung.ucdavis.edu/publications/1991GiraffesEthology.pdf}}</ref>
The [[Authorized King James Version]] of the [[Bible]] never mentions jackals, though this could be due to a translation error. The AVs of [[Book of Isaiah|Isiah]], [[Book of Micah|Micah]], [[Book of Job|Job]] and [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] mentions "wild beasts" and "dragons" crying in desolate houses and palaces. The original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words used are ''lyim'' (howler) and ''tan'' respectively. According to biologist Michael Bright, ''tan'' is more likely referring to jackals than dragons, as the word is frequently used throughout the AV to describe a howling animal asosciated with desolation and abandoned habitations, which is consistent with the golden jackal's vast vocal repertoire and its occasional habit of living in abandoned buildings. Jeremiah makes frequent references to jackals by using the word ''shu'al'', which can mean both jackal and fox. Although the AV translates the word as fox, the behaviour described is more consistent with jackals, as shown in the books of [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] and [[Book of Psalms|Psalms]] in which references are made to the ''shu'al's'' habit of eating corpses in battlefields.<ref name="BOTF">{{cite book|author=Bright, Michael|title=Beasts of the Field: The Revealing Natural History of Animals in the Bible|year=2006|page= 346|isbn=1861058314|publisher=Robson|___location= London}}</ref> [[David W. Macdonald]] theorizes that due to the general scarcity and elusiveness of foxes in Israel, the author of the [[Book of Judges]] may have actually been describing the much more common golden jackals when narrating how [[Samson]] tied torches to the tails of 300 foxes to make them destroy the vineyards of the [[Philistines]].<ref name="RWTF">{{cite book | author=Macdonald, David | title=Running with the Fox | year=1987 | pages= p224 | isbn=0-044-40199-X | publisher=Unwin Hyman | ___location= }}</ref> According to an ancient Ethiopian folktale, jackals and man first became enemies shortly before the [[Deluge myth|Great Flood]], when [[Noah]] initially refused to allow jackals into the [[Noah's Ark|ark]], thinking jackals were unworthy of being saved until being commanded by God to do so.<ref>{{it icon}}Motta, F. (editore), ''Nel Mondo della Natura: Enciclopedia Motta di Scienze Naturali, Zoologia'', Quinto Volume, 1957</ref>
and a 2010 study found that adult giraffes with longer necks actually suffered higher mortality rates under drought conditions than their shorter-necked counterparts. This study suggests that maintaining a longer neck requires more nutrients, which puts longer-necked giraffes at risk during a food shortage.<ref name="demography">{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Mitchell, G.; van Sittert, S.; Skinner, J. D.|anno=2010|titolo=The demography of giraffe deaths in a drought|rivista=Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa|volume=65|numero=
3|pp=165–68|doi=10.1080/0035919X.2010.509153}}</ref>
 
The other main theory, the [[sexual selection]] hypothesis, proposes that the long necks evolved as a secondary [[sexual dimorphism|sexual characteristic]], giving males an advantage in "necking" contests (see below) to establish dominance and obtain access to sexually receptive females.<ref name=sim1996>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Simmons, R. E.; Scheepers, L. |titolo= Winning by a Neck: Sexual Selection in the Evolution of Giraffe|rivista= The American Naturalist|volume= 148|numero= 5|pp= 771–86|anno= 1996|url=http://bill.srnr.arizona.edu/classes/182/Giraffe/WinningByANeck.pdf|doi=10.1086/285955}}</ref> In support of this theory, necks are longer and heavier for males than females of the same age,<ref name=sim1996/><ref name=sim2010/> and the former do not employ other forms of combat.<ref name=sim1996/> However, one objection is that it fails to explain why female giraffes also have long necks.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore= Mitchell, G.; van Sittert, S. J.; Skinner, J. D. |titolo= Sexual selection is not the origin of long necks in giraffes|rivista= Journal of Zoology |volume= 278|numero= 4|pp= 281–86|anno= 2009| doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00573.x}}</ref>
Golden jackals appear prominently in [[Folklore of India|Indian folklore]], where they are often portrayed in the context of trickery and deceit. The story of [[The Blue Jackal]] has the jackal disguising itself with blue paint as ''Neelaakanth'', the guardian of all animals, and tricking the other animals into providing food for him, so that he may continue protecting them. He is driven away once the monsoon washes the paint from him.<ref name="panchatantra.org">[http://panchatantra.org/the-story-of-the-blue-jackal.html Panchatantra The Story of The Blue Jackal<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.bolokids.com/2006/0049.htm The Blue Jackal : A Panchtantra Story by Swapna Dutta<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/kids_corner/panchatantra/panchatantra4.shtml A - Z Hinduism - Panchatantra Stories<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s [[Mowgli]] stories collected in ''[[The Jungle Book]]'', the character [[Tabaqui]] is a jackal despised by the Sioni wolf pack, due to his mock cordiality, scavenging habits and his subservience to [[Shere Khan]]. He appears in the beginning of the book, visiting Mowgli's adoptive parents, [[Raksha (Jungle Books)|Mother]] and [[Father Wolf]], and they are clearly annoyed by his presence, since he announces that Shere Khan the tiger is hunting in their territory. Tabaqui is later killed by one of Mowgli's 'siblings', [[Grey Brother]], who crushes his back.
{{-}}
 
