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=Libro di Kells=
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===Riproduzioni===
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[[Image:BookKells.jpg|thumb|Folio 183r from the 1990 facsimile of the Book of Kells contains the text "Erat autem hora tertia" ("now it was the third hour").]]
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In 1951, the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] publisher Urs Graf Verlag Bern produced the first [[facsimile]]<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-7134%28194807%2923%3A3%3C555%3AA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage Announcements]. ''Speculum, Vol. 23, No. 3, July, 1948''. pp. 555-558.</ref> of the Book of Kells. The majority of the pages were reproduced in black-and-white [[photographs]], but the edition also featured forty-eight colour reproductions, including all of the full-page decorations. Under license from the Board of Trinity College Dublin, [[Thames and Hudson]] produced a second facsimile edition in 1974. This edition included all the full-page illustrations in the manuscript and a representative section of the ornamentation of the text pages, together with some enlarged details of the illustrations. The reproductions were all in full colour, with photography by John Kennedy, Green Studio, Dublin.
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In 1979, Swiss publisher Faksimile-Verlag Luzern requested permission to produce a full-colour facsimile of the book. Permission was initially denied, because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book was too high. By 1986, Faksimile-Verlag had developed a process that used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could be photographed without touching it and so won permission to publish a new facsimile.<ref>McGill, Douglas. "[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE6D8153FF931A35755C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all Irelands's Book of Kells is Facsimiled]". ''New York Times'', 2 June 1987. Retrieved on 28 February 2008.</ref> After each page was photographed, a single-page facsimile was prepared so the colours could be carefully compared to the original and adjustments made where necessary. The completed work was published in 1990 in a two-volume set containing the full facsimile and scholarly commentary. One copy is held by the [[Anglican]] Church in Kells, on the site of the original monastery.
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Thai-German architect [[Mario Kleff]] also reproduced folios from the Book of Kells and together with Faksimile-Verlag Publisher Urs Düggelin, curated an exhibition of the Book of Kells which included these facsimile pages. These facsimiles were created using the original techniques and were also presented in the Diocesan Museum of Trier.<ref>{{ cite news | url=http://www.slideshare.net/MarioKleff/ein-meisterwerk-a-masterpiece-book-of-kells | title=Book of Kells | work=PAULINUS | last= Noyer |first= Catherine | date=1997-10-19| accessdate=1997-10-19 | ___location=Trier}}</ref>
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===Decoration===
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The text is accompanied by many full-page [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]], while smaller painted decorations appear throughout the text in unprecedented quantities. The decoration of the book is famous for combining intricate detail with bold and energetic compositions. The characteristics of the Insular manuscript initial, as described by Carl Nordenfalk, here reach their most extreme realization: "the initials ... are conceived as elastic forms expanding and contracting with a pulsating rhythm. The kinetic energy of their contours escapes into freely drawn appendices, a spiral line which in turn generates new curvilinear motifs...".<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 13.</ref> The illustrations feature a broad range of colours, with purple, lilac, red, pink, green, and yellow being the colours most often used. Earlier manuscripts tend toward more narrow palettes: the Book of Durrow, for example, uses only four colours. As is usual with Insular work, there was no use of [[Metal leaf#Gold Leaf|gold]] or [[Metal leaf|silver leaf]] in the manuscript. The [[pigments]] for the illustrations, which included red and yellow ochre, green copper pigment (sometimes called ''[[verdigris]]''), indigo and [[lapis lazuli]],<ref>Fuchs and Oltrogge in O'Mahoney 1994, 134-135.</ref> would have been imported from the Mediterranean region and, in the case of the lapis lazuli, from northeast Afghanistan.<ref>Meehan 1994, 88.</ref>
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The lavish illumination programme is far greater than any other surviving Insular Gospel book. There are ten surviving full-page illuminations including two [[evangelist portrait]]s, three pages with the four [[evangelist symbols]], a [[carpet page]], a miniature of the [[Virgin and Child]], a miniature of Christ enthroned, and miniatures of the [[Arrest of Jesus]] and the [[Temptation of Christ]]. There are thirteen surviving full pages of decorated text including pages for the first few words of each of the Gospels. Eight of the ten pages of the canon tables have extensive decoration. It is highly probable that there were other pages of miniature and decorated text that are now lost. In addition to these major pages, there are a host of smaller decorations and decorated initials throughout the text; in fact only two pages have no decoration.<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 108.</ref>
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[[Image:KellsFol002rCanonTable.jpg|thumb|right|Folio 2r of the Book of Kells contains one of the [[Eusebian Canons]].]]
