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{{Short description|Collection of ancient Chinese poetry}}
{{redirect|Shijing}}
{{Infobox book
| image = Shi Jing.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = The first song in the ''Classic of Poetry'', handwritten by the [[Qianlong Emperor]], with accompanying painting
| country = China
| language = [[Old Chinese]]
| subject = Ancient Chinese poetry and song
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|title = ''Classic of Poetry''
|pic = Shijing (Chinese characters).svg
|piccap = "''Classic of Poetry''" in [[seal script]] (top),{{efn|The ''*k-lˤeng'' (''jing'' {{lang|zh|經}}) appellation would not have been used until the [[Han dynasty]], after the core [[Old Chinese]] period.|name="appellation"}} Traditional (middle), and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
|picupright=0.4
|t = {{linktext|詩經}}
|s = {{linktext|诗经}}
|w = Shih<sup>1</sup>-ching<sup>1</sup>
|p = Shījīng
|mi = {{IPAc-cmn|shi|1|-|j|ing|1}}
|wuu = Sy-chin
|poj = Si-keng
|j = Si<sup>1</sup>-ging<sup>1</sup>
|y = Sī-gīng
|ci = {{IPAc-yue|s|i|1|-|g|ing|1}}
|mc = /ɕɨ keŋ/
|oc-b92 = *{{IPA|stjɨ (keng)}}{{efn|name="appellation"}}
|oc-bs = *{{IPA|s.tə (k-lˤeng)}}{{efn|name="appellation"}}
|shinjitai = {{linktext|詩経}}
|kyujitai = 詩經
|hiragana = しきょう
|romaji = Shikyō
|vie = {{linktext|Kinh Thi}}
|hn = {{linktext|經詩}}
|hangul = 시경
|hanja = 詩經
|rr = Sigyeong
|mr = Sigyŏng
}}
{{Confucianism}}
The '''''Classic of Poetry''''', also '''''Shijing''''' or '''''Shih-ching''''', translated variously as the '''''Book of Songs''''', '''''Book of Odes''''', or simply known as the '''''Odes''''' or '''''Poetry''''' ({{lang|zh|詩}}; ''Shī''), is the oldest existing collection of [[Chinese poetry]], comprising 305 works dating from the 11th to 7th centuries BC. It is one of the "[[Five Classics]]" traditionally said to have been edited by [[Confucius]], and has been studied and memorized by scholars in China and neighboring countries over two millennia. It is also a rich source of ''[[chengyu]]'' (four-character classical idioms) that are still a part of learned discourse and even everyday language in modern Chinese. Since the [[Qing dynasty]], its rhyme patterns have also been analysed in the study of [[Old Chinese phonology]].
== Name ==
Early references refer to the anthology as the ''300 Poems'' (''[[Shi (poetry)|shi]]''). ''The Odes'' first became known as a ''jīng'', or a "classic book", in the [[Chinese classics|canonical]] sense, as part of the [[Han dynasty]]'s official adoption of [[Confucianism]] as the guiding principle of Chinese society.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}<!-- These two sentences are essentially redundant with the last sentence in the paragraph, but without examining the source I can't be sure if that says "typically inexact use", so I can't just merge them. ~Hijiri88, December 2015. --> The same word ''shi'' later became a generic term for poetry.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xliii}} In English, lacking an exact equivalent for the Chinese, the translation of the word ''shi'' in this regard is generally as "poem", "song", or "ode". Before its elevation as a canonical classic, the ''Classic of Poetry'' (''Shi jing'') was known as the ''Three Hundred Songs'' or the ''Songs''.{{sfnp|Hawkes|2011|p=25}}
== Content ==
The ''Classic of Poetry'' contains the oldest chronologically authenticated Chinese poems.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xliii}} The majority of the ''Odes'' date to the [[Zhou dynasty|Western Zhou]] period (1046–771 BCE), and were drawn from around provinces and cities in the [[Zhongyuan]] (Central Plains) area. A final section of 5 "Eulogies of Shang" purports to be ritual songs of the [[Shang dynasty]] as handed down by their descendants in the [[state of Song]], but is generally considered quite late in date.{{sfnp |Baxter|1992|p=356}}{{sfnp|Allan|1991|p=39}} According to the Eastern Han scholar [[Zheng Xuan]], the latest material in the ''Shijing'' was the song "Tree-Stump Grove" ({{lang|zh|株林}}) in the "Odes of Chen", dated to the middle of the [[Spring and Autumn period]] ({{circa}} 700 BCE).<ref>Zheng Xuan 鄭玄 (AD 127–200), ''Shipu xu'' 詩譜序.</ref>
{| class = "wikitable" | align = center |
! Part
! Number and meaning
! Date (BCE){{sfnp|Dobson|1964|p=323}}{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=355–356}}
|-
| {{lang|zh|國風}} ''Guó fēng'' || 160 "Airs of the States" || 8th & 7th century
|-
| {{lang|zh|小雅}} ''Xiǎo yǎ'' || 74 "Lesser Court Hymns" || 9th & 8th century
|-
| {{lang|zh|大雅}} ''Dà yǎ'' || 31 "Major Court Hymns" || 10th & 9th century
|-
| {{lang|zh|周頌}} ''Zhōu sòng'' ||31 "Eulogies of Zhou"|| 11th & 10th century
|-
| {{lang|zh|魯頌}} ''Lǔ sòng'' ||4 "Eulogies of Lu"|| 7th century
|-
| {{lang|zh|商頌}} ''Shāng sòng'' ||5 "Eulogies of Shang"|| 7th century
|}
The content of the ''Poetry'' can be divided into two main sections: the "Airs of the States", and the "Eulogies" and "Hymns".{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=20}}
The "Airs of the States" are shorter lyrics in simple language that are generally ancient folk songs which record the voice of the common people.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=20}} They often speak of love and courtship, longing for an absent lover, soldiers on campaign, farming and housework, and political satire and protest.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=20}} The first song of the "Airs of the States", "[[Guan ju|Fishhawk]]" ({{Transliteration|cmn|Guān jū}} {{lang|zh|關雎}}), is a well-known example of the category. Confucius commented on it, and it was traditionally given special interpretive weight.{{sfnp|Owen|1996|p=31}}
[[File:Guanju of GISHI GAKUFU 1768.jpg|thumb|The traditional score of 'Fishhawk' included in the Wei Family Music Score (''Gishi Gakufu'') (1768, Japan)]]
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
The fishhawks sing ''gwan-gwan''
On sandbars of the stream.