===Internal systems===
Talking golden jackals appear in [[Franz Kafka]]'s ''[[Jackals and Arabs]]'', in which they try to convince a European traveller to end the feud between them and the [[Arab people]].
[[File:Flickr - Rainbirder - Reticulated Giraffe drinking.jpg|thumb|Giraffe bending down to drink. The animal's rete mirabile prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the neck is lowered.]]
In mammals, the left [[recurrent laryngeal nerve]] is longer than the right; in the giraffe it is over {{convert|30|cm|in|abbr=on}} longer. These nerves are longer in the giraffe than in any other living animal;<ref name="Wedel">{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Wedel, M. J.|anno=2012|titolo=A monument of inefficiency: the presumed course of the recurrent laryngeal nerve in sauropod dinosaurs|rivista=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica|volume=57|numero=2|pp=251–56|doi=10.4202/app.2011.0019|url=http://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app57/app20110019.pdf}}</ref> the left nerve is over {{convert|2|m|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=Harrison, D. F. N.|anno=1995|titolo=The Anatomy and Physiology of the Mammalian Larynx|editore=Cambridge University Press|p=165|isbn=0-521-45321-6}}</ref> Each nerve cell in this path begins in the [[brainstem]] and passes down the neck along the [[vagus nerve]], then branches off into the recurrent laryngeal nerve which passes back up the neck to the larynx. Thus, these nerve cells have a length of nearly {{convert|5|m|abbr=on}} in the largest giraffes.<ref name="Wedel"/> The structure of a giraffe's brain resembles that of domestic cattle.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|31}} The shape of the skeleton gives the giraffe a small lung volume relative to its mass.<ref name=SkinnerJD2011>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Skinner, J. D.; Mitchell, G.|anno= 2011|titolo= Lung volumes in giraffes, ''Giraffa camelopardalis''|rivista= Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology|volume= 158|numero= 1|pp= 72–78|doi= 10.1016/j.cbpa.2010.09.003|url= http://137.215.9.22/bitstream/handle/2263/16472/Mitchell_Lung(2011).PDF?sequence=1}}</ref> Its long neck gives it a large amount of [[Dead space (physiology)|dead space]], in spite of its narrow windpipe. These factors increase the resistance to airflow. Nevertheless, the animal can still supply enough oxygen to its tissues.<ref name=SkinnerJD2011/>
 
The [[circulatory system]] of the giraffe has several adaptations for its great height. Its heart, which can weigh more than {{convert|25|lb|kg|abbr=on}} and measures about {{convert|2|ft|cm|abbr=on}} long, must generate approximately double the blood pressure required for a human to maintain blood flow to the brain.<ref name="Prothero 2003"/> Giraffes have unusually high heart rates for their size, at 150 beats per minute.<ref name=anatomy/>{{rp|76}} In the upper neck, the [[rete mirabile]] prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the giraffe lowers its head.<ref name= "MacDonald"/> The [[jugular vein]]s also contain several (most commonly seven) valves to prevent blood flowing back into the head from the [[inferior vena cava]] and [[right atrium]] while the head is lowered.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|doi=10.3957/056.039.0210|autore=Mitchell, G.; van Sittert, S. J.; Skinner, J. D.|titolo=The structure and function of giraffe jugular vein valves|rivista= South African Journal of Wildlife Research|volume=39|numero=2|pp=175–80|url=http://137.215.9.22/bitstream/handle/2263/13994/Mitchell_Structure(2009).pdf?sequence=1 |anno=2009}}</ref> Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure (because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them). To solve this problem, the skin of the lower legs is thick and tight; preventing too much blood from pouring into them.<ref name= "MacDonald"/>
Although present in Europe, jackals are rarely featured in European folklore or literature. Surveys taken in the High Adriatic Hinterland indicate that the totality of people with first hand experience of jackals (hunters, game keepers and local people) regularly mistook red foxes affected by sarcoptic mange (or in a problematic state of moult) for golden jackals. The sighting of a true golden jackal however, was always referred to as a wolf, or a little wolf. This was verified both with photo-trapping sessions and with a study on tracks, confirming previous observations on this matter. This erroneous and controversial perception of the golden jackal may be due to the fact that its presence is still not traditional, neither in Italian and Slovenian human culture, nor in hunting and game keeping traditions.<ref name="lapini2"/>
 
Giraffes have [[Esophagus|oesophageal muscles]] that are unusually strong to allow regurgitation of food from the stomach up the neck and into the mouth for [[wikt:ruminate|rumination]].<ref name=anatomy/>{{rp|78}} They have four chambered stomachs, as in all ruminants, and the first chamber has adapted to their specialized diet.<ref name="Dagg1971"/> The giraffe's intestines measure up to {{convert|80|m|ft|abbr=on}} in length<ref name="Dagg1971"/> and have a relatively small ratio of small to large intestine.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore= Pérez, W.; Lima, M.; Clauss, M. |anno= 2009 |titolo= Gross anatomy of the intestine in the giraffe (''Giraffa camelopardalis'') |rivista= Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia |volume= 38 |numero= 6|pp= 432–35 | pmid = 19681830 | doi=10.1111/j.1439-0264.2009.00965.x}}</ref> The liver of the giraffe is small and compact.<ref name=anatomy/>{{rp|76}} A gallbladder is generally present during fetal life, but it may disappear before birth.<ref name="Dagg1971"/><ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Cave, A. J. E. |titolo=On the liver and gall-bladder of the Giraffe |rivista=Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London |volume=120 |pp=381–93 |anno=1950 | doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1950.tb00956.x |numero=2}}</ref><ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore1=Oldham-Ott, Carla K. |autore2=Gilloteaux, Jacques |titolo=Comparative morphology of the gallbladder and biliary tract in vertebrates: variation in structure, homology in function and gallstones |rivista=Microscopy Research and Technique |volume=38 |numero=6 |pp=571–79 |anno=1997 | doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0029(19970915)38:6<571::AID-JEMT3>3.0.CO;2-I}}</ref>
===Livestock, game and crop predation===
Golden jackals can be harmful pests, and will attack domestic animals, including [[turkeys]], lambs, [[sheep]], [[goat]]s and there is one record of a jackal attacking a newborn [[domestic water buffalo]] calf. They destroy many [[grape]]s, eating [[watermelon]]s, [[muskmelon]]s and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]].<ref name="soviet"/> In Greece, jackals tend not to be as damaging to livestock as wolves and red foxes are, though they can become a serious niusance to small sized stock when in high numbers.<ref name="GW"/> In southern Bulgaria, 1,053 attacks on small stock, mainly sheep and lambs, were recorded between 1982–87, along with some damages to newborn deer in game farms.<ref name="GW" /> In Israel, about 1.5%–1.9% of the calves born in the Golan Heights die due to predation, mainly by Golden Jackals. In both cases, the high predation rate is thought to be the consequence of a jackal population explosion due to the availability of food in illegal garbage dumps.<ref name="GJP">{{cite web | title = Cattle Predation by the Golden Jackal Canis in the Golan Heights, Israel | work = | publisher = Department of zoology, Tel Aviv university | url = http://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/zoology/members/yom-tov/articles/Cattle.pdf | accessdate = 2007-08-19}}</ref> Preventative measures to avoid depredation were also lacking in both cases. However, even without preventing measures, the highest damages by jackals from Bulgaria are minimal when compared to the domestic animal losses by wolves.<ref name="GW" /> Golden jackals are extremely harmful to furbearing rodents such as [[nutria]]s and [[muskrat]]s. Nutrias can be completely extirpated in shallow water bodies, and during the winter of 1948-49 in the [[Amu Darya]], muskrats constituted 12.3% of jackal faeces contents, and 71% of muskrat houses were destroyed by jackals, 16% of which froze and became unsuitable for muskrat occupation. Jackals also harm the muskrat industry by eating muskrats caught in traps or taking skins left out to dry.<ref name="soviet"/>
 
