Electron paramagnetic resonance: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 09:37, 22 April 2013

Latest revision as of 11:21, 16 August 2025

(256 intermediate revisions by more than 100 users not shown)

Line 1:

{{Short description|Technique to study materials that have unpaired electrons}}

{{confusing|date=June 2010}}

{{for|the dating technique|Electron spin resonance dating}}

'''Electron paramagnetic resonance''' (EPR) or '''electron spin resonance''' (ESR) [[spectroscopy]]

'''Electron paramagnetic resonance''' ('''EPR''') or '''electron spin resonance''' ('''ESR''') [[spectroscopy]] is a techniquemethod for studying materials withthat unpairedhave [[unpaired electron]]s. The basic concepts of EPR are analogous to those of [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR), but itthe is electron[[Spin (physics)|spins]] thatexcited are excited insteadthose of the [[spinelectrons (physics)|spin]]sinstead of the [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]. BecauseEPR mostspectroscopy stableis moleculesparticularly haveuseful allfor theirstudying electronsmetal paired,complexes theand organic radicals. EPR techniquewas isfirst lessobserved widelyin used[[Kazan thanState NMR.University]] Howeverby [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] physicist [[Yevgeny Zavoisky]] in 1944,<ref>{{cite thisjournal limitation| alsovauthors means= thatZavoisky EPRE offers| greatyear=1945 | title=Spin-magnetic resonance in paramagnetics |url=http://e-heritage.ru/Book/10093349 | journal=J. Phys. (USSR) | volume=9 | pages=245 }}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis | vauthors = Zavoisky E | year=1944 | title=Paramagnetic Absorption in Perpendicular and Parallel Fields for specificitySalts, sinceSolutions ordinaryand chemicalMetals solvents| degree = PhD }}</ref> and matriceswas dodeveloped notindependently giveat risethe tosame EPRtime spectraby [[Brebis Bleaney]] at the [[University of Oxford]].

[[File:EPR NYU.jpg|thumb|Typical set-up for recording EPR spectra. The user would be seated next to the RF generator, magnet, and controls for sample temperature. Bruker ELEXSYS E500 EPR instrument from NYU.]]

== Theory ==

EPR was first observed in [[Kazan State University]] by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] physicist [[Yevgeny Zavoisky]] in 1944, and was developed independently at the same time by [[Brebis Bleaney]] at [[the University of Oxford]].

=== Origin of an EPR signal ===

[[File:EPR spectometer.JPG|thumb|right|300px||EPR [[spectrometer]]]]

Every electron has a [[magnetic moment]] and [[spin quantum number]] <math> s = \tfrac{1}{2} </math>, with magnetic components <math> m_\mathrm{s} = + \tfrac{1}{2} </math> or <math> m_\mathrm{s} = - \tfrac{1}{2} </math>. In the presence of an external magnetic field with strength <math> B_\mathrm{0} </math>, the electron's magnetic moment aligns itself either antiparallel (<math> m_\mathrm{s} = - \tfrac{1}{2} </math>) or parallel (<math> m_\mathrm{s} = + \tfrac{1}{2} </math>) to the field, each alignment having a specific energy due to the [[Zeeman effect]]:

:<math>E = m_s g_e \mu_\text{B} B_0,</math>

==Theory==

===Origin of an EPR signal===

Every electron has a [[magnetic moment]] and [[spin (physics)|spin]] [[quantum number]] <math> s = \tfrac{1}{2} </math>, with magnetic components <math> m_\mathrm{s} = + \tfrac{1}{2} </math> and <math> m_\mathrm{s} = - \tfrac{1}{2} </math>. In the presence of an external magnetic field with strength <math> B_\mathrm{0} </math>, the electron's magnetic moment aligns itself either parallel (<math> m_\mathrm{s} = - \tfrac{1}{2} </math>) or antiparallel (<math> m_\mathrm{s} = + \tfrac{1}{2} </math>) to the field, each alignment having a specific energy due to the [[Zeeman effect]] :