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The extant folios of the manuscript start with the fragment of the glossary of Hebrew names. This fragment occupies the left-hand column of folio 1r. A miniature of the four evangelist symbols, now much abraded, make up the right-hand column. The miniature is oriented so that the volume must be turned ninety degrees in order to view it properly.<ref name="Henry167">Henry 1974, 167.</ref> The four evangelist symbols are a visual theme that runs throughout the book. They are almost always shown together to emphasise the doctrine of the four Gospels' unity of message.
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The unity of the Gospels is further emphasised by the decoration of the Eusebian canon tables. The canon tables themselves inherently illustrate the unity of the Gospels by organising corresponding passages from the Gospels. The Eusebian canon tables normally require twelve pages. In the Book of Kells, the makers of the manuscript planned for twelve pages (folios 1v through 7r) but for unknown reasons, condensed them into ten, leaving folios 6v and 7r blank. This condensation rendered the canon tables unusable. The decoration of the first eight pages of the canon tables is heavily influenced by early Gospel Books from the Mediterranean, where it was traditional to enclose the tables within an [[Arcade (architecture)|arcade]] (as seen in the [[London Canon Tables]]).<ref name="Henry167"/> The Kells manuscript presents this [[Motif (visual arts)|motif]] in an Insular spirit, where the arcades are not seen as architectural elements but rather become stylised geometric patterns with Insular ornamentation. The four evangelist symbols occupy the spaces under and above the arches. The last two canon tables are presented within a grid. This presentation is limited to Insular manuscripts and was first seen in the Book of Durrow.<ref name="Calkins7982">Calkins 1983, 79-82.</ref>
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[[Image:KellsFol007vMadonnaChild V2.jpg|thumb|left|Folio 7v contains an image of the [[Virgin and Child]]. This is the oldest extant image of the Virgin Mary in a Western manuscript.]]
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The remainder of the book is broken into sections with the divisions set off by miniatures and full pages of decorated text. Each of the Gospels is introduced by a consistent decorative programme. The preliminary matter is treated as one section and introduced by a lavish decorative spread. In addition to the preliminaries and the Gospels, the "second beginning" of the Gospel of Matthew is also given its own introductory decoration.<!-- very repetitive section -->
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The preliminary matter is introduced by an [[icon]]ic image of the [[Virgin and Child]] (folio 7v). This miniature is the first representation of the Virgin in a Western manuscript. Mary is shown in an odd mixture of frontal and three-quarter pose. This miniature also bears a stylistic similarity to the carved image on the lid of [[St. Cuthbert's coffin]] of 698. The iconography of the miniature may derive from an Eastern or Coptic icon.<ref name="Calkins82">Calkins 1983, 82.</ref>
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The miniature of the Virgin and Child faces the first page of text and is an appropriate preface to the beginning of the ''Breves Causae'' of Matthew, which begins ''Nativitas Christi in Bethlem'' (the birth of Christ in Bethlehem). The beginning page ([[:Image:KellsFol008rBrevCausMatt.jpg|folio 8r]]) of the text of the ''Breves Causae'' is decorated and contained within an elaborate frame. The two-page spread of the miniature and the text makes a vivid introductory statement for the prefatory material. The opening line of each of the sections of the preliminary matter is enlarged and decorated (see above for the ''Breves causae'' of Luke), but no other section of the preliminaries is given the same level of treatment as the beginning of the ''Breves Causae'' of Matthew.<ref name="Calkins82"/>
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[[Image:Kelljohn.jpg|thumb|right|Folio 291v contains a portrait of [[John the Evangelist]].]]