==Behavior and ecology==
===Hunting===
===Habitat and feeding===
{{Main|Jackal coursing}}
[[File:JackalhuntGiraffe feeding, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|left|''HuntingGiraffe Jackals''extending byits [[Samueltongue Howitt]]to feed. Its tongue, illustratinglips aand grouppalate ofare jackalstough rushingenough to thedeal defencewith ofsharp athorns fallenin pack-matetrees.]]
Giraffes usually inhabit [[savanna]]s, [[grassland]]s and open [[woodland]]s. They prefer ''[[Acacia]]'', ''[[Commiphora]]'', ''[[Combretum]]'' and open ''[[Terminalia (plant)|Terminalia]]'' woodlands over denser environments like ''[[Brachystegia]]'' woodlands.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|322}} The Angolan giraffe can be found in desert environments.<ref>{{cite thesis |author=Fennessy, J.|year=2004 |title=Ecology of desert-dwelling giraffe ''Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis'' in northwestern Namibia|publisher=[[University of Sydney]] |degree=[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] |url=http://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/handle/2123/910}}</ref> Giraffes browse on the twigs of trees, preferring trees of genera ''Acacia'', ''Commiphora'' and ''Terminalia'',<ref name=kingdon>{{Cita libro|titolo=The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals|autore=Kingdon, J.|editore=Academic Press|pp=339–44|anno=1997|isbn=0-12-408355-2}}</ref> which are important sources of calcium and protein to sustain the giraffe's growth rate.<ref name="Mitchell20003"/> They also feed on shrubs, grass and fruit.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|324}} A giraffe eats around {{convert|34|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of foliage daily.<ref name=estes/> When stressed, giraffes may chew the bark off branches. Although [[herbivorous]], the giraffe has been known to visit carcasses and lick dried meat off bones.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|325}}
[[File:Canis aureus fur skin.jpg|thumb|Golden jackal pelt]]
During the [[British Raj]], British sportsmen in India would hunt jackals on horseback with hounds as a substitute for the [[fox hunting]] of their native England. Unlike foxes, golden jackals were documented to be ferociously protective of their pack mates, and could seriously injure dogs.<ref>''An Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports: Or a Complete Account, Historical, Practical, and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and Other Field Sports and Athletic Amusements of the Present Day, Delabere Pritchett Blaine'' by Delabere Pritchett Blaine, published by Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840</ref>
 
During the wet season, food is abundant and giraffes are more spread out, while during the dry season, they gather around the remaining evergreen trees and bushes.<ref name=kingdon/> Mothers tend to feed in open areas, presumably to make it easier to detect predators, although this may reduce their feeding efficiency.<ref name=sexdiff /> As a [[ruminant]], the giraffe first chews its food, then swallows it for processing and then visibly passes the half-digested cud up the neck and back into the mouth to chew again.<ref name=anatomy/>{{rp|78-79}} It is common for a giraffe to salivate while feeding.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|27}} The giraffe requires less food than many other herbivores, because the foliage it eats has more concentrated nutrients and it has a more efficient digestive system.<ref name=kingdon/> The animal's feces come in the form of small pellets.<ref name="Dagg1971"/> When it has access to water, a giraffe drinks at intervals no longer than three days.<ref name=estes/>
{{quote|According to Dr. Jerdon, the Jackal is easily pulled down by greyhounds, but gives an excellent run with foxhounds. He adds that they are very tenacious of life, and "sham dead" so well as to deceive even experienced sportsmen. On one occasion a Jackal came to the aid of another individual possibly its mate which had been seized by greyhounds, attacking them furiously although Dr. Jerdon was close by on horseback.
|''A monograph of the canidae'' by St. George Mivart, F.R.S, published by Alere Flammam. 1890}}
 