where

<math>E= m_\mathrm{s} g_\mathrm{e} \mu_\mathrm{B} B_\mathrm{0}</math> where

* <math> g_e </math> is the electron's so-called [[g-factor (physics)|''g''-factor]] (see also the [[Landé g-factor|Landé ''g''-factor]]), <math> g_\mathrm{e} = 2.0023</math> for the free electron,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Odom B, Hanneke D, D'Urso B, Gabrielse G | title = New measurement of the electron magnetic moment using a one-electron quantum cyclotron | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 97 | issue = 3 | article-number = 030801 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16907490 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.030801 | bibcode = 2006PhRvL..97c0801O }}</ref>

* <math> \mu_\text{B} </math> is the [[Bohr magneton]].

Therefore, the separation between the lower and the upper state is <math> \Delta E = g_e \mu_\text{B} B_0 </math> for unpaired free electrons. This equation implies (since both <math> g_e </math>and <math> \mu_\text{B} </math> are constant) that the splitting of the energy levels is directly proportional to the [[magnetic field]]'s strength, as shown in the diagram below.

* <math> g_\mathrm{e} </math> is the electron's so-called [[g-factor (physics)|g-factor]] (see also the [[Landé g-factor|Landé ''g''-factor]]). <math> g_\mathrm{e} =2.0023</math> for the free electron<ref>

[[File:EPR splitting.svg|frameless|upright=1.35|center]]

{{cite journal

| author = Odom, B.; Hanneke, D.; D'Urso, B.; and [[Gerald Gabrielse|Gabrielse, G.]]

| title = New Measurement of the Electron Magnetic Moment Using a One-Electron Quantum Cyclotron

| journal = Physical Review Letters

| year = 2006

| volume = 97

| pages = 030801

| doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.030801

| pmid=16907490

| issue = 3

| bibcode=2006PhRvL..97c0801O}}

</ref>

* <math> \mu_\mathrm{B} </math> is the [[Bohr magneton]].

An unpaired electron can change its electron spin by either absorbing or emitting a [[photon]] of energy <math> h \nu </math> such that the resonance condition, <math> h \nu = \Delta E </math>, is obeyed. This leads to the fundamental equation of EPR spectroscopy: <math> h \nu = g_e \mu_\text{B} B_0 </math>.

Therefore, the separation between the lower and the upper state is <math> \Delta E = g_\mathrm{e} \mu_\mathrm{B} B_\mathrm{0} </math> for unpaired free electrons. This equation implies that the splitting of the energy levels is directly proportional to the [[magnetic field]]'s strength, as shown in the diagram below.

[[File:EPR splitting.jpg|centre|300 px|Splitting of electron spin states]]

Experimentally, this equation permits a large combination of frequency and magnetic field values, but the great majority of EPR measurements are made with microwaves in the 9000–10000&nbsp;MHz (9–10&nbsp;GHz) region, with fields corresponding to about 3500 [[gauss (unit)|G]] (0.35 [[tesla (unit)|T]]). Furthermore, EPR spectra can be generated by either varying the photon frequency incident on a sample while holding the magnetic field constant or doing the reverse. In practice, it is usually the frequency that is kept fixed. A collection of [[paramagnetic]] centers, such as free radicals, is exposed to microwaves at a fixed frequency. By increasing an external magnetic field, the gap between the <math> m_\mathrm{s} = + \tfrac{1}{2} </math> and <math> m_\mathrm{s} = - \tfrac{1}{2} </math> energy states is widened until it matches the energy of the microwaves, as represented by the double arrow in the diagram above. At this point the unpaired electrons can move between their two spin states. Since there typically are more electrons in the lower state, due to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (see below), there is a net absorption of energy, and it is this absorption that is monitored and converted into a spectrum. The upper spectrum below is the simulated absorption for a system of free electrons in a varying magnetic field. The lower spectrum is the first derivative of the absorption spectrum. The latter is the most common way to record and publish continuous wave EPR spectra.

