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{{short description|Japonic language}}
{{Distinguish|Javanese language|text=[[Javanese language]]}}
{{Redirect-distinguish|Nihongo|Nihonga}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small = yes}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Japanese
| nativename = {{Nihongo2|日本語}} ({{lang|ja-latn|Nihongo}})
| pronunciation = {{nowrap|{{IPA|ja|ɲihoŋɡo||Ja-nihongo.ogg}}}}
| states = [[Japan]]
| ethnicity = [[Japanese people|Japanese]] ([[Yamato people|Yamato]])
| speakers = {{sigfig|123.427320|3}} million
| date = 2020
| ref = e27
| familycolor = Altaic
| fam1 = [[Japonic languages|Japonic]]
| fam2 = [[Insular Japonic languages|Insular]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Japonic]]
| ancestor2 = [[Old Japanese]]
| ancestor3 = [[Early Middle Japanese]]
| ancestor4 = [[Late Middle Japanese]]
| ancestor5 = [[Early Modern Japanese]]
| dia1 = [[Eastern Japanese|Eastern]]
| dia2 = [[Western Japanese|Western]]
| dia3 = [[Kyūshū Japanese|Kyūshū]]
| dia4 = [[Hachijō language|Hachijō]]
| script = {{ublist |[[Japanese writing system|Mixed scripts]] of [[Kanji]] ([[Chinese characters]]) and [[Kana]] ([[Hiragana]], [[Katakana]]) |[[Japanese Braille]]}}
| nation = <!-- Do not add Japan, but remains national language -->[[Palau]]<br>(on [[Angaur Island]])
| iso1 = ja
| iso2 = jpn
| iso3 = jpn
| lingua = 45-CAA-a
| image = Nihongo.svg
| imagescale = 0.35
| imagecaption = {{longitem|The [[kanji]] for Japanese (read {{Transliteration|ja|nihongo}})}}
| imageheader =
| notice = IPA
| sign = [[Signed Japanese]]
| glotto = nucl1643
| glottoname = excluding [[Hachijo language|Hachijo]], [[Tsugaru dialect|Tsugaru]], and [[Kagoshima dialect|Kagoshima]]
| glotto2 = japa1256
| glottorefname = Japanese
}}
{{nihongo|'''Japanese'''|日本語|Nihongo|{{IPA|ja|ɲihoŋɡo||Ja-nihongo.ogg}}}} is the principal language of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic language family]] spoken by the [[Japanese people]]. It has around 123 million speakers, primarily in [[Japan]], the only country where it is the [[national language]], and within the [[Japanese diaspora]] worldwide.
The Japonic family also includes the [[Ryukyuan languages]] and the variously classified [[Hachijō language]]. There have been many [[Classification of the Japonic languages|attempts to group the Japonic languages]] with other families such as [[Ainu languages|Ainu]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], [[Koreanic languages|Koreanic]], and the now discredited [[Altaic languages|Altaic]], but none of these proposals have gained any widespread acceptance.
Little is known of the language's prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century AD recorded a few Japanese words, but substantial [[Old Japanese]] texts did not appear until the 8th century. From the [[Heian period]] (794–1185), extensive waves of [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary]] entered the language, affecting the [[phonology]] of [[Early Middle Japanese]]. [[Late Middle Japanese]] (1185–1600) saw extensive grammatical changes and the first appearance of [[Gairaigo|European loanwords]]. The basis of the [[Standard Japanese|standard dialect]] moved from the [[Kansai]] region to the [[Edo (Tokyo)|Edo]] region (modern [[Tokyo]]) in the [[Early Modern Japanese]] period (early 17th century–mid 19th century). Following the end of [[Sakoku|Japan's self-imposed isolation]] in 1853, the flow of [[loanword]]s from European languages increased significantly, and [[Wasei-eigo|words from English roots]] have proliferated.
Japanese is an [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]], [[Mora (linguistics)#Japanese|mora]]-timed language with relatively simple [[phonotactics]], a [[monophthong|pure vowel]] system, [[Vowel length#Phonemic vowel length|phonemic vowel]] and [[Gemination|consonant]] length, and a lexically significant [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch-accent]]. Word order is normally [[subject–object–verb]] with [[Japanese particles|particles]] marking the [[grammatical function]] of words, and sentence structure is [[topic–comment]]. [[Sentence-final particle]]s are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or form questions. Nouns have no [[grammatical number]] or [[Grammatical gender|gender]], and there are no [[Article (grammar)|articles]]. Verbs are [[Japanese verb conjugation|conjugated]], primarily for [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Voice (grammar)|voice]], but not [[Grammatical person|person]]. [[Japanese adjectives]] are also conjugated. Japanese has [[Honorific speech in Japanese|a complex system of honorifics]], with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener, and persons mentioned.
The [[Japanese writing system]] combines [[Chinese characters]], known as {{Nihongo3|'[[Han dynasty|Han]] characters'|漢字|[[kanji]]}}, with two unique [[syllabary|syllabaries]] (or [[mora (linguistics)|moraic]] scripts) derived by the Japanese from the more complex Chinese characters: {{Transliteration|ja|[[hiragana]]}} ({{lang|ja|ひらがな}} or {{lang|ja|平仮名}}, 'simple characters') and {{Transliteration|ja|[[katakana]]}} ({{lang|ja|カタカナ}} or {{lang|ja|片仮名}}, 'partial characters'). [[Romanization of Japanese|Latin script]] ({{Transliteration|ja|rōmaji}} {{lang|ja|ローマ字}}) is also used in a limited fashion (such as for imported acronyms) in Japanese writing. The [[Japanese numerals|numeral system]] uses mostly [[Arabic numerals]], but also traditional [[Chinese numerals]].
==History==
{{further|Japanese writing system#History of the Japanese script}}
===Prehistory===
[[Proto-Japonic language|Proto-Japonic]], the common ancestor of the Japanese and [[Ryukyuan languages]], is thought to have been brought to Japan by settlers coming from the Korean peninsula sometime in the early- to mid-4th century BC (the [[Yayoi period]]), replacing the languages of the original [[Jōmon people|Jōmon]] inhabitants,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |date=4 May 2011 |title=Finding on Dialects Casts New Light on the Origins of the Japanese People |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/04/world/asia/04language.html |url-status=dead |url-access=subscription |access-date=7 May 2011 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/04/world/asia/04language.html |archive-date=2022-01-03}}{{cbignore}}</ref> including the ancestor of the modern [[Ainu language]]. Because writing had yet to be introduced from China, there is no direct evidence, and anything that can be discerned about this period must be based on internal reconstruction from [[Old Japanese]], or [[Comparative method|comparison]] with the Ryukyuan languages and [[Japanese dialects]].{{sfn | Frellesvig | Whitman | 2008 |p = [https://books.google.com/books?id=aun8BRHTDEAC&pg=PA1 1]}}
===Old Japanese===
{{main|Old Japanese}}
[[File:Genryaku Manyosyu.JPG|right|thumb|alt=Page from the Man'yōshū|A page from the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Man'yōshū]]}}, the oldest anthology of classical [[Japanese poetry]]]]
The [[Chinese character|Chinese writing system]] was imported to Japan from [[Baekje]] around the start of the fifth century, alongside Buddhism.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=11}} The earliest texts were written in [[Classical Chinese]], although some of these were likely intended to be read as Japanese using the {{lang|ja-latn|[[kanbun]]}} method, and show influences of Japanese grammar such as Japanese word order.{{sfn|Seeley|1991|pp=25–31}} The earliest text, the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Kojiki]]}}, dates to the early eighth century, and was written entirely in Chinese characters, which are used to represent, at different times, Chinese, ''kanbun'', and Old Japanese.{{sfn|Frellesvig|2010|p=24}} As in other texts from this period, the Old Japanese sections are written in [[Man'yōgana]], which uses ''[[kanji]]'' for their phonetic as well as semantic values.
Based on the Man'yōgana system, Old Japanese can be reconstructed as having 88 distinct [[Mora (linguistics)#Japanese|morae]]. Texts written with Man'yōgana use two different sets of ''kanji'' for each of the morae now pronounced {{Nihongo krt||き|ki}}, {{Nihongo krt||ひ|hi}}, {{Nihongo krt||み|mi}}, {{Nihongo krt||け|ke}}, {{Nihongo krt||へ|he}}, {{Nihongo krt||め|me}}, {{Nihongo krt||こ|ko}}, {{Nihongo krt||そ|so}}, {{Nihongo krt||と|to}}, {{Nihongo krt||の|no}}, {{Nihongo krt||も|mo}}, {{Nihongo krt||よ|yo}} and {{Nihongo krt||ろ|ro}}.<ref>Shinkichi Hashimoto (February 3, 1918){{lang|ja|「国語仮名遣研究史上の一発見―石塚龍麿の仮名遣奥山路について」『帝国文学』}}26–11(1949){{lang|ja|『文字及び仮名遣の研究(橋本進吉博士著作集 第3冊)』(岩波書店)。}} {{in lang|ja}}.</ref> (The {{Lang|ja-latn|Kojiki}} has 88, but all later texts have 87. The distinction between mo<sub>1</sub> and mo<sub>2</sub> apparently was lost immediately following its composition.) This set of morae shrank to 67 in [[Early Middle Japanese]], though some were added through Chinese influence. Man'yōgana also has a symbol for {{IPA|/je/}}, which merges with {{IPA|/e/}} before the end of the period.
Several fossilizations of Old Japanese grammatical elements remain in the modern language – the genitive particle ''tsu'' (superseded by modern ''no'') is preserved in words such as ''matsuge'' ("eyelash", lit. "hair of the eye"); modern ''mieru'' ("to be visible") and ''kikoeru'' ("to be audible") retain a [[mediopassive voice|mediopassive]] suffix -''yu(ru)'' (''kikoyu'' → ''kikoyuru'' (the attributive form, which slowly replaced the plain form starting in the late Heian period) → ''kikoeru'' (all verbs with the ''shimo-nidan'' conjugation pattern underwent this same shift in [[Early Modern Japanese]])); and the genitive particle ''ga'' remains in intentionally archaic speech.
===Early Middle Japanese===
{{main|Early Middle Japanese}}
[[File:Genji emaki 01003 001.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Genji Monogatari emaki scroll|A 12th-century [[emaki]] scroll of ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' from the 11th century]]
Early Middle Japanese is the Japanese of the [[Heian period]], from 794 to 1185. It formed the basis for the [[Literary language|literary standard]] of [[Classical Japanese]], which remained in common use until the early 20th century.