Giraffes have a great effect on the trees that they feed on, delaying the growth of young trees for some years and giving "waistlines" to trees that are too tall.<ref name=estes/> Feeding is at its highest during the first and last hours of daytime. Between these hours, giraffes mostly stand and ruminate. Rumination is the dominant activity during the night, when it is mostly done lying down.<ref name=estes/>
Jackals were not hunted often in this manner, as they were slower than foxes and could scarcely outrun greyhounds after 200 yards.<ref>''The Sports Library Riding, Driving and Kindred Sports'' by T. F. Dale, published by BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, ISBN 1-110-58955-7</ref>
[[File:Giraffa camelopardalis angolensis (mating).jpg|thumb|left|Male giraffe mounting a female. Only dominant males are generally able to mate.]]
===Social life and breeding habits===
While giraffes are usually found in groups, the composition of these groups tends to be open and ever-changing.<ref name=Manyara>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore= van der Jeugd, H. P; Prins, H. H. T. |titolo= Movements and group structure of giraffe (''Giraffa camelopardalis'') in Lake Manyara National Park, Tanzania|rivista= Journal of Zoology |volume= 251|numero= 1|pp= 15–21|anno= 2000| doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00588.x|url=http://www.resource-ecology.org/publ/2000_Jeugd,Prins_MovementsAndGroupStructureOfGiraffeInLakeManyara.pdf}}</ref> They have few strong social bonds, and aggregations usually change members every few hours. For research purposes, a "group" has been defined as "a collection of individuals that are less than a kilometre apart and moving in the same general direction."<ref name= "Pratt 1985">{{Cita pubblicazione| doi = 10.1080/00222938500770471 |autore= Pratt D. M.; Anderson V. H. |anno= 1985 |titolo= Giraffe social behavior |rivista= Journal of Natural History |volume= 19 |numero= 4 |pp= 771–81 }}</ref> The number of giraffes in a group can range up to 32 individuals.<ref name=Manyara/> The most stable giraffe groups are those made of mothers and their young,<ref name= "Pratt 1985"/> which can last weeks or months.<ref name= "Leuthold 1979"/> Social cohesion in these groups is maintained by the bonds formed between calves.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|330}}<ref name= "Pratt 1985"/> Mixed-sex groups made of adult females and young males are also known to occur.<ref name= "Pratt 1985"/> Subadult males are particularly social and will engage in playfights. However, as they get older males become more solitary.<ref name= "Leuthold 1979"/<ref name= "Leuthold 1979"/> Giraffes are not territorial,<ref name="Dagg1971"/> but they have [[home range]]s.<ref name=estes/> Male giraffes occasionally wander far from areas that they normally frequent.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|329}}
 
Reproduction is broadly polygamous: a few older males mate with the fertile females. Male giraffes assess female fertility by tasting the female's urine to detect [[estrus]], in a multi-step process known as the [[Flehmen response]].<ref name= "Pratt 1985"/><ref name= "Leuthold 1979">{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Leuthold, B. M.|anno=1979|titolo=Social organization and behaviour of giraffe in Tsavo East National Park|rivista=African Journal of Ecology|volume=17|numero=1|pp=19–34|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1979.tb00453.x}}</ref> Males prefer young adult females over juveniles and older adults.<ref name= "Pratt 1985"/> Once an estrous female is detected, the male will attempt to court her. When courting, dominant males will keep subordinate ones at bay.<ref name= "Leuthold 1979"/> During copulation, the male stands on its hind legs with its head held up and its front legs resting on the female's sides.<ref name=estes/>
In the former Soviet Union, jackals are not actively hunted, and are usually captured incidentally during the hunting of other animals by means of traps or shooting during drives. In the Trans-Caucases, jackals are captured with large fishing hooks baited with meat, suspended 75–100&nbsp;cm from the ground with wire. The jackals can only reach the meat by jumping, and are hooked by the lip or jaw.<ref name="soviet" />
 
Although generally quiet and non-vocal, giraffes have been heard to communicate using various sounds. During courtship, males emit loud coughs.<ref name=estes/> Females call their young by bellowing. Calves will emit snorts, bleats, mooing and mewing sounds. Giraffes also snore, hiss, moan and make flute-like sounds,<ref name=estes/> and they communicate over long distances using [[infrasound]].<ref>{{Cita web|titolo=Silent Sentinels?|editore=PBS online – Nature|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/episodes/tall-blondes/silent-sentinels/2256/|accesso=21 dicembre 2011}}</ref>
The Greek Ministry of Agriculture annually organised shooting and poisoning campaigns against jackals up until 1981. An average of 1000 jackals were killed per year in these campaigns, and a bounty was paid for each animal killed. The jackal was the first wild canid to be removed from Greece's vermin list in 1990 and was followed by the wolf and fox in 1993, though unlike the latter two species, jackals did not fully recolonise areas of their former range. Although jackals in Greece are rarely hunted intentionally, they are occasionally shot during the hunts of other animals such as wild boar.<ref name="GW" />
 
===Birthing and parental care===
In Italy the species has been recently protected by the National Law 157/1992, but it is occasionally shot illegally during [[fox hunting]]. This seems to be the main obstacle for the species in Italy.<ref name="lapini2"/>
[[File:Giraffe Family.jpg|thumb|Mother giraffe and calves feeding. It is mostly the females that raise young, and they may gather in nursery herds.]]
Giraffe [[gestation]] lasts 400–460 days, after which a single calf is normally born, although twins occur on rare occasions.<ref name=ap>{{Cita web|titolo=Mammal Guide – Giraffe|editore=[[Animal Planet]]|url=http://animal.discovery.com/guides/mammals/habitat/tropgrassland/giraffe.html|accesso=7 marzo 2009}}</ref> The mother gives birth standing up. The calf emerges head and front legs first, having broken through the [[fetal membrane]]s, and falls to the ground, severing the [[umbilical cord]].<ref name="Dagg1971"/> The mother then grooms the newborn and helps it stand up.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|40}} A newborn giraffe is about {{convert|1.8|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} tall. Within a few hours of birth, the calf can run around and is almost indistinguishable from a one-week-old. However, for the first 1–3 weeks, it spends most of its time hiding;<ref name="Langman 1977">{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Langman, V. A.|anno=1977|titolo=Cow-calf relationships in giraffe (''Giraffa camelopardalis giraffa'')|rivista=Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie|volume=43|numero=3|pp=264–86}} [[Digital object identifier|doi]]:[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1977.tb00074.x/abstract 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1977.tb00074.x]</ref> its coat pattern providing camouflage. The ossicones, which have lain flat while it was in the womb, become erect within a few days.<ref name=estes/>
 