Gentle maiden, pure and fair,
Fit pair for a prince.
Watercress grows here and there,
Right and left we gather it.
Gentle maiden, pure and fair,
Wanted waking and sleep.
Wanting, sought her, had her not,
Waking, sleeping, thought of her,
On and on he thought of her,
He tossed from one side to another.
Watercress grows here and there,
Right and left we pull it.
Gentle maiden, pure and fair,
With harps we bring her company.
Watercress grows here and there,
Right and left we pick it out.
Gentle maiden, pure and fair,
With bells and drums do her delight.
|{{lang|zh|關關雎鳩
在河之洲
窈窕淑女
君子好逑}}
{{lang|zh|參差荇菜
左右流之
窈窕淑女
寤寐求之}}
{{lang|zh|求之不得
寤寐思服
悠哉悠哉
輾轉反側}}
{{lang|zh|參差荇菜
左右采之
窈窕淑女
琴瑟友之}}
{{lang|zh|參差荇菜
左右芼之
窈窕淑女
鐘鼓樂之}}
|attr1="Fishhawk" ({{Transliteration|cmn|Guān jū}} {{lang|zh|關雎}}),<br />translated by [[Stephen Owen (sinologist)|Stephen Owen]]{{sfnp|Owen|1996|pp=30–31}}
}}
On the other hand, songs in the two "Hymns" sections and the "Eulogies" section tend to be longer ritual or sacrificial songs, usually in the forms of courtly [[panegyric]]s and dynastic hymns which praise the founders of the Zhou dynasty.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=20}} They also include hymns used in sacrificial rites and songs used by the aristocracy in their sacrificial ceremonies or at banquets.{{sfnp|de Bary|Chan|1960|p=3}}{{sfnp|Ebrey|1993|pp=11-13}}
"Court Hymns" contains "Lesser Court Hymns" and "Major Court Hymns". Most of the poems were used by the aristocrats to pray for good harvests each year, worship gods, and venerate their ancestors. The authors of "Major Court Hymns" are nobles who were dissatisfied with the political reality. Therefore, they wrote poems not only related to the feast, worship, and epic but also to reflect the public feelings.{{sfnp|Shi|Hu|2011}}
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y|
Ah! Solemn is the clear temple,
Reverent and concordant the illustrious assistants.
Dignified, dignified are the many officers,
Holding fast to the virtue of [[King Wen of Zhou|King Wen]].
Responding in praise to the one in Heaven,
They hurry swiftly within the temple.
Greatly illustrious, greatly honored,
May [King Wen] never be weary of [us] men.
|於穆清廟
肅雝顯相
濟濟多士
秉文之德
對越在天
駿奔走在廟
不顯不承
無射於人斯
|attr1= "Clear Temple" (''Qīng miào'' {{lang|zh|清廟}}), <br />translated by Martin Kern{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=23}}
}}
== Style ==
Whether the various ''Shijing'' poems were folk songs or not, they "all seem to have passed through the hands of men of letters at the royal Zhou court".{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=215–216}} In other words, they show an overall literary polish together with some general stylistic consistency. About 95% of [[line (poetry)|line]]s in the ''Poetry'' are written in a four-syllable [[metre (poetry)|meter]], with a slight [[caesura]] between the second and third syllables.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=20}} Lines tend to occur in [[syntax|syntactically]] related [[couplet]]s, with occasional parallelism, and longer poems are generally divided into similarly structured [[stanzas]].{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=216}}
All but six of the "Eulogies" consist of a single stanza, and the "Court Hymns" exhibit wide variation in the number of stanzas and their lengths. Almost all of the "Airs", however, consist of three stanzas, with four-line stanzas being most common.{{sfnp|Riegel|2001|p=107}}{{sfnp|Nylan|2001|pp=73–74}} Although a few rhyming couplets occur, the standard pattern in such four-line stanzas required a rhyme between the second and fourth lines. Often the first or third lines would rhyme with these, or with each other.{{sfnp|Riegel|2001|pp=107–108}} This style later became known as the "''[[shi (poetry)|shi]]''" style for much of Chinese history.