During this time, Japanese underwent numerous [[Phonology|phonological]] developments, in many cases instigated by an influx of [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Chinese loanwords]]. These included phonemic length distinction for both [[gemination|consonants]] and [[vowel length|vowels]], palatal consonants (e.g. ''kya'') and labial consonant clusters (e.g. ''kwa''), and [[Syllable#Open and closed|closed syllables]].<ref name="Frel">{{harvnb|Frellesvig|2010 |p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PA184 184]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Labrune |first=Laurence |chapter=Consonants |url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199545834.001.0001/acprof-9780199545834 |title=The Phonology of Japanese |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-954583-4 |series=The Phonology of the World's Languages |pages=89–91 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199545834.003.0003 |access-date=2021-10-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027181824/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199545834.001.0001/acprof-9780199545834 |archive-date=2021-10-27 |url-status=live}}</ref> This had the effect of changing Japanese into a [[Isochrony#Mora timing|mora-timed]] language.<ref name=Frel/>
===Late Middle Japanese===
{{main|Late Middle Japanese}}
Late Middle Japanese covers the years from 1185 to 1600, and is normally divided into two sections, roughly equivalent to the [[Kamakura period]] and the [[Muromachi period]], respectively. The later forms of Late Middle Japanese are the first to be described by non-native sources, in this case the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] and [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] missionaries; and thus there is better documentation of Late Middle Japanese phonology than for previous forms (for instance, the ''[[Arte da Lingoa de Iapam]]''). Among other sound changes, the sequence {{IPA|/au/}} merges to {{IPA|/ɔː/}}, in contrast with {{IPA|/oː/}}; {{IPA|/p/}} is reintroduced from Chinese; and {{IPA|/we/}} merges with {{IPA|/je/}}. Some forms rather more familiar to Modern Japanese speakers begin to appear – the continuative ending -''te'' begins to reduce onto the verb (e.g. ''yonde'' for earlier ''yomite''), the -k- in the final mora of adjectives drops out (''shiroi'' for earlier ''shiroki''); and some forms exist where modern standard Japanese has retained the earlier form (e.g. ''hayaku'' > ''hayau'' > ''hayɔɔ'', where modern Japanese just has ''hayaku'', though the alternative form is preserved in the standard greeting ''o-hayō gozaimasu'' "good morning"; this ending is also seen in ''o-medetō'' "congratulations", from ''medetaku'').
Late Middle Japanese has the first loanwords from European languages – now-common words borrowed into Japanese in this period include ''pan'' ("bread") and ''tabako'' ("tobacco", now "cigarette"), both from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].
===Modern Japanese===
{{Redirect|Standard Japanese|other dialects|Japanese dialects}}
Modern Japanese is considered to begin with the [[Edo period]] (which spanned from 1603 to 1867). Since Old Japanese, the ''de facto'' standard Japanese had been the [[Kansai dialect]], especially that of [[Kyoto]]. However, during the Edo period, Edo (now Tokyo) developed into the largest city in Japan, and the Edo-area dialect became standard Japanese. Since the end of [[Sakoku|Japan's self-imposed isolation]] in 1853, the flow of loanwords from European languages has increased significantly. The period since 1945 has seen many words borrowed from other languages{{mdash}}such as German (e.g. {{Transliteration|ja|arubaito}} 'temporary job', {{Transliteration|ja|wakuchin}} 'vaccine'), Portuguese ({{Transliteration|ja|kasutera}} 'sponge cake') and English.<ref>Miura, Akira, ''English in Japanese'', Weatherhill, 1998.</ref> Many English loan words especially relate to technology{{mdash}}for example, {{Transliteration|ja|pasokon}} 'personal computer', {{Transliteration|ja|intānetto}} 'internet', and {{Transliteration|ja|kamera}} 'camera'. Due to the large quantity of English loanwords, modern Japanese has developed a distinction between {{IPA|[tɕi]}} and {{IPA|[ti]}}, and {{IPA|[dʑi]}} and {{IPA|[di]}}, with the latter in each pair only found in loanwords, eg. {{Transliteration|ja|paati}} for party or {{Transliteration|ja|dizunii}} for Disney.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hall |first=Kathleen Currie |title=Proceedings of the 2013 Annual Conference of the Canadian Linguistic Association |year=2013 |editor-last=Luo |editor-first=Shan |chapter=Documenting phonological change: A comparison of two Japanese phonemic splits |access-date=2019-06-01 |chapter-url=http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cla-acl/actes2013/Hall-2013.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212034227/http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cla-acl/actes2013/Hall-2013.pdf |archive-date=2019-12-12 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Geographic distribution==
Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has also been spoken outside of the country. Before and during [[World War II]], through Japanese annexation of [[Taiwan]] and [[Korea]], as well as partial occupation of [[China]], the [[Philippines]], and various Pacific islands,<ref>Japanese is listed as one of the official languages of [[Angaur]] state, [[Palau]] ([http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PW Ethnologe] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071001180034/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=PW |date=2007-10-01 }}, [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/palau/ CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210203032225/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/palau/ |date=2021-02-03 }}). However, very few Japanese speakers were recorded in the [http://www.spc.int/prism/country/pw/stats/PalauStats/Publication/2005CENSUS.pdf 2005 census] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216045724/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/pw/stats/PalauStats/Publication/2005CENSUS.pdf |date=2008-02-16 }}.</ref> locals in [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|those countries]] learned Japanese as the language of the empire. As a result, many elderly people in these countries can still speak Japanese.
[[Japanese diaspora|Japanese emigrant communities]] (the largest of which are to be found in [[Brazil]],<ref name="IBGE traça perfil dos imigrantes">{{Cite web |date=2008-06-21 |title=IBGE traça perfil dos imigrantes – Imigração – Made in Japan |url=http://madeinjapan.uol.com.br/2008/06/21/ibge-traca-perfil-dos-imigrantes/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119132009/http://madeinjapan.uol.com.br/2008/06/21/ibge-traca-perfil-dos-imigrantes/ |archive-date=2012-11-19 |access-date=2012-11-20 |language=pt |publisher=Madeinjapan.uol.com.br}}</ref> with 1.4 million to 1.5 million Japanese immigrants and descendants, according to Brazilian [[Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics|IBGE]] data, more than the 1.2 million of the [[United States]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=American FactFinder |url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20200212035921/http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=01000US&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR&-reg=ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201PR:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201T:041;ACS_2005_EST_G00_S0201TPR:041&-ds_name=ACS_2005_EST_G00_&-_lang=en |archive-date=2020-02-12 |access-date=2013-02-01 |publisher=Factfinder.census.gov }}</ref> sometimes employ Japanese as their primary language. Approximately 12% of [[Hawaii]] residents speak Japanese,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese – Source Census 2000, Summary File 3, STP 258 |url=http://www.mla.org/map_data_results&mode=lang_tops&SRVY_YEAR=2000&lang_id=723 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221175921/http://www.mla.org/map_data_results%26mode%3Dlang_tops%26SRVY_YEAR%3D2000%26lang_id%3D723 |archive-date=2012-12-21 |access-date=2012-11-20 |publisher=Mla.org}}</ref> with an estimated 12.6% of the population of Japanese ancestry in 2008. Japanese emigrants can also be found in [[Peru]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]] (especially in the eastern states), [[Canada]] (especially in [[Vancouver]], where 1.4% of the population has Japanese ancestry),<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-06-10 |title=Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada – Data table |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=CMA&Code=933&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203011834/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=CMA&Code=933&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000 |archive-date=2013-12-03 |access-date=2012-11-20 |publisher=2.statcan.ca}}</ref> the [[United States]] (notably in [[Hawaii]], where 16.7% of the population has Japanese ancestry,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Census 2000 Summary File 1 (SF 1) 100-Percent Data |url=https://www.census.gov |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701194655/https://www.census.gov/ |archive-date=1 July 2021 |access-date=8 July 2018 |website=[[United States Census Bureau]]}}</ref>{{Clarify|reason=above it says 12.6%; which is it?|date=September 2022}} and [[California]]), and the [[Philippines]] (particularly in [[Davao Region]] and the [[Laguna (province)|Province of Laguna]]).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mfCzrbOn80C&q=Japanese+immigrants+to+Davao&pg=PA157 The Japanese in Colonial Southeast Asia – Google Books] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114063046/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mfCzrbOn80C&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157#v=onepage&q=Japanese%20immigrants%20to%20Davao |date=2020-01-14 }}. Books.google.com. Retrieved on 2014-06-07.</ref><ref>[http://www.seapots.com/home/index.php/production-centers-pottery-groups/philippines] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141019011022/http://www.seapots.com/home/index.php/production-centers-pottery-groups/philippines|date=October 19, 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.philippinealmanac.com/2010/07/528/the-cultural-influences-of-india-china-arabia-and-japan.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120701082957/http://www.philippinealmanac.com/2010/07/528/the-cultural-influences-of-india-china-arabia-and-japan.html|date=July 1, 2012}}</ref>
===Official status===
Japanese has no [[official language|official status]] in Japan,<ref>{{Cite web |script-title=ja:法制執務コラム集「法律と国語・日本語」 |url=http://houseikyoku.sangiin.go.jp/column/column068.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225073508/http://houseikyoku.sangiin.go.jp/column/column068.htm |archive-date=25 December 2018 |access-date=9 November 2012 |publisher=Legislative Bureau of the House of Councillors |language=ja}}</ref> but is the ''de facto'' [[national language]] of the country. There is a form of the language considered [[Standard language|standard]]: {{nihongo||標準語|hyōjungo}}, meaning {{gloss|standard Japanese}}, or {{nihongo||共通語|kyōtsūgo}}, {{gloss|common language}}, or even {{gloss|Tokyo dialect}} at times.<ref name=":2" /> The meanings of the two terms (hyōjungo and kyōtsūgo) are almost the same. ''Hyōjungo'' or ''kyōtsūgo'' is a conception that forms the counterpart of dialect. This normative language was born after the {{nihongo|[[Meiji Restoration]]|明治維新|meiji ishin|1868}} from the language spoken in the higher-class areas of Tokyo (see [[Yamanote and Shitamachi|Yamanote]]). ''Hyōjungo'' is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pulvers |first=Roger |date=2006-05-23 |title=Opening up to difference: The dialect dialectic |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2006/05/23/language/opening-up-to-difference-the-dialect-dialectic/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617135203/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2006/05/23/language/opening-up-to-difference-the-dialect-dialectic/ |archive-date=2020-06-17 |access-date=2020-06-17 |website=The Japan Times}}</ref> It is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.
{{nihongo|2=文語|3=[[Classical Japanese|Bungo]]|4={{gloss|[[literary language]]}}}} used in formal texts, is different compared to the {{nihongo|[[Colloquialism|colloquial language]]|口語|[[Kōgo (Japanese language)|kōgo]]}}, used in everyday speech.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-14 |title=A Complete Overview of the Japanese Language |url=https://worldschoolbooks.com/languages/overview-of-the-japanese-language/ |access-date=2025-05-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> The two systems have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. ''Bungo'' was the main method of writing Japanese until about 1900; since then ''kōgo'' gradually extended its influence and the two methods were both used in writing until the 1940s. ''Bungo'' still has some relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived [[World War II]] are still written in ''bungo'', although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). ''Kōgo'' is the dominant method of both speaking and writing Japanese today, although ''bungo'' grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect.