An unpaired electron can move between the two energy levels by either absorbing or emitting a [[photon]] of energy <math> h \nu </math> such that the resonance condition, <math> h \nu = \Delta E </math>, is obeyed. This leads to the fundamental equation of EPR spectroscopy: <math> h \nu = g_\mathrm{e} \mu_\mathrm{B} B_\mathrm{0} </math>.

[[File:EPR Signal Harmonics.svg|frameless|upright=1.35|center]]

Experimentally, this equation permits a large combination of frequency and magnetic field values, but the great majority of EPR measurements are made with microwaves in the 9000–10000&nbsp;MHz (9–10&nbsp;GHz) region, with fields corresponding to about 3500 G (0.35 T). Furthermore, EPR spectra can be generated by either varying the photon frequency incident on a sample while holding the magnetic field constant or doing the reverse. In practice, it is usually the frequency that is kept fixed. A collection of [[paramagnetic]] centers, such as free radicals, is exposed to microwaves at a fixed frequency. By increasing an external magnetic field, the gap between the <math> m_\mathrm{s} = + \tfrac{1}{2} </math> and <math> m_\mathrm{s} = - \tfrac{1}{2} </math> energy states is widened until it matches the energy of the microwaves, as represented by the double-arrow in the diagram above. At this point the unpaired electrons can move between their two spin states. Since there typically are more electrons in the lower state, due to the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution (see below), there is a net absorption of energy, and it is this absorption that is monitored and converted into a spectrum. The upper spectrum below is the simulated absorption for a system of free electrons in a varying magnetic field. The lower spectrum is the first derivative of the absorption spectrum. The latter is the most common way to record and publish EPR spectra.

For the microwave frequency of 9388.4&nbsp;MHz, the predicted resonance occurs at a magnetic field of about <math> B_0 = h \nu / g_e \mu_\text{B} </math> = 0.3350 T = 3350 G

[[File:EPR lines.png|center|300 px]]

Because of electron-nuclear mass differences, the [[magnetic moment]] of an electron is substantially larger than the corresponding quantity for any nucleus, so that a much higher electromagnetic frequency is needed to bring about a spin resonance with an electron than with a nucleus, at identical magnetic field strengths. For example, for the field of 3350 G shown above, spin resonance occurs near 9388.2&nbsp;MHz for an electron compared to only about 14.3&nbsp;MHz for ¹H nuclei. (For NMR spectroscopy, the corresponding resonance equation is <math> h\nu = g_\mathrm{N} \mu_\mathrm{N} B_0</math> where <math>g_\mathrm{N}</math> and <math> \mu_\mathrm{N} </math> depend on the nucleus under study.)

For the microwave frequency of 9388.2&nbsp;MHz, the predicted resonance position is a magnetic field of about <math> B_\mathrm{0} = h \nu / g_\mathrm{e} \mu_\mathrm{B} </math> = 0.3350 tesla = 3350 gauss.

=== Field modulation ===

Because of electron-nuclear mass differences, the [[magnetic moment]] of an electron is substantially larger than the corresponding quantity for any nucleus, so that a much higher electromagnetic frequency is needed to bring about a spin resonance with an electron than with a nucleus, at identical magnetic field strengths. For example, for the field of 3350 G shown at the right, spin resonance occurs near 9388.2&nbsp;MHz for an electron compared to only about 14.3&nbsp;MHz for ¹H nuclei. (For NMR spectroscopy, the corresponding resonance equation is <math> h\nu = g_\mathrm{N} \mu_\mathrm{N} B_\mathrm{0}</math> where <math>g_\mathrm{N}</math> and <math> \mu_\mathrm{N} </math> depend on the nucleus under study.)

[[File:EPR Field Modulation.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The field oscillates between B₁ and B₂ due to the superimposed modulation field at 100&nbsp;kHz. This causes the absorption intensity to oscillate between I₁ and I₂. The larger the difference the larger the intensity detected by the detector tuned to 100&nbsp;kHz (note this can be negative or even 0). As the difference between the two intensities is detected the first derivative of the absorption is detected.]]