One of the characteristics of the poems in the ''Classic of Poetry'' is that they tend to possess "elements of repetition and variation".{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=216}} This results in an "alteration of similarities and differences in the formal structure: in successive stanzas, some lines and phrases are repeated verbatim, while others vary from stanza to stanza".{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=51–52}} Characteristically, the parallel or syntactically matched lines within a specific poem share the same, identical words (or characters) to a large degree, as opposed to confining the parallelism between lines to using grammatical category matching of the words in one line with the other word in the same position in the corresponding line; but, not by using the same, identical word(s).{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=216}} Disallowing verbal repetition within a poem would by the time of [[Tang poetry]] be one of the rules to distinguish the [[Gushi (poetry)|old style]] poetry from the [[regulated verse|new, regulated style]].
The works in the ''Classic of Poetry'' vary in their [[lyrics|lyrical]] qualities, which relates to the musical accompaniment with which they were in their early days performed. The songs from the "Hymns" and "Eulogies", which are the oldest material in the ''Poetry'', were performed to slow, heavy accompaniment from bells, drums, and stone chimes.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=20}} However, these and the later actual musical scores or choreography which accompanied the ''Shijing'' poems have been lost.
Nearly all of the songs in the ''Poetry'' are rhyming, with end rhyme, as well as frequent internal rhyming.{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=216}} While some of these verses still rhyme in modern varieties of Chinese, others had ceased to rhyme by the [[Middle Chinese]] period. For example, the eighth song ({{lang|zh|芣苢}} ''Fú Yǐ''{{efn|The variant character {{lang|zh|苡}} may sometimes be used in place of {{lang|zh|苢}}, in which case the title is {{lang|zh|芣苡}}, with corresponding substitutions for the fourth character of each line within the body of the poem.}}) has a tightly constrained structure implying rhymes between the penultimate words (here shown in bold) of each pair of lines:{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=150–151}}
{| style="border: 0;"
|+
!style="padding-right: 2em" | Chinese characters
!style="padding-right: 2em" | Mandarin pronunciation ([[pinyin]])
!Early Middle Chinese ([[Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese|Baxter]])
|-
| 采采芣苢、薄言采之。
| ''Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán '''cǎi''' zhī.''
| ''tshoj<sup>X</sup> tshoj<sup>X</sup> bju yi<sup>X</sup>, bak ngjon '''tshoj<sup>X</sup>''' tsyi.''
|-
| 采采芣苢、薄言有之。
| ''Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán '''yǒu''' zhī.''
| ''tshoj<sup>X</sup> tshoj<sup>X</sup> bju yi<sup>X</sup>, bak ngjon '''hjuw<sup>X</sup>''' tsyi.''
|-
|
|-
| 采采芣苢、薄言掇之。
| ''Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán '''duó''' zhī.''
| ''tshoj<sup>X</sup> tshoj<sup>X</sup> bju yi<sup>X</sup>, bak ngjon '''twat''' tsyi.''
|-
| 采采芣苢、薄言捋之。
| ''Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán '''luó''' zhī.''
| ''tshoj<sup>X</sup> tshoj<sup>X</sup> bju yi<sup>X</sup>, bak ngjon '''lwat''' tsyi.''
|-
|
|-
| 采采芣苢、薄言袺之。
| ''Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán '''jié''' zhī.''
| ''tshoj<sup>X</sup> tshoj<sup>X</sup> bju yi<sup>X</sup>, bak ngjon '''ket''' tsyi.''
|-
| 采采芣苢、薄言襭之。
| ''Cǎi cǎi fú yǐ, báo yán '''xié''' zhī.''
| ''tshoj<sup>X</sup> tshoj<sup>X</sup> bju yi<sup>X</sup>, bak ngjon '''het''' tsyi.''
|}
The second and third stanzas still rhyme in modern [[Standard Chinese]], with the rhyme words even having the same tone, but the first stanza does not rhyme in Middle Chinese or any modern variety. Such cases were attributed to lax rhyming practice until the late-[[Ming dynasty]] scholar [[Chen Di]] argued that the original rhymes had been obscured by [[sound change]].
Since Chen, scholars have analyzed the rhyming patterns of the ''Poetry'' as crucial evidence for the reconstruction of [[Old Chinese phonology]].{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=150–155}}
Traditional scholarship of the ''Poetry'' identified three major literary devices employed in the songs: straightforward narrative (''[[Fu (poetry)|fù]]'' {{linktext|lang=zh-hant|賦}}), explicit comparisons (''bǐ'' {{linktext|lang=zh|比}}) and implied comparisons (''xìng'' {{linktext|lang=zh-hant|興}}). The poems of the ''Classic of Poetry'' tend to have certain typical patterns in both rhyme and rhythm, to make much use of imagery, often derived from nature.