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The book was designed so that each of the Gospels would have an elaborate introductory decorative programme. Each Gospel was originally prefaced by a full page miniature containing the four evangelist symbols, followed by a blank page. Then came a portrait of the evangelist which faced the opening text of the Gospel which was given an elaborate decorative treatment.<ref>Henry 1974, 172.</ref> The Gospel of Matthew retains both its Evangelist portrait ([[:Image:KellsFol028vPortMatt.jpg|folio 28v]]) and its page of Evangelist symbols (folio 27r, see above). The Gospel of Mark is missing the Evangelist portrait but retains its Evangelist symbols page ([[:Image:KellsFol129v4EvangelistSymbols.jpg|folio 129v]]). The Gospel of Luke is missing both the portrait and the Evangelist symbols page. The Gospel of John, like the Gospel of Matthew, retains both its portrait (folio 291v, see at right) and its Evangelist symbols page ([[:Image:KellsFol290v4EvangelistSymbols.jpg|folio 290v]]). It can be assumed that the portraits for Mark and Luke and the symbols page for Luke at one time existed but have been lost.<ref>Henry 1974, 172-173.</ref> The use of all four of the Evangelist symbols in front of each Gospel is striking and was intended to reinforce the message of the unity of the Gospels.
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The decoration of the opening few words of each Gospel was lavish. These pages were, in effect, turned into carpet pages. The decoration of these texts is so elaborate that the text itself is almost illegible. The opening page (folio 28r) of Matthew may stand as an example. (See illustration at left.) The page consists of only two words: ''Liber generationis'' ("The book of the generation"). The ''lib'' of ''Liber'' is turned in to a giant monogram which dominates the entire page. The ''er'' of ''Liber'' is presented as an interlaced ornament within the ''b'' of the ''lib'' monogram. ''Generationis'' is broken into three lines and contained within an elaborate frame in the right lower quadrant of the page. The entire assemblage is contained within an elaborate border.<ref name="Calkins85">Calkins 1983, 85.</ref>
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[[Image:KellsFol029rIncipitMatthew.jpg|thumb|left|Folio 29r contains the [[incipit]] to the [[Gospel of Matthew]].]] The border and the letters themselves are further decorated with elaborate spirals and [[Celtic knot|knot work]], many of them zoomorphic. The opening words of Mark, ''[[:Image:KellsFol130rIncipitMark.jpg|Initium evangelii]]'' ("The beginning of the Gospel"), Luke, ''[[:Image:KellsFol188rQuoniam.gif|Quoniam quidem multi]]'', and John, ''[[:Image:KellsFol292rIncipJohn.jpg|In principio erat verbum]]'' ("In the beginning was the Word"), are all given similar treatments. Although the decoration of these pages was most extensive in the Book of Kells, these pages were decorated in all of the other Insular Gospel Books.<ref>Calkins 1983, 82-85.</ref>
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The Gospel of Matthew begins with a [[genealogy of Jesus]]. At {{bibleref|Matthew|1:18}}, the actual narrative of [[Nativity of Jesus|Christ's life starts]]. This "second beginning" to Matthew was given emphasis in many early Gospel Books, so much so that the two sections were often treated as separate works. The second beginning begins with the word ''Christ''. The Greek letters [[Chi (letter)|chi]] and [[Rho (letter)|rho]] were often used in mediaeval manuscripts to abbreviate the word ''Christ''. In Insular Gospel Books, the initial [[Labarum|Chi Rho]] [[monogram]] was enlarged and decorated. In the Book of Kells, this second beginning was given a decorative programme equal to those that preface the individual Gospels.<ref name="Calkins85"/> Folio 32 verso has a miniature of Christ enthroned. (It has been argued that this miniature is one of the lost evangelist portraits. However, the iconography is quite different from the extant portraits, and current scholarship accepts this identification and placement for this miniature.) Facing this miniature, on [[:Image:KellsFol033rCarpetPage.jpg|folio 33 recto]], is the only carpet page in the Book of Kells, which is rather anomalous; the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] has five extant carpet pages and the [[Book of Durrow]] has six. The blank verso of folio 33 faces the single most lavish miniature of the early mediaeval period, the Book of Kells Chi Rho monogram, which serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ.
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[[Image:KellsFol034rChiRhoMonogram.jpg|thumb|right|Folio 34r contains the [[Labarum|Chi Rho]] monogram.<ref>Werner 1972, 129-139.</ref> [[Chi (letter)|Chi]] and [[Rho (letter)|rho]] are the first two letters of the word ''[[Christ]]'' in [[Greek language|Greek]].]]