Japanese is, along with [[Palauan language|Palauan]] and English, an official language of [[Angaur]], Palau according to the 1982 state constitution.<ref name="const">{{Cite web |title=Constitution of the State of Angaur |url=http://www.pacificdigitallibrary.org/cgi-bin/pdl?e=d-000off-pdl--00-2--0--010-TE--4-------0-1l--10en-50---20-text-Japanese--00-3-1-00bySR-0-0-000utfZz-8-00&d=HASHa4b7077d472c4cdb9c8ddf.10&p=text |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924063100/http://www.pacificdigitallibrary.org/cgi-bin/pdl?e=d-000off-pdl--00-2--0--010-TE--4-------0-1l--10en-50---20-text-Japanese--00-3-1-00bySR-0-0-000utfZz-8-00&d=HASHa4b7077d472c4cdb9c8ddf.10&p=text |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=4 August 2014 |publisher=Pacific Digital Library |at=Article XII |quote=The traditional Palauan language, particularly the dialect spoken by the people of Angaur State, shall be the language of the State of Angaur. Palauan, English and Japanese shall be the official languages.}}</ref> At the time it was written, many of the elders participating in the process had been educated in Japanese during the [[South Seas Mandate]] over the island,<ref>{{Cite report |title=The Japanese Language in Palau |last1=Long |first1=Daniel |last2=Imamura |first2=Keisuke |last3=Tmodrang |first3=Masaharu |date=2013 |page= |publisher=National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics |___location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=85–86 |url=https://www.ninjal.ac.jp/research/cr-project/project/a/creole/files/creole_Palau.pdf |access-date=July 11, 2022}}</ref> as shown by the 1958 census of the Trust Territory of the Pacific which found that 89% of Palauans born between 1914 and 1933 could speak and read Japanese.<ref name="1958 Census of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands">{{cite web |title=1958 Census of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands |url=https://pacificweb.org/DOCS/cnmi/1958%20Census/1958%20Census%20tables.pdf |access-date=22 March 2024 |publisher=The Office of the High Commissioner}}</ref> However, as of the 2005 Palau census, no residents of Angaur were reported to speak Japanese at home.<ref name="2005census">{{Cite web |title=2005 Census of Population & Housing |url=http://palaugov.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/2005-Census-of-Population-Housing.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140424211256/http://palaugov.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/2005-Census-of-Population-Housing.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2014 |access-date=4 August 2014 |publisher=Bureau of Budget & Planning}}</ref>
===Dialects and mutual intelligibility===
{{Main|Japanese dialects}}
[[File:Japanese dialects-en.png|thumb|Map of Japanese dialects and Japonic languages]]
Japanese dialects typically differ in terms of [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]], inflectional [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[vocabulary]], and particle usage. Some even differ in [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] inventories, although this is less common.
In terms of [[mutual intelligibility]], a survey in 1967 found that the four most unintelligible dialects (excluding [[Ryukyuan languages|Ryūkyūan languages]] and [[Tōhoku dialect]]s) to students from Greater Tokyo were the [[Kiso, Nagano (town)|Kiso]] dialect (in the deep mountains of [[Nagano Prefecture]]), the [[Himi, Toyama|Himi]] dialect (in [[Toyama Prefecture]]), the [[Kagoshima dialect]] and the [[Maniwa]] dialect (in [[Okayama Prefecture]]).<ref name="Dialect Intelligibility 1967" /> The survey was based on 12- to 20-second-long recordings of 135 to 244 [[phoneme]]s, which 42 students listened to and translated word-for-word. The listeners were all [[Keio University]] students who grew up in the [[Kantō region]].<ref name="Dialect Intelligibility 1967">{{Cite journal |last=Yamagiwa |first=Joseph K. |date=1967 |title=On Dialect Intelligibility in Japan |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=4, 5, 18}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Intelligibility to students from Tokyo and [[Kantō region]] (1967)<ref name="Dialect Intelligibility 1967" />
!Dialect
| [[Kyoto|Kyoto City]] || [[Ōgata, Kōchi]] || [[Tatsuta, Aichi]] || [[Kumamoto|Kumamoto City]] || [[Osaka|Osaka City]] || [[Kanagi, Shimane]] || [[Maniwa|Maniwa, Okayama]]|| [[Kagoshima|Kagoshima City]]|| [[Kiso, Nagano (town)|Kiso, Nagano]] || [[Himi, Toyama]]
|-
! Percentage
| 67.1% || 45.5% || 44.5% || 38.6% || 26.4% || 24.8% || 24.7% || 17.6%|| 13.3% || 4.1%
|}
There are some [[language island]]s in mountain villages or isolated islands{{clarify|date=March 2024}} such as [[Hachijō-jima|Hachijō-jima island]], whose dialects are descended from [[Eastern Old Japanese]]. Dialects of the [[Kansai region]] are spoken or known by many Japanese, and [[Osaka]] dialect in particular is associated with comedy (see [[Kansai dialect]]). Dialects of Tōhoku and North [[Kantō region|Kantō]] are associated with typical farmers.
The Ryūkyūan languages, spoken in [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] and the [[Amami Islands]] (administratively part of [[Kagoshima Prefecture|Kagoshima]]), are distinct enough to be considered a separate branch of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic]] family; not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryūkyūan languages. However, in contrast to linguists, many ordinary Japanese people tend to consider the Ryūkyūan languages as dialects of Japanese.
The imperial court also seems to have spoken an unusual variant of the Japanese of the time,<ref>See the comments of George Kizaki in {{Cite news |last=Stuky |first=Natalie-Kyoko |date=8 August 2015 |title=Exclusive: From Internment Camp to MacArthur's Aide in Rebuilding Japan |work=The Daily Beast |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/08/08/from-internment-camp-to-macarthur-s-aide.html |url-status=live |access-date=4 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018091714/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2015/08/08/from-internment-camp-to-macarthur-s-aide.html |archive-date=18 October 2015}}</ref> most likely the spoken form of [[Classical Japanese]], a writing style that was prevalent during the [[Heian period]], but began to decline during the late [[Meiji era|Meiji period]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Coulmas |first=Florian |url=https://archive.org/details/languageadaptati0000unse/page/106 |title=Language Adaptation |publisher=Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-521-36255-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/languageadaptati0000unse/page/106 106]}}</ref> The Ryūkyūan languages are classified by [[UNESCO]] as 'endangered', as young people mostly use Japanese and cannot understand the languages. [[Okinawan Japanese]] is a variant of Standard Japanese influenced by the Ryūkyūan languages, and is the primary dialect spoken among young people in the [[Ryukyu Islands]].<ref name="ryukyuan-tongue">{{Cite web |last=Patrick Heinrich |date=25 August 2014 |title=Use them or lose them: There's more at stake than language in reviving Ryukyuan tongues |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/08/25/voices/use-lose-theres-stake-language-reviving-ryukyuan-tongues/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107141707/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/community/2014/08/25/voices/use-lose-theres-stake-language-reviving-ryukyuan-tongues/ |archive-date=2019-01-07 |access-date=2019-10-24 |publisher=The Japan Times}}</ref>
Modern Japanese has become prevalent nationwide (including the Ryūkyū islands) due to [[education]], [[mass media]], and an increase in mobility within Japan, as well as economic integration.
== Classification ==
{{Main|Classification of the Japonic languages}}
Japanese is a member of the [[Japonic language]] family, which also includes the [[Ryukyuan languages]] spoken in the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. As these closely related languages are commonly treated as dialects of the same language, Japanese is sometimes called a [[language isolate]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kindaichi |first=Haruhiko |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&q=japanese+isolated+language&pg=PT17 |title=Japanese Language: Learn the Fascinating History and Evolution of the Language Along With Many Useful Japanese Grammar Points |date=2011-12-20 |publisher=Tuttle Publishing |isbn=978-1-4629-0266-8 |access-date=2020-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115024826/https://books.google.com/books?id=dAbRAgAAQBAJ&q=japanese+isolated+language&pg=PT17 |archive-date=2021-11-15 |url-status=live}}</ref>
According to [[Martine Robbeets]], Japanese has been subject to more attempts to show its relation to other languages than any other language in the world. Since Japanese first gained the consideration of linguists in the late 19th century, attempts have been made to show its genealogical relation to languages or language families such as [[Ainu languages|Ainu]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]], [[Uralic languages|Uralic]], [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] (or [[Ural-Altaic languages|Ural-Altaic]]), [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]].{{sfn|Robbeets|2005|p=20}} At the fringe, some linguists have even suggested a link to [[Indo-European languages]], including [[Greek language|Greek]], or to [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]].{{sfn|Shibatani|1990|p=94}} Main modern theories try to link Japanese either to northern Asian languages, like Korean or the proposed larger Altaic family, or to various [[Classification of Southeast Asian languages|Southeast Asian languages]], especially [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]. None of these proposals have gained wide acceptance (and the Altaic family itself is now considered controversial).{{sfn|Robbeets|2005}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |title=Proto-Japanese |series=Current Issues in Linguistic Theory |year=2008 |chapter=Proto-Japanese beyond the accent system |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/19253123 |url-status=live |volume=294 |pages=141–156 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |___location=Amsterdam |doi=10.1075/cilt.294.11vov |isbn=978-90-272-4809-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327115347/https://www.academia.edu/19253123 |archive-date=2022-03-27 |access-date=2017-12-20|issn = 0304-0763 }}</ref>{{sfn|Vovin|2010}} As it stands, only the link to Ryukyuan has wide support.{{sfn|Kindaichi|Hirano|1978|pp=30–31}}
Other theories view the Japanese language as an early [[creole language]] formed through inputs from at least two distinct language groups, or as a distinct language of its own that has absorbed various aspects from neighboring languages.{{sfn|Shibatani|1990}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Austronesian influence and Transeurasian ancestry in Japanese: A case of farming/language dispersal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320915864 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219015825/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320915864 |archive-date=2019-02-19 |access-date=2019-03-28 |website=ResearchGate}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ann Kumar |date=1996 |title=Does Japanese have an Austronesian stratum? |url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/kumar1996does.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211103064933/http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/kumar1996does.pdf |archive-date=2021-11-03 |access-date=2017-09-28}}</ref>
==Phonology==
{{Main|Japanese phonology}}
[[File:Ja-botchan 1-1 1-2.ogg|thumb|Spoken Japanese]]
===Vowels===
[[File:Japanese vowel chart II.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|The vowels of Standard Japanese on a [[vowel diagram]]. Adapted from {{harvcoltxt|Okada|1999|p=117}}.]]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" |
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} || || {{IPA link|ɯ}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e̞|e}} || || {{IPA link|o̞|o}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || {{IPA link|ä|a}} ||
|}
Japanese has five vowels, and [[vowel length]] is phonemic, with each having both a short and a long version. Elongated vowels are usually denoted with a line over the vowel (a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]) in [[Romanization of Japanese|rōmaji]], a repeated vowel character in [[hiragana]], or a [[chōonpu]] succeeding the vowel in [[katakana]]. {{IPA|/u/}} {{pronunciation|Ja-U.oga|listen|(|help=no}} is [[roundedness|compressed rather than protruded]], or simply unrounded.