== Authorship ==
Although the ''Shijing'' does not specify the names of authors in association with the contained works, both traditional commentaries and modern scholarship have put forth hypotheses on authorship. The "Golden Coffer" chapter of the ''[[Book of Documents]]'' says that the poem "Owl" ({{lang|zh|鴟鴞}}) in the "Odes of Bin" was written by the [[Duke of Zhou]]. Many of the songs appear to be folk songs and other compositions used in the court ceremonies of the aristocracy.{{sfnp|de Bary|Chan|1960|p=3}} Furthermore, many of the songs, based on internal evidence, appear to be written either by women, or from the perspective of a female [[persona]]. The repeated emphasis on female authorship of poetry in the ''Shijing'' was made much of in the process of attempting to give the poems of the women poets of the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]]-[[Qing dynasty|Qing]] period canonical status.{{sfnp|Chang|2001|p=2}} Despite the impersonality of the poetic voice characteristic of the ''Songs'',{{sfnp|Yip|1997|p=54}} many of the poems are written from the perspective of various generic personalities.
== Textual history ==
[[File:EN-WesternZhouStates.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of states during Western Zhou period]]
According to tradition, the method of collection of the various ''Shijing'' poems involved the appointment of officials, whose duties included documenting verses current from the various states which constituted the empire. Out of these many collected pieces, also according to tradition, Confucius made a final editorial round of decisions for elimination or inclusion in the received version of the ''Poetry''. As with all great literary works of ancient China, the ''Poetry'' has been annotated and commented on continuously throughout history, as well as in this case providing a model to inspire future poetic works.
Various traditions concern the gathering of the compiled songs and the editorial selection from these make up the classic text of the ''Odes'': "Royal Officials' Collecting Songs" ({{lang|zh|王官采詩}}) is recorded in the ''[[Book of Han]]'',{{efn|In the ''Shi Huo Zhi'' 食貨志.}} and "Master [[Confucius]] Deletes Songs" ({{lang|zh|孔子刪詩}}) refers to Confucius and his mention in the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', where it says from originally some 3,000 songs and poems in a previously extant "''Odes''" that Confucius personally selected the "300" which he felt best conformed to traditional ritual propriety, thus producing the ''Classic of Poetry''.
In 2015, [[Anhui University]] purchased a group of looted manuscripts dating to c. 330 BC (during the Warring States period), among which is one of the [[Anhui University Bamboo Strips|oldest extant]] scribal copies of the ''Classic of Poetry'' (at least part of it). The manuscript has been published in the first volume of this collection of manuscripts, {{Transliteration|zh|Anhui daxue cang Zhanguo zhujian}} ({{lang|zh|安徽大學藏戰國竹簡}}).{{sfnp|Smith|Poli|2021|p=516}}
=== Compilation ===
The Confucian school eventually came to consider the verses of the "Airs of the States" to have been collected in the course of activities of officers dispatched by the [[Zhou dynasty]] court, whose duties included the field collection of the songs local to the territorial states of Zhou.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xliii}} This territory was roughly the [[Central Plain (China)|Yellow River Plain]], [[Shandong]], southwestern [[Hebei]], eastern [[Gansu]], and the [[Han River (Yangtze River tributary)|Han River]] region. Perhaps during the [[harvest]]. After the officials returned from their missions, the king was said to have observed them himself in an effort to understand the current condition of the common people.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xliii}} The well-being of the people was of special concern to the Zhou because of their ideological position that the right to rule was based on the benignity of the rulers to the people in accordance with the will of [[Tian|Heaven]], and that this [[Mandate of Heaven|Heavenly Mandate]] would be withdrawn upon the failure of the ruling dynasty to ensure the prosperity of their subjects.{{sfnp|Hinton|2008|pp=7–8}} The people's folksongs were deemed to be the best gauge of their feelings and conditions, and thus indicative of whether the nobility was ruling according to the mandate of Heaven or not. Accordingly, the songs were collected from the various regions, converted from their diverse regional dialects into standard literary language, and presented accompanied with music at the royal courts.{{sfnp|Hinton|2008|p=8}}
=== Confucius ===
The ''Classic of Poetry'' historically has a major place in the [[Four Books and Five Classics]], the canonical works associated with [[Confucianism]].{{sfnp|Frankel|1978|p=215}} Some pre-Qin dynasty texts, such as the ''[[Analects]]'' and a recently excavated manuscript from 300 BCE entitled "Confucius' Discussion of the ''Odes''", mention Confucius' involvement with the ''Classic of Poetry'' but Han dynasty historian [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' was the first work to directly attribute the work to Confucius.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=19}} Subsequent Confucian tradition held that the ''Shijing'' collection was edited by [[Confucius]] from a larger 3,000-piece collection to its traditional 305-piece form.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=94}} This claim is believed to reflect an early Chinese tendency to relate all of the [[Five Classics]] in some way or another to Confucius, who by the 1st century BCE had become the model of sages and was believed to have maintained a cultural connection to the early Zhou dynasty.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=19}} This view is now generally discredited, as the ''[[Zuo zhuan]]'' records that the ''Classic of Poetry'' already existed in a definitive form when Confucius was just a young child.{{sfnp|de Bary|Chan|1960|p=3}}