As previously mentioned an EPR spectrum is usually directly measured as the first derivative of the absorption. This is accomplished by using field modulation. A small additional oscillating magnetic field is applied to the external magnetic field at a typical frequency of 100&nbsp;kHz.<ref name=Chechik>{{Cite book|title=Electron Paramagnetic Resonance|last1=Chechik|first1=Victor|last2=Carter|first2=Emma |last3=Murphy|first3=Damien|name-list-style=vanc|date=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-872760-6|___location=Oxford, UK |oclc=945390515}}</ref> By detecting the peak to peak amplitude the first derivative of the absorption is measured. By using phase sensitive detection only signals with the same modulation (100&nbsp;kHz) are detected. This results in higher signal to noise ratios. Note field modulation is unique to continuous wave EPR measurements and spectra resulting from pulsed experiments are presented as absorption profiles.

The same idea underlies the [[Pound-Drever-Hall technique]] for frequency locking of lasers to a high-finesse optical cavity.

===Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution===

=== Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution ===

In practice, EPR samples consist of collections of many paramagnetic species, and not single isolated paramagnetic centers. If the population of radicals is in thermodynamic equilibrium, its statistical distribution is described by the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution|Maxwell-Boltzmann equation]]

In practice, EPR samples consist of collections of many paramagnetic species, and not single isolated paramagnetic centers. If the population of radicals is in thermodynamic equilibrium, its statistical distribution is described by the [[Boltzmann distribution]]:

:<math>\frac{ n_\text{upper} }{ n_\text{lower} } = \exp{ \left( -\frac{ E_\text{upper}-E_\text{lower} }{ kT } \right) } = \exp{ \left( -\frac{ \Delta E }{ kT } \right) } = \exp{ \left( -\frac{ \epsilon }{ kT } \right) } = \exp{ \left( -\frac{ h\nu }{ kT }\right) } (Eq.1) </math>

where <math>n_\text{upper}</math> is the number of paramagnetic centers occupying the upper energy state, <math>k</math> is the [[Boltzmann constant]], and <math>T</math> is the temperature in [[kelvinthermodynamic temperature]]s. At 298 K, X-band microwave frequencies (<math>\nu</math> ≈ 9.75&nbsp;GHz) give <math>n_\text{upper} / n_\text{lower}</math> ≈ 0.998, meaning that the upper energy level has a slightly smaller population than the lower one. Therefore, transitions from the lower to the higher level are more probable than the reverse, which is why there is a net absorption of energy.

The sensitivity of the EPR method (i.e., the minimumminimal number of detectable spins <math>N_\text{min}</math>) depends on the photon frequency <math>\nu</math> according to

:<math>N_\text{min} = \frac{k_1V}{Q_0k_f \nu^2 P^{1/2}}, \qquad \text{(Eq. 2)}</math>

where <math>k_1</math> is a constant, <math>V</math> is the sample's volume, <math>Q_0</math> is the unloaded [[Q factor|quality factor]] of the microwave cavity (sample chamber), <math>k_f</math> is the cavity filling coefficient, and <math>P</math> is the microwave power in the spectrometer cavity. With <math>k_f</math> and <math>P</math> being constants, <math>N_\text{min}</math> ~ <math>(Q_0\nu^2)^{-1}</math>, i.e., <math>N_\text{min}</math> ~ <math>\nu^{-\alpha}</math>, where <math>\alpha</math> ≈ 1.5. In practice, <math>\alpha</math> can change varying from 0.5 to 4.5 depending on spectrometer characteristics, resonance conditions, and sample size.

A great sensitivity is therefore obtained with a low detection limit <math>N_\text{min}</math> and a large number of spins. Therefore, the required parameters are:

* A high spectrometer frequency to maximizeminimize the eqEq. 2. Common frequencies are discussed [[Electron_paramagnetic_resonanceElectron paramagnetic resonance#High-field_highfield high-frequency_measurementsfrequency measurements|below]]

* A low temperature to decrease the number of spin at the high level of energy as shown in eqEq. 1. This condition explainexplains why spectra are often recorded on sample at the [[boiling point]] of [[liquid nitrogen]] or [[liquid helium]].