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br>palatal]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| ({{IPA link|ɲ̟|ɲ}})
|
| ({{IPA link|ŋ}})
| ({{IPA link|ɴ}})
|
|-
! [[Plosive|Stop]]
| {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{IPA link|d}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|
|
|-
! [[Affricate]]
|
| ({{IPA link|t͡s}}) ({{IPA link|d͡z}})
| ({{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}) ({{IPA link|d͡ʑ}})
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Fricative]]
| ({{IPA link|ɸ}})
| {{IPA link|s}} {{IPA link|z}}
| ({{IPA link|ɕ}}) ({{IPA link|ʑ}})
| ({{IPA link|ç}})
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ|r}}<!-- We use /r/ because realizations vary, just as do we at [[English phonology]]. -->
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Semivowel]]
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|ɰᵝ|w}}
|
|
|-
! Special moras
| colspan="7" | [[#Moraic nasal|{{IPA|/N/|cat=no}}]], [[#Gemination|{{IPA|/Q/|cat=no}}]]
|}
Some Japanese consonants have several [[allophone]]s, which may give the impression of a larger inventory of sounds. However, some of these allophones have since become phonemic. For example, in the Japanese language up to and including the first half of the 20th century, the phonemic sequence {{IPA|/ti/}} was [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]] and realized phonetically as {{IPA|[tɕi]}}, approximately {{Transliteration|ja|chi}} {{pronunciation|Ja-Chi 2.oga|listen|(|help=no}}; however, now {{IPA|[ti]}} and {{IPA|[tɕi]}} are distinct, as evidenced by words like {{Transliteration|ja|tī}} {{IPA|[tiː]}} "Western-style tea" and {{Transliteration|ja|chii}} {{IPA|[tɕii]}} "social status".
The "r" of the Japanese language is of particular interest, ranging between an [[apical consonant|apical]] [[central consonant|central]] [[Tap and flap consonants|tap]] and a [[Lateral consonant#Approximants|lateral approximant]]. The "g" is also notable; unless it starts a sentence, it may be pronounced {{IPAblink|ŋ}}, in the Kanto prestige dialect and in other eastern dialects.
The [[phonotactics]] of Japanese are relatively simple. The syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C),<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 January 2017 |title=Kanji and Homophones Part I – Does Japanese have too few sounds? |url=https://kuwashiijapanese.com/2017/01/08/kanji-and-homophones-part-1/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518173010/https://kuwashiijapanese.com/2017/01/08/kanji-and-homophones-part-1/ |archive-date=18 May 2021 |access-date=28 May 2021 |website=Kuwashii Japanese}}</ref> that is, a core vowel surrounded by an optional onset consonant, a glide {{IPA|/j/}} and either the first part of a [[Gemination|geminate consonant]] ({{lang|ja|っ}}/{{lang|ja|ッ}}, represented as Q) or a [[Japanese phonology#Moraic nasal|moraic nasal]] in the coda ({{lang|ja|ん}}/{{lang|ja|ン}}, represented as N).
The nasal is sensitive to its phonetic environment and [[Assimilation (phonology)|assimilates]] to the following phoneme, with pronunciations including {{IPA|[ɴ, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, ɰ̃]}}. Onset-glide clusters only occur at the start of syllables but clusters across syllables are allowed as long as the two consonants are the moraic nasal followed by a [[homorganic consonant]].
Japanese also includes a [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]], which is not represented in moraic writing; for example {{IPA|[haꜜ.ɕi]}} ("chopsticks") and {{IPA|[ha.ɕiꜜ]}} ("bridge") are both spelled {{nihongo krt||はし|hashi}}, and are only differentiated by the tone contour.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Bullock |first=Ben |title=What is Japanese pitch accent? |url=http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/pitch-accent.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702173008/http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/pitch-accent.html |archive-date=2 July 2017 |access-date=17 July 2017 |publisher=Ben Bullock}}</ref> However, Japanese is not a [[tonal language]].
== Writing system ==
{{Main|Japanese writing system|Japanese Braille}}
{{Calligraphy}}
===History===
Literacy was introduced to Japan in the form of the [[Written Chinese|Chinese writing system]], by way of [[Baekje]] before the 5th century AD.<ref>"[http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/koreajapan.html Buddhist Art of Korea & Japan]", {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303233011/http://www.asiasocietymuseum.org/buddhist_trade/koreajapan.html|date=2016-03-03}} Asia Society Museum.</ref><ref>"[http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2046.html Kanji]", {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510085157/http://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2046.html|date=2012-05-10}} JapanGuide.com.</ref><ref>"[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568150_4/Pottery.html Pottery]", {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501132835/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568150_4/Pottery.html|date=2009-05-01}} MSN Encarta.</ref><ref>"[http://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=359&pID=334&cName=Japanese History of Japan]", {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031432/http://www.japanvisitor.com/index.php?cID=359&pID=334&cName=Japanese|date=2016-03-04}} JapanVisitor.com.</ref> Using this script, the Japanese king [[Five kings of Wa|Bu]] presented a petition to [[Emperor Shun of Song]] in AD 478.{{efn|[[Book of Song]] {{lang|zh-Hant|順帝昇明二年，倭王武遣使上表曰：封國偏遠，作藩于外，自昔祖禰，躬擐甲冑，跋渉山川，不遑寧處。東征毛人五十國，西服衆夷六十六國，渡平海北九十五國，王道融泰，廓土遐畿，累葉朝宗，不愆于歳。臣雖下愚，忝胤先緒，驅率所統，歸崇天極，道逕百濟，裝治船舫，而句驪無道，圖欲見吞，掠抄邊隸，虔劉不已，毎致稽滯，以失良風。雖曰進路，或通或不。臣亡考濟實忿寇讎，壅塞天路，控弦百萬，義聲感激，方欲大舉，奄喪父兄，使垂成之功，不獲一簣。居在諒闇，不動兵甲，是以偃息未捷。至今欲練甲治兵，申父兄之志，義士虎賁，文武效功，白刃交前，亦所不顧。若以帝德覆載，摧此強敵，克靖方難，無替前功。竊自假開府儀同三司，其餘咸各假授，以勸忠節。詔除武使持節督倭、新羅、任那、加羅、秦韓六國諸軍事、安東大將軍、倭國王。至齊建元中，及梁武帝時，并來朝貢。}}}} After the ruin of Baekje, Japan invited scholars from China to learn more of the Chinese writing system. Japanese emperors gave an official rank to Chinese scholars ({{Lang|ja|続守言/薩弘恪}}/{{efn|[[Nihon Shoki]] Chapter 30:{{lang|ja|持統五年 九月己巳朔壬申。賜音博士大唐続守言。薩弘恪。書博士百済末士善信、銀人二十両。}}}}{{efn|[[Nihon Shoki]] Chapter 30:{{lang|ja|持統六年 十二月辛酉朔甲戌。賜音博士続守言。薩弘恪水田人四町}}}}{{Lang|ja|袁晋卿}}{{efn|[[Shoku Nihongi]] {{lang|ja|宝亀九年 十二月庚寅。玄蕃頭従五位上袁晋卿賜姓清村宿禰。晋卿唐人也。天平七年随我朝使帰朝。時年十八九。学得文選爾雅音。為大学音博士。於後。歴大学頭安房守。}}}}) and spread the use of Chinese characters during the 7th and 8th centuries.
[[File:Nihongo ichiran 01-converted.svg|thumb|Table of Kana (including [[Yōon]]): [[Hiragana]] top, [[Katakana]] in the center and Romanized equivalents at the bottom]]
At first, the Japanese wrote in [[Classical Chinese]], with Japanese names represented by characters used for their meanings and not their sounds. Later, during the 7th century AD, the Chinese-sounding phoneme principle was used to write pure Japanese poetry and prose, but some Japanese words were still written with characters for their meaning and not the original Chinese sound. This was the beginning of Japanese as a written language in its own right. By this time, the Japanese language was already very distinct from the [[Ryukyuan languages]].<ref>Heinrich, Patrick. [http://www.sicri-network.org/ISIC1/j.%20ISIC1P%20Heinrich.pdf "What leaves a mark should no longer stain: Progressive erasure and reversing language shift activities in the Ryukyu Islands"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516043839/http://www.sicri-network.org/ISIC1/j.%20ISIC1P%20Heinrich.pdf|date=2011-05-16}} First International Small Island Cultures Conference at [[Kagoshima University]], Centre for the Pacific Islands, 7–10 February 2005; citing [[Shiro Hattori]]. (1954) ''Gengo nendaigaku sunawachi goi tokeigaku no hoho ni tsuite'' ("Concerning the Method of Glottochronology and Lexicostatistics"), ''Gengo kenkyu'' (''Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan''), Vols. 26/27.</ref>
An example of this mixed style is the {{Lang|ja-latn|[[Kojiki]]}}, which was written in AD 712. Japanese writers then started to use Chinese characters to write Japanese in a style known as ''man'yōgana'', a syllabic script which used Chinese characters for their sounds in order to transcribe the words of Japanese speech mora by mora.
Over time, a writing system evolved. [[Chinese characters]] ([[kanji]]) were used to write either words borrowed from Chinese, or Japanese words with the same or similar meanings. Chinese characters were also used to write grammatical elements; these were simplified, and eventually became two moraic scripts: [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] which were developed based on [[Man'yōgana]]. Some scholars claim that Manyogana originated from Baekje, but this hypothesis is denied by mainstream Japanese scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_MMbNwAACAAJ |publisher=Shogakukan |year=2002 |isbn=978-4-09-402716-7 |editor-last=Shunpei Mizuno |language=ja |script-title=ja:韓国人の日本偽史―日本人はビックリ! |access-date=2020-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209153804/https://books.google.com/books?id=_MMbNwAACAAJ |archive-date=2020-12-09 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qwBgGQAACAAJ |publisher=Shogakukan |year=2007 |isbn=978-4-09-387703-9 |editor-last=Shunpei Mizuno |language=ja |script-title=ja:韓vs日「偽史ワールド」 |access-date=2020-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415005814/https://books.google.com/books?id=qwBgGQAACAAJ |archive-date=2021-04-15 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Hiragana and katakana were first simplified from kanji, and hiragana, emerging somewhere around the 9th century,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burlock |first=Ben |date=2017 |title=How did katakana and hiragana originate? |url=http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/originofkana.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705164214/http://www.sljfaq.org/afaq/originofkana.html |archive-date=5 July 2017 |access-date=26 July 2017 |website=sci.lang.japan}}</ref> was mainly used by women. Hiragana was seen as an informal language, whereas katakana and kanji were considered more formal and were typically used by men and in official settings. However, because of hiragana's accessibility, more and more people began using it. Eventually, by the 10th century, hiragana was used by everyone.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ager |first=Simon |date=2017 |title=Japanese Hiragana |url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/japanese_hiragana.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119110207/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/japanese_hiragana.htm |archive-date=19 November 2016 |access-date=26 July 2017 |website=Omniglot}}</ref>
Modern Japanese is written in a mixture of three main systems: kanji, characters of Chinese origin used to represent both Chinese [[loanword]]s into Japanese and a number of native Japanese [[morpheme]]s; and two [[syllabary|syllabaries]]: hiragana and katakana. The [[Latin script]] (or ''rōmaji'' in Japanese) is used to a certain extent, such as for imported acronyms and to transcribe Japanese names and in other instances where non-Japanese speakers need to know how to pronounce a word (such as "ramen" at a restaurant). Arabic numerals are much more common than the kanji numerals when used in counting, but kanji numerals are still used in compounds, such as {{Nihongo krt|"unification"|統一|tōitsu}}.