In works attributed to him, Confucius comments upon the ''Classic of Poetry'' in such a way as to indicate that he holds it in great esteem. A story in the ''Analects'' recounts that Confucius' son [[Kong Li]] told the story: "The Master once stood by himself, and I hurried to seek teaching from him. He asked me, 'You've studied the Odes?' I answered, 'Not yet.' He replied, 'If you have not studied the Odes, then I have nothing to say.'"<ref>''Analects'' 16.13.</ref>
=== Han dynasty ===
According to Han tradition, the ''Poetry'' and other classics were targets of the [[Burning of books and burying of scholars|burning of books]] in 213 BCE under [[Qin Shi Huang]], and the songs had to be reconstructed largely from memory in the subsequent Han period. However the discovery of pre-Qin copies showing the same variation as Han texts, as well as evidence of Qin patronage of the ''Poetry'', have led modern scholars to doubt this account.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=22}}
During the Han period there were three different versions of the ''Poetry'' which each belonged to different [[hermeneutic]] traditions.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}} The Lu ''Poetry'' ({{lang|zh|魯詩}} ''Lǔ shī''), the Qi ''Poetry'' ({{lang|zh|齊詩}} ''Qí shī'') and the Han ''Poetry'' ({{lang|zh|韓詩}} ''Hán shī'') were officially recognized with chairs at the Imperial Academy during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han]] (156–87 BCE).{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}} Until the later years of the Eastern Han period, the dominant version of the ''Poetry'' was the Lu ''Poetry'', named after the [[Lu (state)|state of Lu]], and founded by Shen Pei, a student of a disciple of the [[Warring States period]] philosopher [[Xun Kuang|Xunzi]].{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}}
The Mao Tradition of the ''Poetry'' ({{lang|zh|毛詩傳}} ''Máo shī zhuàn''), attributed to an obscure scholar named Máo Hēng ({{lang|zh|毛亨}}) who lived during the 2nd or 3rd centuries BCE,{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}} was not officially recognized until the reign of [[Emperor Ping of Han|Emperor Ping]] (1 BCE to 6 CE).{{sfnp|Loewe|1993|p=416}} However, during the Eastern Han period, the Mao ''Poetry'' gradually became the primary version.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}} Proponents of the Mao ''Poetry'' said that its text was descended from the first generation of Confucius' students, and as such should be the authoritative version.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}} [[Xu Shen]]'s influential dictionary ''[[Shuowen Jiezi]]'', written in the 2nd-century CE, quotes almost exclusively from the Mao ''Poetry''.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}} Finally, the renowned Eastern Han scholar [[Zheng Xuan]] used the Mao ''Poetry'' as the basis for his annotated 2nd-century edition of the ''Poetry''. Zheng Xuan's edition of the Mao text was itself the basis of the "Right Meaning of the Mao ''Poetry''" ({{lang|zh|毛詩正義}} ''{{lang|zh-Latn|Máo shī zhèngyì}}'') which became the imperially authorized text and commentary on the ''Poetry'' in 653 CE.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=21}}
By the 5th-century, the Lu, Qi, and Han traditions had died out, leaving only the Mao ''Poetry'', which has become the [[received text]] in use today.{{sfnp|Kern|2010|p=22}}
Only isolated fragments of the Lu text survive, among the remains of the [[Xiping Stone Classics]].{{sfnp|Loewe|1993|p=416}}
== Legacy ==
=== Confucian allegory ===
[[File:Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn Manuscript from Shanghai Museum 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Part of the ''Kǒngzǐ Shīlùn'' ({{lang|zh|孔子詩論}}), an early discussion of the ''Classic of Poetry'']]
The ''Book of Odes'' has been a revered Confucian classic since the Han dynasty, and has been studied and memorized by centuries of scholars in China.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1993|pp=11-13}} The individual songs of the ''Odes'', though frequently on simple, rustic subjects, have traditionally been saddled with extensive, elaborate allegorical meanings that assigned moral or political meaning to the smallest details of each line.{{sfnp|Giles|1901|pp=12-14}} The popular songs were seen as good keys to understanding the troubles of the common people, and were often read as allegories, and complaints against lovers were seen as complaints against faithless rulers.{{sfnp|Ebrey|1993|pp=11-13}}{{sfnp|Giles|1901|pp=12-14}} Confucius taught that the ''Odes'' were a valuable focus for knowledge and self-cultivation, as recorded in an anecdote in the ''[[Analects]]'':
{{Blockquote
|quote=<poem style="text-indent:1ic each-line">
The ''Odes'' can be a source of inspiration and a basis for evaluation; they can help you to come together with others, as well as to properly express complaints. In the home, they teach you about how to serve your father, and in public life they teach you about how to serve your lord. They also broadly acquaint you with the names of birds, beasts, plants, and trees.