==Spectral parameters==

== Spectral parameters ==

In real systems, electrons are normally not solitary, but are associated with one or more atoms. There are several important consequences of this:

# An unpaired electron can gain or lose angular momentum, which can change the value of its ''g''-factor, causing it to differ from <math> g_{\mathrm{e}}g_e </math>. This is especially significant for chemical systems with transition-metal ions.

# Systems with multiple unpaired electrons experience electron–electron interactions that give rise to "fine" structure. This is realized as [[zero field splitting]] and [[exchange interaction|exchange coupling]], and can be large in magnitude.

# If an atom with which an unpaired electron is associated has a non-zero nuclear spin, then its magnetic moment will affect the electron. This leads to the phenomenon of [[hyperfine coupling]], analogous to [[J-coupling]] in NMR, splitting the EPR resonance signal into doublets, triplets and so forth.

# The magnetic moment of a nucleus with a non-zero nuclear spin will affect any unpaired electrons associated with that atom. This leads to the phenomenon of [[hyperfine coupling]], analogous to [[J-coupling|''J''-coupling]] in NMR, splitting the EPR resonance signal into doublets, triplets and so forth. Additional smaller splittings from nearby nuclei is sometimes termed "superhyperfine" coupling.

# Interactions of an unpaired electron with its environment influence the shape of an EPR spectral line. Line shapes can yield information about, for example, rates of chemical reactions.[ref needed]

# Interactions of an unpaired electron with its environment influence the shape of an EPR spectral line. Line shapes can yield information about, for example, rates of chemical reactions.<ref>{{cite book | first = Ira N. | last = Levine | name-list-style = vanc | title = Molecular Spectroscopy | url = https://archive.org/details/molecularspectro00levi_618 | url-access = limited | publisher = Wiley & Sons, Inc. | year = 1975 | isbn = 978-0-471-53128-9 | page = [https://archive.org/details/molecularspectro00levi_618/page/n194 380] }}</ref>

# The ''g''-factor and hyperfine coupling in an atom or molecule may not be the same for all orientations of an unpaired electron in an external magnetic field. This [[anisotropy]] depends upon the electronic structure of the atom or molecule (e.g., free radical) in question, and so can provide information about the atomic or molecular orbital containing the unpaired electron.

# These effects (''g''-factor, hyperfine coupling, zero field splitting, exchange coupling) in an atom or molecule may not be the same for all orientations of an unpaired electron in an external magnetic field. This [[anisotropy]] depends upon the electronic structure of the atom or molecule (e.g., free radical) in question, and so can provide information about the atomic or molecular orbital containing the unpaired electron.

=== The ''g'' factor ===

Knowledge of the [[Landé g-factor|''g''-factor]] can give information about a paramagnetic center's electronic structure. An unpaired electron responds not only to a spectrometer's applied magnetic field <math>B_\mathrm{0}B_0 </math> but also to any local magnetic fields of atoms or molecules. The effective field <math> B_\mathrmtext{eff} </math> experienced by an electron is thus written

:<math>B_\mathrmtext{eff} = B_0(1 - \sigma) \,</math>

where <math> \sigma </math> includes the effects of local fields (<math>\sigma</math> can be positive or negative). Therefore, the <math>h \nu = g_\mathrm{e}g_e \mu_\mathrmtext{B} B_\mathrmtext{eff} </math> resonance condition (above) is rewritten as follows:

:<math>h\nu = g_\mathrm{e}g_e \mu_B B_\mathrmtext{eff} = g_g_e \mathrmmu_\text{eB} \mu_B B_0 (1 - \sigma) \,.</math>

The quantity <math> g_\mathrm{e}g_e(1 - \sigma) </math> is denoted <math> g </math> and called simply the <math> ''g </math>''-factor, so that the final resonance equation becomes