Historically, attempts to limit the number of kanji in use commenced in the mid-19th century, but government did not intervene until after Japan's defeat in the Second World War. During the post-war occupation (and influenced by the views of some U.S. officials), various schemes including the complete abolition of kanji and exclusive use of rōmaji were considered. The ''[[jōyō kanji]]'' ("common use kanji"), originally called ''[[tōyō kanji]]'' (kanji for general use) scheme arose as a compromise solution.
Japanese students begin to learn kanji from their first year at elementary school. A guideline created by the Japanese Ministry of Education, the list of ''[[kyōiku kanji]]'' ("education kanji", a subset of ''[[jōyō kanji]]''), specifies the 1,006 simple characters a child is to learn by the end of sixth grade. Children continue to study another 1,130 characters in junior high school, covering in total 2,136 ''jōyō kanji''. The official list of ''jōyō kanji'' has been revised several times, but the total number of officially sanctioned characters has remained largely unchanged.
As for kanji for personal names, the circumstances are somewhat complicated. ''Jōyō kanji'' and ''[[jinmeiyō kanji]]'' (an appendix of additional characters for names) are approved for registering personal names. Names containing unapproved characters are denied registration. However, as with the list of ''jōyō kanji'', criteria for inclusion were often arbitrary and led to many common and popular characters being disapproved for use. Under popular pressure and following a court decision holding the exclusion of common characters unlawful, the list of ''jinmeiyō kanji'' was substantially extended from 92 in 1951 (the year it was first decreed) to 983 in 2004. Furthermore, families whose names are not on these lists were permitted to continue using the older forms.
===Hiragana===
''[[Hiragana]]'' are used for words without kanji representation, for words no longer written in kanji, for replacement of rare kanji that may be unfamiliar to intended readers, and also following kanji to show conjugational endings. Because of the way verbs (and adjectives) in Japanese are [[Japanese conjugation|conjugated]], kanji alone cannot fully convey Japanese tense and mood, as kanji cannot be subject to variation when written without losing their meaning. For this reason, hiragana are appended to kanji to show verb and adjective conjugations. Hiragana used in this way are called [[okurigana]]. Hiragana can also be written in a superscript called [[furigana]] above or beside a kanji to show the proper reading. This is done to facilitate learning, as well as to clarify particularly old or obscure (or sometimes invented) readings.
===Katakana===
''[[Katakana]]'', like hiragana, constitute a [[syllabary]]; katakana are primarily used to write foreign words, plant and animal names, and for emphasis. For example, "Australia" has been adapted as {{Nihongo||オーストラリア|Ōsutoraria}}, and "supermarket" has been adapted and shortened into {{Nihongo||スーパー|sūpā}}.
== Grammar ==
{{Main|Japanese grammar}}
{{no footnotes|section|date=November 2013}}
<!--Please keep in mind that this section is intended to be a summary and should not dominate the article. If you feel like going in-depth about something regarding Japanese grammar, please add it to the main article linked below.-->
===
Japanese word order is classified as [[Subject–object–verb word order|subject–object–verb]]. Unlike many [[Indo-European languages]], the only strict rule of word order is that the verb must be placed at the end of a sentence (possibly followed by sentence-end particles). This is because Japanese sentence elements are marked with [[Japanese particles|particles]] that identify their grammatical functions.
The basic sentence structure is [[Topic and comment|topic–comment]]. Once the topic has been stated using the particle {{Nihongo||は|wa}}, it is normally omitted in subsequent sentences, and the next use of ''wa'' will change the topic. For instance, someone may begin a conversation with a sentence that includes {{Nihongo3|"As for Mx. Tanaka, ..."|田中さんは...|Tanaka-san wa...}}. Each person may say a number of comments regarding Tanaka as the topic, and someone could change the topic to Naoko with a sentence including {{Nihongo3|"As for Mx. Naoko, ..."|直子さんは...|Naoko-san wa...}}.
As these example translations illustrate, a sentence may include a topic, but the topic is not part of sentence's core statement. Japanese is often called a [[topic-prominent language]] because of its strong tendency to indicate the topic separately from the subject, and the two do not always coincide. That is, a sentence might not involve the topic directly at all. To replicate this effect in English, consider "As for Naoko, people are rude." The topic, "Naoko," provides context to the comment about the subject, "people," and the sentence as a whole indicates that "people are rude" is a statement relevant to Naoko. However, the sentence's comment does not describe Naoko directly at all, and whatever the sentence indicates about Naoko is an inference. The topic is not the core of the sentence; the core of the sentence is always the comment.
In a basic comment, the subject is marked with the particle {{Nihongo||が|ga}}, and the rest of the comment describes the subject. For example, in {{Nihongo||象が動物だ|Zou ga doubutsu da}}, ''ga'' indicates that "elephant" is the subject of the sentence. Context determines whether the speaker means a single elephant or elephants plural. The [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] {{Nihongo3|the verb "is"|だ|da}} ends the sentence, indicating that the subject is equivalent to the rest of the comment. Here, ''doubutsu'' means ''animal''. Therefore, the sentence means "[The] elephant is [an] animal" or "Elephants are animals." A basic comment can end in three ways: with the copula ''da'', with a different verb, or with an adjective ending in the kana {{Nihongo||い|i}}. A sentence ending might also be decorated with particles that alter the way the sentence is meant to be interpreted, as in {{Nihongo3|"Elephants are animals, you know."|象が動物だよ|Zou ga doubutsu da yo}}. This is also why ''da'' is replaced with {{Nihongo||です|desu}} when the speaker is talking to someone they do not know well: it makes the sentence more polite.
Often, ''ga'' implies distinction of the subject within the topic, so the previous example comment would make the most sense within a topic where not all of the relevant subjects were animals. For example, in {{Nihongo||この贋物は象が動物だ|Kono ganbutsu wa zou ga doubutsu da}}, the particle ''wa'' indicates the topic is ''kono ganbutsu'' ("this toy" or "these toys"). In English, if there are many toys and one is an elephant, this could mean "Among these toys, [the] elephant is [an] animal." That said, if the subject is clearly a subtopic, this differentiation effect may or may not be relevant, such as in {{Nihongo||日本語は文法が優しい|nihongo wa bunpo ga yasashii}}. The equivalent sentence, "As for the Japanese language, grammar is easy," might be a general statement that Japanese grammar is easy or a statement that grammar is an especially easy feature of the Japanese language. Context should reveal which.
Because ''ga'' marks the subject of the sentence but the sentence overall is intended to be relevant to the topic indicated by ''wa'', translations of Japanese into English often elide the difference between these particles. For example, the phrase ''watashi wa zou ga suki da'' literally means "As for myself, elephants are likeable." The sentence about myself describes elephants as having a likeable quality. From this, it is clear that I like elephants, and this sentence is often translated into English as "I like elephants." However, to do so changes the subject of the sentence (from "Elephant" to "I") and the verb (from "is" to "like"); it does not reflect Japanese grammar.
Japanese grammar tends toward brevity; the subject or object of a sentence need not be stated and [[pronoun]]s may be omitted if they can be inferred from context. In the example above, ''zou ga doubutsu da'' would mean "[the] elephant is [an] animal", while ''doubutsu da'' by itself would mean "[they] are animals." In especially casual speech, many speakers would omit the copula, leaving the noun ''doubutsu'' to mean "[they are] animals." A single verb can be a complete sentence: {{Nihongo3|"[I / we / they / etc] did [it]!"|やった!|Yatta!}}. In addition, since adjectives can form the predicate in a Japanese sentence (below), a single adjective can be a complete sentence: {{Nihongo3|"[I'm] jealous [about it]!"|羨ましい!|Urayamashii!}}).
Nevertheless, unlike the topic, the subject is always implied: all sentences which omit a ''ga'' particle must have an implied subject that could be specified with a ''ga'' particle. For example, {{Nihongo||この猫はロキだ|Kono neko wa Loki da}} means "As for this cat, [it] is Loki." An equivalent sentence might read {{Nihongo||この猫はこれがロキだ|kono neko wa kore ga Loki da}}, meaning "As for this cat, this is Loki." However, in the same way it is unusual to state the subject twice in the English sentence, it is unusual to specify that redundant subject in Japanese. Rather than replace the redundant subject with a word like "it," the redundant subject is omitted from the Japanese sentence. It is obvious from the context that the first sentence refers to the cat by the name "Loki," and the explicit subject of the second sentence contributes no information.
While the language has some words that are typically translated as pronouns, these are not used as frequently as pronouns in some Indo-European languages, and function differently. In some cases, Japanese relies on special verb forms and auxiliary verbs to indicate the direction of benefit of an action: "down" to indicate the out-group gives a benefit to the in-group, and "up" to indicate the in-group gives a benefit to the out-group. Here, the in-group includes the speaker and the out-group does not, and their boundary depends on context. For example, {{Nihongo||教えてもらった|oshiete moratta|literally, "explaining got" with a benefit from the out-group to the in-group}} means "[he/she/they] explained [it] to [me/us]". Similarly, {{Nihongo||教えてあげた|oshiete ageta|literally, "explaining gave" with a benefit from the in-group to the out-group}} means "[I/we] explained [it] to [him/her/them]". Such beneficiary auxiliary verbs thus serve a function comparable to that of pronouns and prepositions in Indo-European languages to indicate the actor and the recipient of an action.
[[Japanese pronouns|Japanese "pronouns"]] also function differently from most modern Indo-European pronouns (and more like nouns) in that they can take modifiers as any other noun may. For instance, one does not say in English:
<blockquote>The amazed he ran down the street. (grammatically incorrect insertion of a pronoun)</blockquote>
But one ''can'' grammatically say essentially the same thing in Japanese:
<blockquote><poem>{{Nihongo2|驚いた彼は道を走っていった。}}
Transliteration: {{tlit|ja|Odoroita kare wa michi o hashitte itta.}} (grammatically correct)</poem></blockquote>
This is partly because these words evolved from regular nouns, such as {{tlit|ja|kimi}} "you" ({{Nihongo2|君}} "lord"), {{tlit|ja|anata}} "you" ({{Nihongo2|あなた}} "that side, yonder"), and {{tlit|ja|boku}} "I" ({{Nihongo2|僕}} "servant"). This is why some linguists do not classify Japanese "pronouns" as pronouns, but rather as referential nouns, much like Spanish {{lang|es|usted}} (contracted from {{lang|es|vuestra merced}}, "your ([[Royal we|majestic plural]]) grace") or Portuguese {{lang|pt|você}} (from {{lang|pt|vossa mercê}}). Japanese personal pronouns are generally used only in situations requiring special emphasis as to who is doing what to whom.