{{lang|zh|詩可以興，可以觀，可以群，可以怨。邇之事父，遠之事君。多識於鳥獸草木之名。}}</poem>
|source = ''Analects'', chapter 17 (Edward Slingerland, trans.){{sfnp|Jenco|2023|p=671}}
}}
The extensive allegorical traditions associated with the ''Odes'' were theorized by [[Herbert Giles]] to have begun in the [[Warring States period]] as a justification for [[Confucius]]' focus upon such a seemingly simple and ordinary collection of verses.<ref>Cited in {{harvtxt|Saussy|1993}}, p. 19.</ref> These elaborate, far-fetched interpretations seem to have gone completely unquestioned until the 12th century, when scholar Zheng Qiao ({{lang|zh|鄭樵}}, 1104–1162) first wrote his scepticism of them.{{sfnp|Saussy|1993|p=20}} European sinologists like Giles and [[Marcel Granet]] ignored these traditional interpretations in their analysis of the original meanings of the ''Odes''. Granet, in his list of rules for properly reading the ''Odes'', wrote that readers should "take no account of the standard interpretation", "reject in no uncertain terms the distinction drawn between songs evicting a good state of morals and songs attesting to perverted morality", and "[discard] all symbolic interpretations, and likewise any interpretation that supposes a refined technique on the part of the poets".<ref>{{harvtxt|Granet|1929}}, cited in {{harvtxt|Saussy|1993}}, p. 20.</ref> These traditional allegories of politics and morality are no longer seriously followed by any modern readers in China or elsewhere.{{sfnp|Saussy|1993|p=20}}
=== Political influence ===
''The Odes'' became an important and controversial force, influencing political, social and educational phenomena.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xlv}} During the struggle between Confucian, [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]], and other schools of thought, the Confucians used the ''Shijing'' to bolster their viewpoint.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xlv}} On the Confucian side, the ''Shijing'' became a foundational text which informed and validated literature, education, and political affairs.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xliv}} The Legalists, on their side, attempted to suppress the ''Shijing'' by violence, after the Legalist philosophy was endorsed by the [[Qin dynasty]], prior to their final triumph over the neighboring states: the suppression of Confucian and other thought and literature after the Qin victories and the start of [[Burning of books and burying of scholars|Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars]] era, starting in 213 BCE, extended to attempt to prohibit the ''Shijing''.{{sfnp|Davis|1970|p=xlv}}
As the idea of allegorical expression grew, when kingdoms or feudal leaders wished to express or validate their own positions, they would sometimes couch the message within a poem, or by allusion. This practice became common among educated Chinese in their personal correspondences and spread to [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] as well.
=== Modern scholarship ===
Modern scholarship on the ''Classic of Poetry'' often focuses on doing linguistic reconstruction and research in [[Old Chinese]] by analyzing the rhyme schemes in the ''Odes'', which show vast differences when read in modern [[Mandarin Chinese]].{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=150–151}} Although preserving more Old Chinese syllable endings than Mandarin, Modern [[Cantonese]] and [[Min Nan]] are also quite different from the Old Chinese language represented in the Odes.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=1–12}}
C.H. Wang refers to the account of [[King Wu of Zhou|King Wu]]'s victory over the [[Shang dynasty]] in the "Major Court Hymns" as the "Weniad" (a name that parallels ''[[The Iliad]]''), seeing it as part of a greater narrative discourse in China that extols the virtues of ''wén'' ({{linktext|文}} "literature, culture") over more military interests.{{sfnp|Wang|1975|pp=26–29}}
== Contents list ==
<div class="center">''Summary of groupings of poems from the Classic of Poetry''
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;"
|+ Guofeng ({{lang-zh |t = [[wikt:國|國]][[wikt:風|風]] |s = [[wikt:国|国]][[wikt:风|风]] |p = Guófēng }}) <br /> "Airs of the States", poems 001–160
|-
! width="15%" | group !! width="20%" | char !! group name !! width="15%" | poem #s
|-
| 01 || {{lang|zh|周南}} || Odes of [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] & South || 001–011
|-
| 02 || {{lang|zh|召南}} || Odes of Shao & South || 012–025