:<math> h \nu = g \mu_\mathrmtext{B} B_\mathrm{0} \,B_0.</math>

This last equation is used to determine <math> g </math> in an EPR experiment by measuring the field and the frequency at which resonance occurs. If <math> g </math> does not equal <math> g_\mathrm{e}g_e </math>, the implication is that the ratio of the unpaired electron's spin magnetic moment to its angular momentum differs from the free -electron value. Since an electron's spin magnetic moment is constant (approximately the Bohr magneton), then the electron must have gained or lost angular momentum through [[spin-orbitspin–orbit coupling]]. Because the mechanisms of spin-orbitspin–orbit coupling are well understood, the magnitude of the change gives information about the nature of the atomic or molecular orbital containing the unpaired electron.

[[File:EPR g Matrix Rhombicity.svg|thumb|The shape of a powder-pattern EPR spectrum changes according to the distribution of the <math>g</math> matrix principal values]]

In general, the g factor is not a [[Scalar (mathematics)|number]] but a second-rank [[tensor]] represented by nine numbers arranged in a 3×3 [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]]. The [[Crystal structure|principal axes]] of this tensor are determined by the local fields, for example, by the local atomic arrangement around the unpaired spin in a solid or in a molecule. Choosing an appropriate coordinate system (say, x,y,z) allows to "diagonalize" this tensor thereby reducing the maximum number of its components from nine to three, g_xx, g_yy and g_zz. For a single spin experiencing only Zeeman interaction with an external magnetic field, the position of the EPR resonance is given by the expression g_xxB_x + g_yyB_y + g_zzB_z. Here B_x, B_y and B_z are the components of the magnetic field vector in the coordinate system (x,y,z); their magnitudes change as the field is rotated, so as the frequency of the resonance. For a large ensemble of randomly oriented spins, the EPR spectrum consists three peaks of characteristic shape at frequencies g_xxB₀, g_yyB₀ and g_zzB₀: the low-frequency peak is positive in first-derivative spectra, the high-frequency peak is negative, and the central peak is bipolar. Such situation is commonly observed in powders and the spectra are therefore called "powder-pattern spectra". In crystals, the number of EPR lines is determined by the number of crystallographically equivalent orientations of the EPR spin (called "EPR center").

In general, the ''g'' factor is not a [[Scalar (mathematics)|number]] but a 3×3 [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]]. The principal axes of this tensor are determined by the local fields, for example, by the local atomic arrangement around the unpaired spin in a solid or in a molecule. Choosing an appropriate coordinate system (say, ''x'',''y'',''z'') allows one to "diagonalize" this tensor, thereby reducing the maximal number of its components from 9 to 3: ''g_xx'', ''g_yy'' and ''g_zz''. For a single spin experiencing only Zeeman interaction with an external magnetic field, the position of the EPR resonance is given by the expression ''g_xxB_x'' + ''g_yyB_y'' + ''g_zzB_z''. Here ''B_x'', ''B_y'' and ''B_z'' are the components of the magnetic field vector in the coordinate system (''x'',''y'',''z''); their magnitudes change as the field is rotated, so does the frequency of the resonance. For a large ensemble of randomly oriented spins (as in a fluid solution), the EPR spectrum consists of three peaks of characteristic shape at frequencies ''g_xxB''₀, ''g_yyB''₀ and ''g_zzB''₀.

In first-derivative spectrum, the low-frequency peak is positive, the high-frequency peak is negative, and the central peak is bipolar. Such situations are commonly observed in powders, and the spectra are therefore called "powder-pattern spectra". In crystals, the number of EPR lines is determined by the number of crystallographically equivalent orientations of the EPR spin (called "EPR center").