The choice of words used as pronouns is correlated with the sex of the speaker and the social situation in which they are spoken: men and women alike in a formal situation generally refer to themselves as {{Nihongo||私|watashi|literally "private"}} or {{tlit|ja|watakushi}} (also {{Nihongo2|私}}, hyper-polite form), while men in rougher or intimate conversation are much more likely to use the word {{Nihongo3|"oneself", "myself"|俺|ore}} or ''boku''. Similarly, different words such as ''anata'', ''kimi'', and {{tlit|ja|omae}} ({{Nihongo2|お前}}, more formally {{Nihongo2|御前}} "the one before me") may refer to a listener depending on the listener's relative social position and the degree of familiarity between the speaker and the listener. When used in different social relationships, the same word may have positive (intimate or respectful) or negative (distant or disrespectful) connotations.
Japanese often use titles of the person referred to where pronouns would be used in English. For example, when speaking to one's teacher, it is appropriate to use {{Nihongo3|"teacher"|先生|sensei}}, but inappropriate to use ''anata''. This is because ''anata'' is used to refer to people of equal or lower status, and one's teacher has higher status.
===Inflection and conjugation===
Japanese nouns have no grammatical number, gender or article aspect. The noun {{Nihongo||本|hon}} may refer to a single book or several books; {{Nihongo||人|hito}} can mean "person" or "people", and {{Nihongo||木|ki}} can be "tree" or "trees". Where number is important, it can be indicated by providing a quantity (often with a [[Japanese counter word|counter word]]) or (rarely) by adding a suffix, <!--example? meaning "hito-tachi" and "mono-domo"?--> or sometimes by duplication (e.g. {{Nihongo2|人人}}, {{tlit|ja|hitobito}}, usually written with an iteration mark as {{Nihongo2|人々}}). Words for people are usually understood as singular. Thus ''Tanaka-san'' usually means ''Mx Tanaka''. Words that refer to people and animals can be made to indicate a group of individuals through the addition of a collective suffix (a noun suffix that indicates a group), such as ''-tachi'', but this is not a true plural: the meaning is closer to the English phrase "and company". A group described as ''Tanaka-san-tachi'' may include people not named Tanaka. Some Japanese nouns are effectively plural, such as ''hitobito'' "people" and ''wareware'' "we/us", while the word ''tomodachi'' "friend" is considered singular, although plural in form.
Verbs are [[Japanese conjugation|conjugated]] to show tenses, of which there are two: past and non-past, which is used for the present and the future. For verbs that represent an ongoing process, the ''-te iru'' form indicates a continuous (or progressive) [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], similar to the suffix ''ing'' in English. For others that represent a change of state, the ''-te iru'' form indicates a perfect aspect. For example, ''kite iru'' means "They have come (and are still here)", but ''tabete iru'' means "They are eating".
Questions (both with an interrogative pronoun and yes/no questions) have the same structure as affirmative sentences, but with intonation rising at the end. In the formal register, the question particle ''-ka'' is added. For example, {{Nihongo3|"It is OK"|いいです|ii desu}} becomes {{Nihongo3|"Is it OK?"|いいですか。|ii desu-ka}}. In a more informal tone sometimes the particle {{Nihongo||の|-no}} is added instead to show a personal interest of the speaker: ''Dōshite konai-no?'' "Why aren't (you) coming?". Some simple queries are formed simply by mentioning the topic with an interrogative intonation to call for the hearer's attention: ''Kore wa?'' "(What about) this?"; {{tlit|ja|O-namae wa?}} ({{Nihongo2|お名前は？}}) "(What's your) name?".
Negatives are formed by inflecting the verb. For example, {{Nihongo3|"I will eat bread" or "I eat bread"|パンを食べる。|Pan o taberu}} becomes {{Nihongo3|"I will not eat bread" or "I do not eat bread"|パンを食べない。|Pan o tabenai}}. Plain negative forms are ''i''-adjectives (see below) and inflect as such, e.g. {{Nihongo3|"I did not eat bread"|パンを食べなかった。|Pan o tabenakatta}}.
The so-called ''-te'' verb form is used for a variety of purposes: either progressive or perfect aspect (see above); combining verbs in a temporal sequence (''Asagohan o tabete sugu dekakeru'' "I'll eat breakfast and leave at once"), simple commands, conditional statements and permissions (''Dekakete-mo ii?'' "May I go out?"), etc.
The word ''da'' (plain), ''desu'' (polite) is the [[Copula (linguistics)#Japanese|copula]] verb. It corresponds to the English verb ''is'' and marks tense when the verb is conjugated into its past form ''datta'' (plain), ''deshita'' (polite). This comes into use because only ''i''-adjectives and verbs can carry tense in Japanese. Two additional common verbs are used to indicate existence ("there is") or, in some contexts, property: ''aru'' (negative ''nai'') and ''iru'' (negative ''inai''), for inanimate and animate things, respectively. For example, ''Neko ga iru'' "There's a cat", ''Ii kangae-ga nai'' "[I] haven't got a good idea".
The verb "to do" (''suru'', polite form ''shimasu'') is often used to make verbs from nouns (''ryōri suru'' "to cook", ''benkyō suru'' "to study", etc.) and has been productive in creating modern slang words. Japanese also has a huge number of compound verbs to express concepts that are described in English using a verb and an adverbial particle (e.g. ''tobidasu'' "to fly out, to flee", from ''tobu'' "to fly, to jump" + ''dasu'' "to put out, to emit").
There are three types of adjectives (see [[Japanese adjectives]]):
# {{Nihongo2|形容詞}} {{tlit|ja|keiyōshi}}, or ''i'' adjectives, which have a [[Japanese conjugation|conjugating]] ending {{Nihongo||い|i}}. An example of this is {{Nihongo krt|"to be hot"|暑い|atsui}}, which can become past ({{Nihongo2|暑かった}} {{tlit|ja|atsukatta}} "it was hot"), or negative ({{Nihongo2|暑くない}} {{tlit|ja|atsuku nai}} "it is not hot"). ''nai'' is also an ''i'' adjective, which can become past (i.e., {{Nihongo2|暑くなかった}} {{tlit|ja|atsuku nakatta}} "it was not hot").
#: {{Nihongo2|暑い日}} {{tlit|ja|atsui hi}} "a hot day".
# {{Nihongo2|形容動詞}} {{tlit|ja|keiyōdōshi}}, or ''na'' adjectives, which are followed by a form of the [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]], usually ''na''. For example, ''hen'' (strange)
#: {{Nihongo2|変な人}} {{tlit|ja|hen na hito}} "a strange person".
# {{Nihongo2|連体詞}} {{tlit|ja|rentaishi}}, also called true adjectives, such as ''ano'' "that"
#: {{Nihongo2|あの山}} {{tlit|ja|ano yama}} "that mountain".
Both ''keiyōshi'' and ''keiyōdōshi'' may [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]] sentences. For example,
<blockquote><poem>{{Nihongo2|ご飯が熱い。}} {{tlit|ja|Gohan ga atsui.}} "The rice is hot."
{{Nihongo2|彼は変だ。}} {{tlit|ja|Kare wa hen da.}} "He's strange."</poem></blockquote>
Both inflect, though they do not show the full range of conjugation found in true verbs.
The ''rentaishi'' in Modern Japanese are few in number, and unlike the other words, are limited to directly modifying nouns. They never predicate sentences. Examples include ''ookina'' "big"
Both ''keiyōdōshi'' and ''keiyōshi'' form [[adverb]]s, by following with ''ni'' in the case of ''keiyōdōshi'':
<blockquote>{{Nihongo2|変になる}} {{tlit|ja|hen ni naru}} "become strange",</blockquote>
and by changing ''i'' to ''ku'' in the case of ''keiyōshi'':
<blockquote>{{Nihongo2|熱くなる}} {{tlit|ja|atsuku naru}} "become hot".</blockquote>
The grammatical function of nouns is indicated by [[Adposition|postposition]]s, also called [[Japanese particles|particles]]. These include for example:
* '''{{Nihongo2|が}} {{tlit|ja|ga}}''' for the [[nominative case]].
: {{Nihongo2|'''彼が'''やった。}} {{tlit|ja|'''Kare ga''' yatta.}} "He did it."
* '''{{Nihongo2|を}} {{tlit|ja|o}}''' for the [[accusative case]].
: {{Nihongo2|'''何を'''食べますか。}} {{tlit|ja|'''Nani o''' tabemasu ka?}} "'''What''' will (you) eat?"
* '''{{Nihongo2|に}} {{tlit|ja|ni}}''' for the [[dative case]].
: {{Nihongo2|'''田中さんに'''あげて下さい。}} {{tlit|ja|'''Tanaka-san ni''' agete kudasai}} "Please give it '''to Mx Tanaka'''."
: It is also used for the [[lative case]], indicating a motion to a ___location.
: {{Nihongo2|'''日本に'''行きたい。}} {{tlit|ja|'''Nihon ni''' ikitai}} "I want to go '''to Japan'''."
* However, '''{{Nihongo2|へ}} {{tlit|ja|e}}''' is more commonly used for the lative case.
: {{Nihongo2|'''パーティーへ'''行かないか。}} {{tlit|ja|'''pātī e''' ikanai ka?}} "Won't you go '''to the party'''?"
* '''{{Nihongo2|の}} {{tlit|ja|no}}''' for the [[genitive case]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vance |first=Timothy J. |date=April 1993 |title=Are Japanese Particles Clitics? |journal=[[Japanese Language and Literature|Journal of the Association of Teachers of Japanese]] |volume=27 |pages=3–33 |doi=10.2307/489122 |jstor=489122 |number=1}}</ref> or nominalizing phrases.
: {{Nihongo2|'''私の'''カメラ。}} {{tlit|ja|'''watashi no''' kamera}} "'''my''' camera"
: {{Nihongo2|スキーに行く'''の'''が好きです。}} {{tlit|ja|Sukī-ni iku '''no''' ga suki desu}} "(I) like go'''ing''' skiing."
* '''{{Nihongo2|は}} {{tlit|ja|wa}}''' for the topic. It can co-exist with the case markers listed above, and it overrides ''ga'' and (in most cases) ''o''.
: {{Nihongo2|'''私は'''寿司がいいです。}} {{tlit|ja|'''Watashi wa''' sushi ga ii desu.}} (literally) "'''As for me''', sushi is good." The nominative marker ''ga'' after ''watashi'' is hidden under ''wa''.