In the Book of Kells, the Chi Rho monogram has grown to consume the entire page. The letter chi dominates the page with one arm swooping across the majority of the page. The letter rho is snuggled underneath the arms of the chi. Both letters are divided into compartments which are lavishly decorated with knot work and other patterns. The background is likewise awash in a mass of swirling and knotted decoration. Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals and insects. Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the chi. This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram in any Insular Gospel Books and is the culmination of a tradition that started with the [[Book of Durrow]].<ref name="Calkins85"/>
The Book of Kells contains two other full-page miniatures, which illustrate episodes from the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] story. The text of Matthew is illustrated with a full-page illumination of the ''Arrest of Christ'' ([[:Image:KellsFol114rArrestOfChrist.jpg|folio 114r]]). Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two much smaller figures.<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 124.</ref> In the text of Luke, there is a full sized miniature of the ''[[Temptation of Christ]]'' ([[:Image:KellsFol202vTemptationOfChrist.jpg|folio 202v]]). Christ is shown from the waist up on top of the Temple. To his right is a crowd of people, perhaps representing his disciples. To his left and below him is a black figure of [[Satan]]. Above him hover two [[angel]]s.<ref>Nordenfalk 1977, 123.</ref>
The verso of the folio containing the ''[[Arrest of Jesus|Arrest of Christ]]'' contains a full page of decorated text which begins "[[:Image:KellsFol114vTuncDicit.gif|Tunc dicit illis]]". Facing the miniature of the Temptation is another full page of decorated text (folio 203r "Iesus autem plenus"). In addition to this page, five other full pages also receive elaborate treatment. In Matthew, there is one other full-page treatment ([[:Image:KellsFol124rTuncCrucixerant.jpg|folio 124r]], "Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum eo duos latrones"). In the Gospel of Mark, there are also two pages of decorated text ([[:Image:KellsFol183rEratAutem.jpg|folio 183r]], "Erat autem hora tercia", and folio 187v, "[Et Dominus] quidem [Iesus] postquam"). The Gospel of Luke contains two pages of fully decorated text (folio 188v, "Fuit in diebus Herodis ", and [[:Image:KellsFol285rUnaAutem.jpg|folio 285r]], "Una autem sabbati valde"). Although these texts do not have miniatures associated with them, it is probable that miniatures were planned to accompany each of these texts and have either been lost or were never completed. There is no surviving full page of text in the Gospel of John other than the Incipit. However, in the other three Gospels, all of the full pages of decorated text, except for folio 188c, which begins the Nativity narration, occur within the Passion narrative. However, since the missing folios of John contain the Passion narrative, it is likely that John contained full pages of decorated text that have been lost.<ref>Calkins 1983, 92.</ref>
[[Image:KellsDecoratedInitial.jpg|thumb|left|Almost all of the folios of the Book of Kells contain small illuminations like this decorated initial.]]
The decoration of the book is not limited to the major pages. Scattered through the text are decorated initials and small figures of animals and humans often twisted and tied into complicated knots. Many significant texts, such as the ''[[Lord's Prayer|Pater Noster]]'' have decorated initials. The page containing text of the [[Beatitudes]] in Matthew ([[:Image:KellsFol040vBeatitudes.jpg|folio 40v]]) has a large miniature along the left margin of the page in which the letter ''B'' which begins each line is linked into an ornate chain. The genealogy of Christ found in the Gospel of Luke ([[:Image:KellsFol200rGeneolgyOfChrist.gif|folio 200r]]) contains a similar miniature in which the word ''qui'' is repeatedly linked along the left margin. Many of the small animals scattered throughout the text serve to mark a "turn-in-the-path" (that is, a place where a line is finished in a space above or below the original line). Many other animals serve to fill spaces left at the end of lines. No two of these designs are the same. No earlier surviving manuscript has this massive amount of decoration.
[[Image:KellsFol034rXRhoDet3.jpeg|thumb|right|The decorations of the Book of Kells can be stunningly complex, as seen in this small detail of the Chi Rho monogram page. (Folio 34r)]]
The decorations are all high quality and often highly complex. In one decoration, which occupies a one-inch square piece of a page, there are 158 complex interlacements of white ribbon with a black border on either side. Some decorations can only be fully seen with magnifying glasses, although lenses of the required power are not known to have been available until hundreds of years after the book's completion. The complicated knot work and interweaving found in Kells and related manuscripts have many parallels in the metalwork and stone carving of the period. Since their gradual rediscovery from the 19th century on, these designs have also had an enduring popularity. Indeed many of these motifs are used today in popular art including jewellery and [[tattoo]]s.
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