|-
| 03 || {{lang|zh|邶風}} || Odes of Bei || 026–044
|-
| 04 || {{lang|zh|鄘風}} || Odes of Yong || 045–054
|-
| 05 || {{lang|zh|衛風}} || Odes of [[Wei (Spring and Autumn period)|Wei]] || 055–064
|-
| 06 || {{lang|zh|王風}} || Odes of Wang || 065–074
|-
| 07 || {{lang|zh|鄭風}} || Odes of [[Zheng (state)|Zheng]] || 075–095
|-
| 08 || {{lang|zh|齊風}} || Odes of [[Qi (state)|Qi]] || 096–106
|-
| 09 || {{lang|zh|魏風}} || Odes of Wei || 107–113
|-
| 10 || {{lang|zh|唐風}} || Odes of [[Jin (Chinese state)|Tang]] || 114–125
|-
| 11 || {{lang|zh|秦風}} || Odes of [[Qin (state)|Qin]] || 126–135
|-
| 12 || {{lang|zh|陳風}} || Odes of [[Chen (state)|Chen]] || 136–145
|-
| 13 || {{lang|zh|檜風}} || Odes of Kuai || 146–149
|-
| 14 || {{lang|zh|曹風}} || Odes of [[Cao (state)|Cao]] || 150–153
|-
| 15 || {{lang|zh|豳風}} || Odes of Bin || 154–160
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" >
|+ Xiao Ya ({{lang-zh |c = [[wikt:小|小]][[wikt:雅|雅]] |p = Xiǎoyǎ}}) <br /> "Lesser Court Hymns" poems 161–234
|-
! width="15%" | group !! width="20%" | char !! group name !! width="15%" | poem #s
|-
| 01 || {{lang|zh|鹿鳴 之什}} || Decade of Lu Ming || 161–169
|-
| 02 || {{lang|zh|白華 之什}} || Decade of Baihua || 170–174
|-
| 03 || {{lang|zh|彤弓 之什}} || Decade of Tong Gong || 175–184
|-
| 04 || {{lang|zh|祈父 之什}} || Decade of Qi Fu || 185–194
|-
| 05 || {{lang|zh|小旻 之什}} || Decade of Xiao Min || 195–204
|-
| 06 || {{lang|zh|北山 之什}} || Decade of Bei Shan || 205–214
|-
| 07 || {{lang|zh|桑扈 之什}} || Decade of Sang Hu || 215–224
|-
| 08 || {{lang|zh|都人士 之什}} || Decade of Du Ren Shi || 225–234
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" >
|+ Da Ya ({{lang-zh|c=大雅|p=Dàyǎ}}) <br /> "Major Court Hymns" poems 235–265; <br /> 31 total major festal songs ({{lang|zh|湮捇}}) for solemn court ceremonies
|-
! width="15%" | group !! width="20%" | char !! group name !! width="15%" | poem #s
|-
| 01 || {{lang|zh|文王之什}} || Decade of Wen Wang || 235–244
|-
| 02 || {{lang|zh|生民之什}} || Decade of Sheng Min || 245–254
|-
| 03 || {{lang|zh|蕩之什}} || Decade of Dang || 255–265
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="width: 600px;" >
|+ Song ({{lang-zh |t = [[wikt:頌|頌]] |s = [[wikt:颂|颂]] |p = Sòng}}) <br /> "Eulogies" poems 266–305; <br /> 40 total praises, hymns, or eulogies sung at spirit sacrifices
|-
! width="15%" | group !! width="20%" | char !! group name !! width="15%" | poem #s
|-
| 01 || {{lang|zh|周頌}} || Sacrificial Odes of Zhou || 266–296
|-
| 01a || {{lang|zh|清廟之什}} || Decade of Qing Miao || 266–275
|-
| 01b || {{lang|zh|臣工之什}} || Decade of Chen Gong || 276–285
|-
| 01c || {{lang|zh|閔予小子之什}} || Decade of Min You Xiao Zi || 286–296
|-
| 02 || {{lang|zh|魯頌}} || Praise Odes of Lu || 297–300
|-
| 03 || {{lang|zh|商頌}} || Sacrificial Odes of Shang || 301–305
|}
Note: alternative divisions may be topical or chronological (Legge): Song, Daya, Xiaoya, Guofeng
</div>
== Notable translations ==
* {{cite book |first = James |last = Legge |author-link = James Legge |title = The She-king, or the Lessons from the States |series = The Chinese Classics |volume = 4 |year = 1871 |ref = no }} [https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics00legggoog Part 1], [https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics05legggoog Part 2]. rpt. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press (1960).
* {{cite book |first = James |last = Legge |author-mask= 2 |title = The She king, or The Book of Ancient Poetry |___location = London |publisher = Trübner |year = 1876 |url = http://djvued.libs.uga.edu/PL2478xA5/1f/she_king.pdf |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140412025924/http://djvued.libs.uga.edu/PL2478xA5/1f/she_king.pdf |archive-date = 2014-04-12 |ref = no }}
* {{cite book |first = James |last = Legge |author-mask= 2 |title = The Shû king. The religious portions of the Shih king. The Hsiâo king |series = The Sacred Books of China |volume = 3 |year = 1879 |publisher = Oxford, The Clarendon press |url = https://archive.org/details/sacredbooksofch03conf |ref = no }}
* {{cite book |first = P. |last = Lacharme |title = Confucii Chi-King sive Liber Carminum |year = 1830 |publisher = Sumptibus J.G. Cottae |url = https://archive.org/details/confuciichiking00germgoog/page/n2/mode/2up |ref = no }} Latin translation.
* {{cite book |first = William |last = Jennings |title = The Shi King: The Old "Poetry Classic" of the Chinese |year = 1891 |url = https://archive.org/details/shikingoldpoetry00jennuoft |ref = no }}; rpt. New York: Paragon (1969).