Mothers with calves will gather in nursery herds, moving or browsing together. Mothers in such a group may sometimes leave their calves with one female while they forage and drink elsewhere. This is known as a "calving pool".<ref name= "Langman 1977"/> Adult males play almost no role in raising the young,<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|337}} although they appear to have friendly interactions.<ref name= "Pratt 1985"/> Calves are at risk of predation, and a mother giraffe will stand over her calf and kick at an approaching predator.<ref name=estes/> Females watching calving pools will only alert their own young if they detect a disturbance, although the others will take notice and follow.<ref name= "Langman 1977"/> The bond a mother shares with her calf varies, though it can last until her next calving.<ref name= "Langman 1977"/> Likewise, calves may suckle for only a month<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|335}} or as long as a year.<ref name=estes/><ref name= "Leuthold 1979"/> Females become sexually mature when they are four years old, while males become mature at four or five years. However, males must wait until they are at least seven years old to gain the opportunity to mate.<ref name=estes/><ref name=Williams/>{{rp|40}}
Jackals are hunted in Vietnam for their noses, which are supposed to possess medicinal qualities.<ref>''Vietnam: a natural history'' by Eleanor J. Sterling, Martha Maud Hurley, Minh Duc Le, published by Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10608-4</ref>
 
===Fur useNecking===
[[File:Giraffe Ithala KZN South Africa Luca Galuzzi 2004.JPG|thumb|Male giraffes will engage in necking to establish dominance.]]
In [[Russia]] and other nations of the [[former Soviet Union]], golden jackals are considered furbearers, albeit ones of low quality due to their sparse, coarse and monotonously coloured fur.<ref name="soviet" /> Asiatic and Near Eastern jackals produce the coarsest pelts, though this can be remedied during the dressing process. As jackal hairs have very little fur fibre, their skins have a flat appearance. The softest furs come from [[Elburz]] in northern Iran.<ref name="fur">Bachrach, M., ''Fur: a practical treatise'', 3rd edition., New York : Prentice-Hall, 1953</ref> Jackals are known to have been hunted for their fur in the 19th century: in the 1880s, 200 jackals were captured annually in Mervsk. In the Zakatal area of the Trans-Caucases, 300 jackals were captured in 1896. During that period, a total of 10,000 jackals had been taken within Russia, and were sent exclusively to the Nizhegorod fair. In the early 1930s, 20-25 thousand jackal skins were tanned annually in the [[Soviet Union]], though the stocks were significantly underused, as over triple that amount could have been produced. Before 1949 and the onset of the [[Cold War]], the majority of jackal skins were exported to the [[USA]]. Despite their geographical variations, jackal skins are not graded according to a fur standard, and are typically used in the manufacture of cheap collars, women's coats and fur coats.<ref name="soviet" /> Jackal fur is still valued by the [[Kazakh people]] along the Caspian shoreline, as it is lighter and warmer than [[sheepskin]].<ref>[http://www.caspianenvironment.org/biodiversity2.htm Animals of the Caspian Sea]</ref>
Male giraffes use their necks as weapons in combat, a behavior known as "necking". Necking is used to establish dominance and males that win necking bouts have greater reproductive success.<ref name=sim1996/> This behavior occurs at low or high intensity. In low intensity necking, the combatants rub and lean against each other. The male that can hold itself more erect wins the bout.<ref name=estes/> In high intensity necking, the combatants will spread their front legs and swing their necks at each other, attempting to land blows with their ossicones. The contestants will try to dodge each other's blows and then get ready to counter. The power of a blow depends on the weight of the skull and the arc of the swing.<ref name=estes/> A necking duel can last more than half an hour, depending on how well matched the combatants are.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|331}}
 
After a duel, it is common for two male giraffes to caress and court each other, leading up to mounting and climax. Such interactions between males have been found to be more frequent than heterosexual coupling.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Coe, M. J.|anno=1967|titolo='Necking' behavior in the giraffe|rivista=Journal of Zoology|volume=151|numero=2|pp=313–21|doi= 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1967.tb02117.x}}</ref> In one study, up to 94 percent of observed mounting incidents took place between males. The proportion of same-sex activities varied from 30–75 percent. Only one percent of same-sex mounting incidents occurred between females.<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=Bagemihl, B.|anno= 1999|titolo=Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity|editore=St. Martin's Press|pp=391–93|isbn= 0-312-19239-8}}</ref>
===Tameability===
Golden jackals are easily tamed, and if taken when young, can be taught to follow and obey their captors like dogs. When captured as adults, they are much less tractable, being shy, suspicious and prone to bite without warning. Tame jackals are noted to gradually lose their distinct odour in proportion to the length of their captivity.<ref>''The illustrated natural history'' by John George Wood, published by G. Routledge and sons, 1865</ref> [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote of how he encountered several tame jackals in India, describing one which would come when called by its name, and was fastidiously clean. Rather than sit on its haunches as a dog would, it would lie at full length with its nose between its forepaws.<ref>''Roosevelt in Africa'' by Frederick Seymour, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4179-4207-X</ref>
 