Note: The subtle difference between '''''wa''''' and '''''ga''''' in Japanese cannot be derived from the English language as such, because the distinction between sentence topic and subject is not made there. While ''wa'' indicates the topic, which the rest of the sentence describes or acts upon, it carries the implication that the subject indicated by ''wa'' is not unique, or may be part of a larger group.
<blockquote>''Ikeda-san '''wa''' yonjū-ni sai da.'' "As for Mx Ikeda, they are forty-two years old." Others in the group may also be of that age.</blockquote>
Absence of ''wa'' often means the subject is the [[focus (linguistics)|focus]] of the sentence.
<blockquote>''Ikeda-san '''ga''' yonjū-ni sai da.'' "It is Mx Ikeda who is forty-two years old." This is a reply to an implicit or explicit question, such as "who in this group is forty-two years old?"</blockquote>
===Politeness===
{{Main|Honorific speech in Japanese}}
Japanese has an extensive grammatical system to express politeness and formality. This reflects the hierarchical nature of Japanese society.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miyagawa |first=Shigeru |title=The Japanese Language |url=http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLanguage.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720054510/http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLanguage.html |archive-date=July 20, 2009 |access-date=January 16, 2011 |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology}}</ref>
The Japanese language can express differing levels of social status. The differences in social position are determined by a variety of factors including job, age, experience, or even psychological state (e.g., a person asking a favour tends to do so politely). The person in the lower position is expected to use a polite form of speech, whereas the other person might use a plainer form. Strangers will also speak to each other politely. Japanese children begin learning and using polite speech in basic forms from an early age, but their use of more formal and sophisticated polite speech becomes more common and expected as they enter their teenage years and start engaging in more adult-like social interactions. See ''[[uchi–soto]]''.
Whereas {{Nihongo3|polite language|丁寧語|teineigo}} is commonly an [[inflection]]al system, {{Nihongo3|respectful language|尊敬語|sonkeigo}} and {{Nihongo3|humble language|謙譲語|kenjōgo}} often employ many special honorific and humble alternate verbs: ''iku'' "go" becomes ''ikimasu'' in polite form, but is replaced by ''irassharu'' in honorific speech and ''ukagau'' or ''mairu'' in humble speech.
The difference between honorific and humble speech is particularly pronounced in the Japanese language. Humble language is used to talk about oneself or one's own group (company, family) whilst honorific language is mostly used when describing the interlocutor and their group. For example, the ''-san'' suffix ("Mr", "Mrs", "Miss", or "Mx") is an example of honorific language. It is not used to talk about oneself or when talking about someone from one's company to an external person, since the company is the speaker's in-group. When speaking directly to one's superior in one's company or when speaking with other employees within one's company about a superior, a Japanese person will use vocabulary and inflections of the honorific register to refer to the in-group superior and their speech and actions. When speaking to a person from another company (i.e., a member of an out-group), however, a Japanese person will use the plain or the humble register to refer to the speech and actions of their in-group superiors. In short, the register used in Japanese to refer to the person, speech, or actions of any particular individual varies depending on the relationship (either in-group or out-group) between the speaker and listener, as well as depending on the relative status of the speaker, listener, and third-person referents.
Most [[noun]]s in the Japanese language may be made polite by the addition of ''o-'' or ''go-'' as a prefix. ''o-'' is generally used for words of native Japanese origin, whereas ''go-'' is affixed to words of Chinese derivation. In some cases, the prefix has become a fixed part of the word, and is included even in regular speech, such as ''gohan'' 'cooked rice; meal.' Such a construction often indicates deference to either the item's owner or to the object itself. For example, the word ''tomodachi'' 'friend,' would become ''o-tomodachi'' when referring to the friend of someone of higher status (though mothers often use this form to refer to their children's friends). On the other hand, a polite speaker may sometimes refer to ''mizu'' 'water' as ''o-mizu'' to show politeness.
==Vocabulary==
{{Main|Yamato kotoba|Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Gairaigo}}
There are three main sources of words in the Japanese language: the {{Nihongo||大和言葉|yamato kotoba}} or {{Nihongo||和語|wago}}; {{Nihongo||漢語|kango}}; and {{Nihongo||外来語|gairaigo}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Koichi |date=13 September 2011 |title=Yamato Kotoba: The REAL Japanese Language |url=https://www.tofugu.com/japanese/yamato-kotoba-language/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531001918/https://www.tofugu.com/japanese/yamato-kotoba-language/ |archive-date=2016-05-31 |access-date=2016-03-26 |website=Tofugu}}</ref>
The original language of Japan, or at least the original language of a certain population that was ancestral to a significant portion of the historical and present Japanese nation, was the so-called {{Nihongo||大和言葉|[[yamato kotoba]]}} or infrequently {{Nihongo2|大和詞}}, i.e. "[[Yamato people|Yamato]] words"), which in scholarly contexts is sometimes referred to as {{tlit|ja|wago}} ({{Nihongo2|和語}} or rarely {{Nihongo2|倭語}}, i.e. the "[[Wa (name of Japan)|Wa]] language"). In addition to words from this original language, present-day Japanese includes a number of words that were either borrowed from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or constructed from Chinese roots following Chinese patterns. These words, known as {{Nihongo||漢語|[[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|kango]]}}, entered the language from the 5th century{{clarify|date=March 2024}} onwards by contact with Chinese culture. According to the {{Nihongo||新選国語辞典|Shinsen Kokugo Jiten}} [[Japanese dictionary]], ''kango'' comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, ''wago'' make up 33.8%, other foreign words or {{Nihongo||外来語|[[gairaigo]]}} account for 8.8%, and the remaining 8.3% constitute hybridized words or {{Nihongo||混種語|konshugo}} that draw elements from more than one language.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Shinsen Kokugo Jiten |publisher=SHOGAKUKAN |year=2001 |isbn=4-09-501407-5 |editor-last=Kindaichi |editor-first=Kyōsuke |script-title=ja:新選国語辞典 |language=ja}}</ref>
There are also a great number of words of [[Mimesis|mimetic]] origin in Japanese, with Japanese having a rich collection of [[Japanese sound symbolism|sound symbolism]], both [[onomatopoeia]] for physical sounds, and more [[Abstraction|abstract]] words. A small number of words have come into Japanese from the [[Ainu language]]. ''Tonakai'' ([[reindeer]]), ''rakko'' ([[sea otter]]) and ''[[shishamo]]'' ([[Smelt (fish)|smelt]], a type of fish) are well-known examples of words of Ainu origin.
Words of different origins occupy different [[Register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] in Japanese. Like Latin-derived words in English, ''kango'' words are typically perceived as somewhat formal or academic compared to equivalent Yamato words. Indeed, it is generally fair to say that an English word derived from Latin/French roots typically corresponds to a Sino-Japanese word in Japanese, whereas an [[Old English|Anglo-Saxon word]] would best be translated by a Yamato equivalent.
Incorporating vocabulary from [[languages of Europe|European languages]], ''gairaigo'', began with [[Glossary of Japanese words of Portuguese origin|borrowings from Portuguese]] in the 16th century, followed by words from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] during Japan's [[sakoku|long isolation]] of the [[Edo period]]. With the [[Meiji Restoration]] and the reopening of Japan in the 19th century, words were borrowed from [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]], and [[English language|English]]. Today most borrowings are from English.
In the Meiji era, the Japanese also coined many neologisms using Chinese roots and morphology to translate European concepts;{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} these are known as ''[[wasei-kango]]'' (Japanese-made Chinese words). Many of these were then imported into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese via their kanji in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} For example, {{Nihongo3|"politics"|政治|seiji}}, and {{Nihongo3|"chemistry"|化学|kagaku}} are words derived from Chinese roots that were first created and used by the Japanese, and only later borrowed into Chinese and other East Asian languages. As a result, Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese share a large common corpus of vocabulary in the same way many Greek- and Latin-derived words – both inherited or borrowed into European languages, or modern coinages from Greek or Latin roots – are shared among modern European languages – see [[classical compound]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}
In the past few decades, ''[[wasei-eigo]]'' ("made-in-Japan English") has become a prominent phenomenon. Words such as {{tlit|ja|wanpatān}} {{Nihongo2|ワンパターン}} (< ''one'' + ''pattern'', "to be in a rut", "to have a one-track mind") and {{tlit|ja|sukinshippu}} {{Nihongo2|スキンシップ}} (< ''skin'' + ''-ship'', "physical contact"), although coined by compounding English roots, are nonsensical in most non-Japanese contexts; exceptions exist in nearby languages such as Korean however, which often use words such as ''skinship'' and ''rimokon'' (remote control) in the same way as in Japanese.
The popularity of many Japanese cultural exports has made some native Japanese words familiar in English, including ''[[emoji]], [[futon]], [[haiku]], [[judo]], [[kamikaze]], [[karaoke]], [[karate]], [[ninja]], [[origami]], [[Pulled rickshaw|rickshaw]]'' (from {{Nihongo2|人力車}} {{tlit|ja|jinrikisha}}), ''[[samurai]], [[Sayonara (disambiguation)|sayonara]], [[Sudoku]], [[sumo]], [[sushi]], [[tofu]], [[tsunami]], [[tycoon]]''. See [[list of English words of Japanese origin]] for more.