* {{in lang|fr|la}} {{cite book |first = Séraphin |last = Couvreur |author-link = Séraphin Couvreur |title = Cheu-king; Texte chinois avec une double traduction en français et en Latin |trans-title=Shijing; Chinese Text With a Double Translation in French and Latin |publisher = Mission Catholique |___location = Hokkien |year = 1892 |url = https://archive.org/details/cheukingtextech00couvgoog |ref = no }}
* {{cite book |first = Marcel |last = Granet |author-link = Marcel Granet |title = Fêtes et chansons anciennes de la Chine |___location = Paris |year = 1929 |language = fr |ref = none}} Translated into English by E. D. Edwards (1932), ''Festivals and Songs of Ancient China'', New York: E.P. Dutton.
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sJVlJScXU00C&q=anhui+1919+mongolia+xu+shuzheng|first = Arthur |last = Waley |author-link = Arthur Waley |title = The Book of Songs |___location = London |publisher = Allen & Unwin |year = 1937|isbn = 9780802134776 |ref = no }} Rpt. New York: Grove Press, 1996, with a Preface by Joseph Allen. {{ISBN|0802134777}}.
* {{cite book |first = Bernhard |last = Karlgren |author-link = Bernhard Karlgren |title = The Book of Odes |___location = Stockholm |publisher = Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities |year = 1950|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/Students/Karlgren,%20Bernhard/The%20Book%20of%20Odes%20%281950%29.pdf |ref = no }} Reprint of
** {{cite journal |first = Bernhard |last = Karlgren |title=The Book of Odes: Kuo Feng and Siao Ya |journal=Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities |year=1944 |volume=16 |pages=171–256 |url=https://archive.org/details/Bulletin16/page/n199 |ref = no }}
** {{cite journal |first = Bernhard |last = Karlgren |title=The Book of Odes: Ta Ya and Sung |journal=Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities |year=1945 |volume=17 |pages=65–99 |url=https://archive.org/details/Bulletin17/page/n103 |ref = no }}
* {{cite book |first = Ezra |last = Pound |author-link = Ezra Pound |title = The Confucian Odes: The Classic Anthology Defined by Confucius |___location = Cambridge, Mass. |publisher = Harvard University Press |year = 1954 |ref = no }}
* {{cite book |first = Shinji 高田真治 |last = Takada |title = Shikyō ''詩経'' |___location = Tokyo |publisher = Shūeisha |year = 1966 |language = ja |ref = no }}
* {{in lang|cmn}} Cheng Junying 程俊英 (1985). ''Shijing Yizhu'' 诗经译注 ''[Shijing, Translated and Annotated]''. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe and
* {{in lang|cmn}} Cheng Junying 程俊英 (1991). ''Shijing Zhuxi'' 詩經注析 ''[Shijing, Annotation and Analysis].'' Zhonghua Publishing House.[https://archive.org/details/215.....1991]
* {{in lang|ja}} Mekada, Makoto 目加田誠 (1991). ''Shikyō'' 詩経. Tokyo: Kōbansha.
* {{cite book |first = Cannata |last = Vincenzo |title = Il Libro delle Odi: edizione integrale |___location = Milano, Italy |publisher = Luni Editrice |year = 2021 |ref = no }}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Poetry|Books|China|Society}}
* [[Chinese classics]]
* [[Classical Chinese poetry]]
* [[Geese in Chinese poetry]]
* "[[Guan ju]]"
* [[Chengyu]]
* [[Chinese art]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
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{{Reflist|20em}}
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{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wikisourcelang|zh|詩經}}
{{Wikisource|Classic of Poetry|''Classic of Poetry''}}
* [http://ctext.org/book-of-poetry Bilingual Chinese-English searchable edition] at Chinese Text Project
* ''[http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=Chinese/uvaGenText/tei/shi_jing/AnoShih.xml Shi Ji Zhuan]'' from the Chinese Text Initiative, University of Virginia: Chinese text based on [[Zhu Xi]]'s edition; English translation from [[James Legge]], with Chinese names updated to pinyin.
* [http://wengu.tartarie.com/wg/wengu.php?l=Shijing&lang=en ''The Book of Odes''] at ''Wengu zhixin''. Chinese text with James Legge and [[Marcel Granet]] (partial) translations.
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cfu/sbe03/index.htm#section_007 Legge translation of the ''Book of Odes'' at the Internet Sacred Text Archive.]
* [http://harrisonhuang.net/odes/index.html ''Shijing'' and collated commentaries (Harrison Huang's website)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116135233/http://harrisonhuang.net/odes/index.html |date=2020-01-16 }} (Chinese text)
* [http://chinesenotes.com/shijing.html ''The Book of Songs''] at Chinese Notes; Chinese and English parallel text with matching dictionary entries.
{{Clear}}
{{Chinese poetry}}
{{Confucian texts}}
[[Category:Classic of Poetry| ]]
[[Category:Chinese classic texts]]
[[Category:Confucian texts]]
[[Category:Chinese poetry collections]]
[[Category:Chinese folk songs]]
[[Category:Chinese poetry anthologies]]
[[Category:Old Chinese]]
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[[Category:1st-millennium BC books]]
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