==Relationship=Mortality toand the doghealth===
<!-- [[File:Lioness_with_giraffe_kill,_jackal_lurking,_kenya,_august_9th_2012.jpg|thumb|right|Lioness seen with adult giraffe kill]] -->
===Hyrbidisation===
Giraffes have an unusually long lifespan compared to other ruminants,<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Müller, D.W.; Zerbe, P; Codron, D; Clauss, M; Hatt, J.M.|anno=2011|titolo=A long life among ruminants: giraffids and other special cases|rivista=Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde|volume=153|numero=11|pp=515–519|pmid=22045457|doi=10.1024/0036-7281/a000263}}</ref> up to 25 years in the wild.<ref name= "MacDonald"/> Because of their size, eyesight and powerful kicks, adult giraffes are usually not subject to predation.<ref name=estes/> However, they can fall prey to [[lion]]s and are regular prey for them in [[Kruger National Park]].<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Owen-Smith, N.; Mills, M. G.|anno=2008|titolo= Predator-prey size relationships in an African large-mammal food web|rivista=Journal of Animal Ecology|volume=77|numero=1|pp= 173–83|pmid= 18177336|url= http://137.215.9.22/bitstream/handle/2263/9023/Owen-Smith_Predator-prey(2008).pdf?sequence=1|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2656.2007.01314.x}}</ref> [[Nile crocodile]]s can also be a threat to giraffes when they bend down to drink.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|31}} Calves are much more vulnerable than adults, and are additionally preyed on by [[leopard]]s, [[spotted hyena]]s and [[Lycaon pictus|wild dogs]].<ref name="Prothero 2003"/> A quarter to a half of giraffe calves reach adulthood.
{{Main|Canid hybrid|Jackal-Dog Hybrid}}
[[File:Sulimov dog.jpg|thumb|A [[Sulimov Dog]] at work]]
Golden jackals are capable of reproducing with [[dog]]s. In his ''[[The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication]]'', [[Charles Darwin]] wrote of a female hybrid from an English dog and jackal kept in the Zoological Gardens of London. The hybrid was sterile, but Darwin pointed out that this was an exceptional case, as there were numerous cases of jackal hybrids successfully reproducing.<ref name="darwin">{{Cite book |last= Darwin |first= Charles | author-link =Charles Darwin| year=1868 | title=The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. Volume 1 | edition=1st | publication-place = London | publisher=John Murray | url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_VariationunderDomestication.html | pages=32–33 }}</ref> [[Robert Armitage Sterndale]] mentioned experimental jackal hybrids from [[British India]] in his ''Natural History of Mammals in India and Ceylon'', noting that glaring jackal traits could be exhibited in hybrids even after three generations of crossing them with dogs.<ref name="india">[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19550/19550-h/19550-h.htm#245 ''NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA AND CEYLON'' by Robert A. Sterndale, THACKER, SPINK, AND CO. BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO., LIMITED. LONDON: W. THACKER AND CO. 1884.]</ref>
 
Some parasites feed on giraffes. They are often hosts for [[tick]]s, especially in the area around the genitals, which has thinner skin than other areas.<ref name="Dagg1971"/> Tick species that commonly feed on giraffes are those of genera ''[[Hyalomma]]'', ''[[Amblyomma]]'' and ''[[Rhipicephalus]]''. Giraffes may rely on [[Red-billed Oxpecker|red-billed]] and [[yellow-billed oxpecker]]s to clean them of ticks and alert them to danger. Giraffes host numerous species of internal parasite and are susceptible to various diseases. They were victims of the (now eradicated) viral illness [[rinderpest]].<ref name="Dagg1971"/>
Scientists at Russia's DS Likhachev Scientific Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Environmental Protection began a breeding project in 1975 in which they crossed golden jackals with huskies, in order to create an improved breed with the jackal's power of scent and the husky's resistance to cold. In recent years, [[Aeroflot]] has used quarter jackal hybrids, known as [[Sulimov Dog]]s, to sniff out explosives otherwise undetectable by machinery.<ref name="sulimov1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1977094.stm Jackal blood makes 'perfect' sniffer dogs]</ref><ref name="sulimov2">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2572499.stm Russian airline's top dogs fight terror]</ref> Breeding experiments in [[Germany]] with [[poodle]]s, jackals, and later on with the resulting dog-jackal hybrids showed that unlike [[wolfdog]]s, jackal-dogs show a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems as well as an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding. This lead to the conclusion that dogs and jackals were not as closely related as once thought.<ref>Doris Feddersen-Petersen, Hundepsychologie, 4. Auflage, 2004, Franck-Kosmos-Verlag 2004</ref>
 