==Gender in the Japanese language==
{{main|Gender differences in Japanese}}
Depending on the speakers’ gender, different linguistic features might be used.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Okamoto |first=Shigeko |title=Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology : Cultural Models and Real People |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |___location=New York }}</ref> The typical [[Variety (linguistics)|lect]] used by females is called {{nihongo||[[:wikt:女性語#Japanese|女性語]]|joseigo}} and the one used by males is called {{nihongo||[[:wikt:男性語#Japanese|男性語]]|danseigo}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okamono |first=Shigeko |date=2021 |title=Japanese Language and Gender Research: The Last Thirty Years and Beyond |url= |journal=Gender and Language |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=277–|doi=10.1558/genl.20316 }}</ref> ''Joseigo'' and ''danseigo'' are different in various ways, including [[Personal pronoun|first-person pronoun]]s (such as ''watashi'' or ''atashi'' {{Wikt-lang|ja|私#Japanese|私}} for women and {{nihongo||[[:wikt:僕#Japanese|僕]]|boku}} for men) and sentence-final particles (such as {{nihongo||[[:wikt:わ|わ]]|wa}}, {{nihongo||[[:wikt:なの|なの]]|na no}}, or {{nihongo||[[:wikt:かしら|かしら]]|kashira}} for ''joseigo'', or {{nihongo||[[:wikt:ぞ|ぞ]]|zo}}, {{nihongo||[[:wikt:だ|だ]]|da}}, or {{nihongo||[[:wikt:よ|よ]]|yo}} for ''danseigo'').<ref name=":0" /> In addition to these specific differences, expressions and pitch can also be different.<ref name=":0" /> For example, ''joseigo'' is more gentle, polite, refined, indirect, modest, and exclamatory, and often accompanied by raised pitch.<ref name=":0" />
=== Kogal slang ===
In the 1990s, the traditional feminine speech patterns and stereotyped behaviors were challenged, and a popular culture of "naughty" teenage girls emerged, called {{nihongo||[[:wikt:コギャル|コギャル]]|kogyaru}}, sometimes referenced in English-language materials as "kogal".<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=MILLER |first=LAURA |title=Those Naughty Teenage Girls: Japanese Kogals, Slang, and Media Assessments |url= |journal=Journal of Linguistic Anthropology |year=2004 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–247|doi=10.1525/jlin.2004.14.2.225 }}</ref> Their rebellious behaviors, deviant language usage, the particular make-up called {{nihongo||[[:wikt:ガングロ|ガングロ]]|ganguro}}, and the fashion became objects of focus in the mainstream media.<ref name=":1" /> Although kogal slang was not appreciated by older generations, the ''kogyaru'' continued to create terms and expressions.<ref name=":1" /> Kogal culture also changed Japanese norms of gender and the Japanese language.<ref name=":1" />
==Non-native study==
{{main|Japanese as a foreign language}}
Many major universities throughout the world provide Japanese language courses, and a number of secondary and even primary schools worldwide offer courses in the language. This is a significant increase from before [[World War II]]; in 1940, only 65 Americans not [[Japanese Americans|of Japanese descent]] were able to read, write, and understand the language.<ref>[[Beate Sirota Gordon]] commencement address at [[Mills College at Northeastern University|Mills College]], 14 May 2011. [http://www.c-span.org/Events/Sotomayor-Denzel-Washington-GE-CEO-Speak-to-Graduates/10737421758-10/ "Sotomayor, Denzel Washington, GE CEO Speak to Graduates"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623220241/http://www.c-span.org/Events/Sotomayor-Denzel-Washington-GE-CEO-Speak-to-Graduates/10737421758-10/ |date=2011-06-23 }} C-SPAN (US). 30 May 2011; retrieved 2011-05-30</ref>
International interest in the Japanese language dates from the 19th century but has become more prevalent following Japan's economic bubble of the 1980s and the global popularity of [[Japanese popular culture]] (such as [[anime]] and [[video game]]s) since the 1990s. As of 2015, more than 3.6 million people studied the language worldwide, primarily in East and Southeast Asia.<ref name="Japanese as Foreign Language">{{Cite web |date=2015 |title=Survey Report on Japanese-Language Education Abroad |url=https://www.jpf.go.jp/j/project/japanese/survey/result/dl/survey_2015/Report_all_e.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021017/https://www.jpf.go.jp/j/project/japanese/survey/result/dl/survey_2015/Report_all_e.pdf |archive-date=7 January 2019 |access-date=6 January 2019 |publisher=Japan Foundation}}</ref> Nearly one million Chinese, 745,000 Indonesians, 556,000 South Koreans and 357,000 Australians studied Japanese in lower and higher educational institutions.<ref name="Japanese as Foreign Language" /> Between 2012 and 2015, considerable growth of learners originated in [[Australia]] (20.5%), [[Thailand]] (34.1%), [[Vietnam]] (38.7%) and the [[Philippines]] (54.4%).<ref name="Japanese as Foreign Language" />
The Japanese government provides standardized tests to measure spoken and written comprehension of Japanese for second language learners; the most prominent is the [[Japanese-Language Proficiency Test]] (JLPT), which features five levels of exams. The JLPT is offered twice a year.
== Example text ==
Article 1 of the ''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]'' in Japanese:
{{Listen|filename= Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights-jpn-Art1.ogg|title= Universal Declaration of Human Rights|description= Recording of the first article of the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Japanese.|format= [[Ogg]]}}
{{fs interlinear|lang1=ja|transl2=|indent=2
|すべて の 人間 は、 生まれながら に して 自由 で あり、 かつ、 尊厳 と 権利 と に ついて 平等 で ある。 人間 は、 理性 と 良心 と を 授けられて おり、 互い に 同胞 の 精神 を もって 行動 しなければ ならない。|c1=<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights – Japanese (Nihongo) |url=https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=jpn |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107214331/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=jpn |archive-date=2022-01-07 |access-date=2022-01-07 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>
|Subete no ningen wa, umarenagara ni shite jiyū de ari, katsu, songen to kenri to ni tsuite byōdō de aru. Ningen wa, risei to ryōshin to o sazukerarete ori, tagai ni dōhō no seishin o motte kōdō shinakereba naranai.
|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights |url=https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316050452/https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights |archive-date=2021-03-16 |access-date=2022-01-07 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>}}
==See also==
{{Portal|Japan|Language}}
* [[Aizuchi]]
* [[Culture of Japan]]
* [[Japanese dictionary]]
* [[Japanese exonyms]]
* [[Japanese language and computers]]
* [[Japanese literature]]
* [[Japanese name]]
* [[Japanese punctuation]]
* [[Japanese
* [[Japanese
* [[Wiktionary:Category:Japanese language|Japanese words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Japanese derivations|words derived from Japanese in other languages]] at [[Wiktionary]], Wikipedia's sibling project
* [[
* [[Romanization of Japanese]]
** [[Hepburn romanization]]
* [[Rendaku]]
* [[Yojijukugo]]
*Other:
**[[History of writing in Vietnam]] <!-- I just thought I would include this here since it makes a neat comparison. Might also include relevant pages on other languages. -->
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Works
{{Refbegin}}
* Bloch, Bernard
* Bloch, Bernard (1946). Studies in colloquial Japanese II: Syntax. ''Language'', ''22'', pp. 200–248.
* Chafe, William L. (1976). Giveness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics, and point of view. In C. Li (Ed.), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 25–56). New York: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-447350-4}}.
* Dalby, Andrew. (2004). [http://www.credoreference.com/entry/dictlang/japanese "Japanese"], {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327115349/https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/dictlang/japanese/0 |date=2022-03-27 }} in ''Dictionary of Languages: the Definitive Reference to More than 400 Languages.'' New York: Columbia University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-231-11568-1|978-0-231-11569-8}}; {{OCLC|474656178}}
* {{Cite book |last=Frellesvig |first=Bjarke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PA184 |title=A history of the Japanese language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-65320-6 |___location=Cambridge |access-date=2021-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327115347/https://books.google.com/books?id=v1FcAgiAC9IC&pg=PA184 |archive-date=2022-03-27 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Frellesvig |first1=B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aun8BRHTDEAC |title=Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects |last2=Whitman |first2=J. |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |year=2008 |isbn=978-90-272-4809-1 |series=Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science / 4 |access-date=2022-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327115348/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=aun8BRHTDEAC |archive-date=2022-03-27 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kindaichi |first1=Haruhiko |title=The Japanese Language |last2=Hirano |first2=Umeyo |publisher=[[Tuttle Publishing]] |year=1978 |isbn=978-0-8048-1579-6}}
*
* Kuno, Susumu. (1976). "Subject, theme, and the speaker's empathy: A re-examination of relativization phenomena", in Charles N. Li (Ed.), ''Subject and topic'' (pp. 417–444). New York: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-447350-4}}.
* McClain, Yoko Matsuoka. (1981). ''Handbook of modern Japanese grammar:'' {{Nihongo2|口語日本文法便覧}} [''Kōgo Nihon bumpō'']. Tokyo: Hokuseido Press. {{ISBN|4-590-00570-0|0-89346-149-0}}.
*
*
* Mizutani, Osamu; & Mizutani, Nobuko (1987). ''How to be polite in Japanese:'' {{Nihongo2|日本語の敬語}} [''Nihongo no keigo'']. Tokyo: [[The Japan Times]]. {{ISBN|4-7890-0338-8}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Robbeets |first=Martine Irma |title=Is Japanese Related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic? |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2005 |isbn=978-3-447-05247-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Okada |first=Hideo |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association |date=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |___location=Cambridge |pages=117–119 |chapter=Japanese}}
* {{Cite book
| surname = Seeley | given = Christopher
| title = A History of Writing in Japan
| publisher = BRILL | ___location = Leiden | year = 1991
| isbn = 978-90-04-09081-1
}}
* Shibamoto, Janet S. (1985). ''Japanese women's language''. New York: Academic Press. {{ISBN|0-12-640030-X}}. Graduate Level
* {{Cite book |last=Shibatani |first=Masayoshi |title=The languages of Japan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |isbn=0-521-36070-6 |___location=Cambridge}} {{ISBN|0-521-36918-5}} (pbk).
* Tsujimura, Natsuko (1996). ''An introduction to Japanese linguistics''. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. {{ISBN|0-631-19855-5}} (hbk); {{ISBN|0-631-19856-3}} (pbk). Upper Level Textbooks
* Tsujimura, Natsuko (Ed.) (1999). ''The handbook of Japanese linguistics''. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. {{ISBN|0-631-20504-7}}. Readings/Anthologies
* {{Cite book |last=Vovin |first=Alexander |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=um8O1bp-86EC |title=Korea-Japonica: A Re-Evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8248-3278-0 |author-link=Alexander Vovin |access-date=2015-10-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823112705/https://books.google.com/books?id=um8O1bp-86EC |archive-date=2020-08-23 |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |last=Rudolf Lange, Christopher Noss |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BmwwAQAAMAAJ |title=A Text-book of Colloquial Japanese |publisher=Methodist Publishing House |year=1903 |edition=English |___location=The Kaneko Press, North Japan College, Sendai |access-date=1 March 2012}}
*{{Cite book |last=Rudolf Lange |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhVCAAAAIAAJ |title=A text-book of colloquial Japanese: based on the Lehrbuch der japanischen umgangssprache by Dr. Rudolf Lange |publisher=Methodist publishing house |year=1903 |editor-last=Christopher Noss |edition=revised English |___location=Tokyo |access-date=1 March 2012}}
*{{Cite book |last=Rudolf Lange |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6SkYAAAAYAAJ |title=A text-book of colloquial Japanese |publisher=Methodist publishing house |year=1907 |editor-last=Christopher Noss |edition=revised English |___location=Tokyo |access-date=1 March 2012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Samuel E. |title=A reference grammar of Japanese |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1975 |isbn=0-300-01813-4 |___location=New Haven |author-link=Samuel Elmo Martin}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year=2017 |title=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277 |isbn=978-0-19-938465-5 |surname=Vovin |given=Alexander |chapter=Origins of the Japanese Language |doi-access=free}}
*{{Cite web |title=Japanese Language |url=http://web.mit.edu/jpnet/articles/JapaneseLanguage.html |access-date=2009-05-13 |publisher=MIT}}
== External links ==
<!----
Please do not add links to Japanese learning sites here: they will probably be removed, because Wikipedia is not a directory of links, however useful they may be. The "long dead (2017)" [[Open Directory Project]] (dmoz.org), however, IS a directory of links. Consider adding your site there instead.
----->
* [https://www.ninjal.ac.jp/english/ National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100102154433/http://tangorin.com/handbook Japanese Language Student's Handbook] (archived 2 January 2010)
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[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 8th century]]
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