==Relationship with humans==
===Alleged ancestor===
===Cultural significance===
[[File:Domesticjackal.jpg|thumb|Illustration of domesticated jackals in a prehistoric human community]]
[[File:Giraffe cave art.jpg|thumb|Bushman rock art in Namibia depicting a giraffe]]
Following the example of [[Charles Darwin]], who speculated that [[dog]]s originated from multiple wild canid species, [[Konrad Lorenz]] advocated the view that most dogs, particularly central European breeds, originated from golden jackals, and that wolf blood only contributed in the creation of northern dog breeds. Lorenz theorised that wolf blood was added to an already existing jackal derived population only when humans began colonising Arctic zones in order to improve the hardiness of their animals in cold weather. He further pointed out that with the exception of northern dog breeds, which treat their human masters as pack leaders as wolves would do, the majority of dogs view their captors as parent animals, and display a submissive behaviour not usually found in northern breeds, a trait consistent with the golden jackal which does not rely heavily on pack members to procure food and survive. While capable of absolute obedience, the supposed jackal derived dogs are lacking in the deeper traits of loyalty and affection.<ref name="lorenz">''Man meets dog'' by Konrad Lorenz, Marjorie Kerr Wilson, translated by Marjorie Kerr Wilson, Edition 2, illustrated, published by Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-26744-7</ref> He later rescinded this view upon taking into account the golden jackal's complicated repertoire of howling, which is absent in dogs and wolves.<ref>''The wild canids: Their systematics, behavioral ecology, and evolution'' by Michael W. Fox. Published in 1975, Van Nostrand Reinhold (New York)</ref>
Humans have interacted with giraffes for millennia. The [[Bushmen]] of southern Africa have medicine dances named after some animals; the giraffe dance is performed to treat head ailments.<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=Ross, K.|anno=2003|titolo=Okavango: jewel of the Kalahari|editore=Struik|p=168|isbn=1-86872-729-7}}</ref> How the giraffe got its height has been the subject of various African [[folktales]],<ref name=sim1996/> including one from eastern Africa which explains that the giraffe grew tall from eating too many magic herbs.<ref>{{Cita libro|autore=Greaves, N.; Clement, R.|anno=2000|titolo=When Hippo Was Hairy: And Other Tales from Africa|editore=Struik|pp=86–88|isbn=1-86872-456-5}}</ref> Giraffes were depicted in art throughout the African continent, including that of the [[Kiffian culture|Kiffians]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and [[Meroë|Meroë Nubians]].<ref name=Williams>{{Cita libro|autore=Williams, E.|anno=2011|titolo=Giraffe|editore=Reaktion Books|isbn=1-86189-764-2}}</ref>{{rp|45–47}} The Kiffians were responsible for a life-size rock engraving of two giraffes that has been called the "world's largest rock art petroglyph".<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|45}}<ref>{{Cita web|url=http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/giraffe/|titolo=The Dabous Giraffe rock art petrograph|editore=The Bradshaw Foundation|accesso=6 novembre 2011}}</ref> The Egyptians gave the giraffe its own [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]], named 'sr' in [[Old Egyptian language|Old Egyptian]] and 'mmy' in later periods.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|49}} They also kept giraffes as pets and shipped them around the [[Mediterranean]].<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|48–49}}
[[File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|thumb|left|Painting of a giraffe imported to China during the Ming Dynasty]]
The giraffe was also known to the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who believed that it was an unnatural hybrid of a [[camel]] and a leopard and called it ''camelopardalis''.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|50}} The giraffe was among the many animals collected and displayed by the Romans. The first one in Rome was brought in by [[Julius Caesar]] in 46 BC and exhibited to the public.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|52}} With the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], the housing of giraffes in Europe declined.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|54}} During the [[Middle Ages]], giraffes were only known to Europeans through contact with the Arabs, who revered the giraffe for its peculiar appearance.<ref name="Prothero 2003">{{Cita libro|autore=Prothero, D. R.; Schoch, R. M.|anno=2003|titolo=Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals|editore=Johns Hopkins University Press|pp=67–72|isbn=0-8018-7135-2}}</ref>
 
In 1414, a giraffe was shipped from [[Malindi]] to [[Bengal]]. It was then taken to China by explorer [[Zheng He]] and placed in a [[Ming Dynasty]] zoo. The animal was a source of fascination for the Chinese people, who associated it with the mythical [[Qilin]].<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|56}} The [[Medici giraffe]] was a giraffe presented to [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] in 1486. It caused a great stir on its arrival in Florence,<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|pdf=http://www.archive.org/download/ErikRingmaraudienceForAGiraffeEuropeanExceptionalismAndTheQuest_744/ErikRingmarAudienceForAGiraffe.pdf |titolo=Audience for a Giraffe: European Expansionism and the Quest for the Exotic|autore= Ringmar, E.|rivista= Journal of World History|anno= 2006|volume= 17|numero= 4|pp= 353–97 |jstor = 20079397|doi=10.1353/jwh.2006.0060}}</ref> being reputedly the first living giraffe to be seen in Italy since antiquity. Another [[Giraffe given to Charles X of France by Muhammad Ali of Egypt|famous giraffe]] was brought from Egypt to Paris in the early 19th century. A sensation, the giraffe was the subject of numerous memorabilia or "giraffanalia".<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|81}}
Although the general consensus among modern scientists is that dogs originated from Asian wolves, there are still those who advocate the possibility of a partial jackal contribution. Dog specialist Dr Ian Dunbar pointed out how jackals have often been recorded to mate with pariah and dingo-like dogs and produce offspring, thus the possibility of jackals having influenced some breeds is a possibility. Author Michael Rice further argues that the golden jackal may have played a large part in the creation of Ancient Egyptian hunting hounds, pointing out how [[Pharaoh hound]]s do indeed have vocalisations similar to golden jackals, including the latter species' ability to almost mimic the calls of their human masters. Among other similarities, Pharaoh hounds tend to give ritual "noddings and groanings" to people they encounter for the first time, and tend to be monogamous, and only choose to mate with members of the same breed.<ref name="rice">''Swifter than the arrow: the golden hunting hounds of ancient Egypt'' by Michael Rice, published by I.B.Tauris, 2006, ISBN 1-84511-116-8</ref>
 
Giraffes continue to have a presence in modern culture. [[Salvador Dalí]] depicted them with [[conflagration|conflagrated]] manes in some of his surrealist paintings. Dali considered the giraffe to be a symbol of masculinity, and a flaming giraffe was meant to be a "masculine cosmic apocalyptic monster".<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|123}} Several children's books feature the giraffe, including David A. Ufer's ''The Giraffe Who Was Afraid of Heights'', [[Giles Andreae]]'s ''Giraffes Can't Dance'' and [[Roald Dahl]]'s ''[[The Giraffe and the Pelly and Me]]''. Giraffes have appeared in animated films, as minor characters in [[Disney]]'s ''[[The Lion King]]'' and ''[[Dumbo]]'', and in more prominent roles in ''[[The Wild]]'' and in the ''[[Madagascar (franchise)|Madagascar]]'' films. [[Sophie the Giraffe]] has been a popular [[teether]] since 1961. Another famous fictional giraffe is the Toys "R" Us mascot [[Toys "R" Us#Geoffrey the Giraffe|Geoffrey the Giraffe]].<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|127}} The giraffe is also the [[national animal]] of Tanzania.<ref>{{Cita libro|titolo=East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda |autore=Knappert, J |wkautore=Jan Knappert |anno=1987 |editore=Vikas Publishing House|isbn= 0-7069-2822-9 |p=57}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
The giraffe has also been used for some scientific experiments and discoveries. Scientists have looked at the properties of giraffe skin when developing suits for astronauts and fighter pilots.<ref name=anatomy/>{{rp|76}} This is because the people in these professions are in danger of passing out if blood rushes to their legs. Computer scientists have modeled the coat patterns of several subspecies using [[reaction-diffusion|reaction–diffusion]] mechanisms.<ref>{{Cita pubblicazione|autore=Walter, M.; Fournier, A.; Menevaux, D.|anno=2001|titolo= Integrating shape and pattern in mammalian models in SIGGRAPH '01|rivista=Proceedings of the 28th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques|pp= 317–26 |doi= 10.1145/383259.383294|url=http://www.csun.edu/~renzo/GraphicsResources/Articles/walter.pdf|isbn=1-58113-374-X}}</ref> The [[constellation]] of [[Camelopardalis]], introduced in the seventeenth century, depicts a giraffe.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|119–20}}
== Bibliografia ==
* Randall R. Reeves, Brent S. Stewart, Phillip J. Clapham and James A. Powell (2002). ''National Audubon Society Guide to Marine Mammals of the World''. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. ISBN 0375411410. pp. 89–93.
*{{Cite book
| title = Blue Whales
| author = J. Calambokidis and G. Steiger
| year = 1998
| publisher = Voyageur Press
| isbn = 0-89658-338-4}}
*{{Cite web
| title=Blue Whale
| work= American Cetacean Society
| url= http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/bluewhl.htm
| accessdate = 2005-01-07}}
*{{Cite web
| title=Blue whale, ''Balaenoptera musculus''
| work = MarineBio.org
| url = http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=41
| accessdate = 2006-04-21}}
* [http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/bluewhale.htm NOAA Fisheries, Office of Protected Resources] Blue whale biology & status
 
===Exploitation and conservation status===
== Altri progetti ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 105-DOA0377, Deutsch-Ostafrika, Giraffe.jpg|thumb|Giraffe killed by tribesmen in the early 20th century]]
{{interprogetto|wikispecies=Balaenoptera musculus}}
Giraffes were probably common targets for hunters throughout Africa.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|337}} Different parts of their bodies were used for different purposes.<ref name="Dagg1971"/> Their meat was used for food. The tail hairs served as [[flyswatter]]s, bracelets, necklaces and thread.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|337}}<ref name="Dagg1971"/> Shields, sandals and drums were made using the skin, and the strings of musical instruments were from the tendons.<ref name="Dagg1971"/> The smoke from burning giraffe skins was used by the medicine men of [[Buganda]] to treat nose bleeds.<ref name=Kingdon1988/>{{rp|337}} In the 19th Century, European explorers begin hunting them for sport.<ref name=Williams/>{{rp|129}} Habitat destruction has hurt the giraffe, too: in the [[Sahel]], the need for firewood and grazing room for livestock has led to [[deforestation]]. Normally, giraffes can coexist with livestock, since they do not directly compete with them.<ref name= "MacDonald"/>
{{interprogetto|commons=Category:Balaenoptera musculus}}
 
The giraffe species as a whole is assessed as [[Least Concern]] from a conservation perspective by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]], as it is still numerous. However, giraffes have been [[extirpated]] from much of their historic range including [[Eritrea]], [[Guinea]], [[Mauritania]] and [[Senegal]]. They may also have disappeared from [[Angola]], [[Mali]], and [[Nigeria]], but have been introduced to [[Rwanda]] and [[Swaziland]].<ref name=iucn/> Two subspecies, the [[West African giraffe]] and the [[Rothschild giraffe]], have been classified as [[Endangered species|Endangered]],<ref name=IUCNrothschildi/><ref name=IUCNperalta/> as wild populations of each of them number in the hundreds.<ref name=wildstatus/> In 1997, [[Jonathan Kingdon]] suggested that the [[Nubian giraffe]] was the most threatened of all giraffes;<ref name=kingdon/> {{as of|2010|lc=y}}, it may number fewer than 250, although this estimate is uncertain.<ref name=wildstatus/> Private game reserves have contributed to the preservation of giraffe populations in southern Africa.<ref name= "MacDonald"/> [[Giraffe Manor]] is a popular hotel in [[Nairobi]] which also serves a sanctuary for Rothschild's giraffes.<ref>{{Cita web|autore=Lord. M|data=11 gennaio 2012|titolo=Outlandish Outposts: Giraffe Manor in Kenya|editore=Forbes.com|accesso=4 aprile 2012|url=http://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestravelguide/2012/01/11/outlandish-outposts-giraffe-manor-in-kenya/}}</ref> The giraffe is a protected species in most of its range. In 1999, it was estimated that over 140,000 giraffes existed in the wild, but estimates in 2010 indicate that fewer than 80,000 remain.<ref name=wildstatus/>
== Collegamenti esterni ==
*[http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Balaenoptera_musculus/ Photographs and movies from ARKive]
*[http://www.whalingmuseum.org/exhibits/kobo.html Photographs from the] New Bedford Whaling Museum *[http://www.whalingmuseum.org/exhibits/kobo.html of "Kobo", a blue whale skeleton]<!--- Note the double-linking in the line above is a deliberate to keep the section looking neat -->
*[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/listen-to-project-sounds/blue-whale Blue whale vocalizations] - [[Cornell]] Lab of Ornithology—Bioacoustics Research Program
*[http://www.cetace.info/videos/Baleine_bleue/videos_baleine_bleue.php Blue whale movies, text in French]
*[http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/endangered_species_list/cetaceans/about/blue_whale/ World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - species profile for the blue whale]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science_and_environment/10340277.stm BBC News - Great whales]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/Blue_Whale Blue Whale video clips and news from the BBC - BBC Wildlife Finder]
*[http://www.balaenopteramusculus.com/ Balaenoptera Musculus]
* {{EDGE|id=88}}
 
===Note===
{{Cetacei}}
{{PortaleReferences|mammiferi2}}