===Hyperfine coupling===

At higher temperatures, the three peaks coalesce to a singlet, corresponding to g_iso, for isotropic. The relationship between g_iso and the components is:

Since the source of an EPR spectrum is a change in an electron's spin state, it might be thought that all EPR spectra for a single electron spin would consist of one line. However, the interaction of an unpaired electron, by way of its magnetic moment, with nearby nuclear spins, results in additional allowed energy states and, in turn, multi-lined spectra. In such cases, the spacing between the EPR spectral lines indicates the degree of interaction between the unpaired electron and the perturbing nuclei. The [[hyperfine coupling]] constant of a nucleus is directly related to the spectral line spacing and, in the simplest cases, is essentially the spacing itself.

:<math>(g_\mathrm{iso})^2 = (g_{xx})^2 + (g_{yy})^2 + (g_{zz})^2</math>

One elementary step in analyzing an EPR spectrum is to compare g_iso with the g-factor for the free electron, g_e. Metal-based radicals g_iso is typically well above g_e whereas organic radicals, g_iso ~ g_e.

The determination of the absolute value of the ''g'' factor is challenging due to the lack of a precise estimate of the local [[magnetic field]] at the sample ___location. Therefore, typically so-called ''g factor standards'' are measured together with the sample of interest. In the common spectrum, the spectral line of the ''g'' factor standard is then used as a reference point to determine the ''g'' factor of the sample. For the initial calibration of ''g'' factor standards, Herb et al. introduced a precise procedure by using double resonance techniques based on the [[Overhauser shift]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Herb K, Tschaggelar R, Denninger G, Jeschke G | title = Double resonance calibration of g factor standards: Carbon fibers as a high precision standard | journal = Journal of Magnetic Resonance | volume = 289 | pages = 100–106 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29476927 | doi = 10.1016/j.jmr.2018.02.006| bibcode = 2018JMagR.289..100H | doi-access = free | hdl = 20.500.11850/245192 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

Two common mechanisms by which electrons and nuclei interact are the [[Fermi contact interaction]] and by dipolar interaction. The former applies largely to the case of isotropic interactions (independent of sample orientation in a magnetic field) and the latter to the case of anisotropic interactions (spectra dependent on sample orientation in a magnetic field). Spin polarization is a third mechanism for interactions between an unpaired electron and a nuclear spin, being especially important for <math>\pi</math>-electron organic radicals, such as the benzene radical anion. The symbols "''a''" or "''A''" are used for isotropic hyperfine coupling constants while "''B''" is usually employed for anisotropic hyperfine coupling constants.<ref>Strictly speaking, "''a''" refers to the hyperfine splitting constant, a line spacing measured in magnetic field units, while ''A'' and ''B'' refer to hyperfine coupling constants measured in frequency units. Splitting and coupling constants are proportional, but not identical. The book by Wertz and Bolton has more information (pp. 46 and 442). Wertz, J. E., & Bolton, J. R. (1972). Electron spin resonance: Elementary theory and practical applications. New York: McGraw-Hill.</ref>

=== Hyperfine coupling ===

In many cases, the isotropic hyperfine splitting pattern for a radical freely tumbling in a solution (isotropic system) can be predicted.

Since the source of an EPR spectrum is a change in an electron's spin state, the EPR spectrum for a radical (S = 1/2 system) would consist of one line. Greater complexity arises because the spin couples with nearby nuclear spins. The magnitude of the coupling is proportional to the magnetic moment of the coupled nuclei and depends on the mechanism of the coupling. Coupling is mediated by two processes, dipolar (through space) and isotropic (through bond).

This coupling introduces additional energy states and, in turn, multi-lined spectra. In such cases, the spacing between the EPR spectral lines indicates the degree of interaction between the unpaired electron and the perturbing nuclei. The [[hyperfine coupling]] constant of a nucleus is directly related to the spectral line spacing and, in the simplest cases, is essentially the spacing itself.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry|publisher=Academic Press|year=2016|isbn=9780128032251|pages=521, 528}}</ref>

*For a radical having ''M'' equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of ''I'', the number of EPR lines expected is 2''MI''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1. As an example, the methyl radical, CH₃, has three ¹H nuclei each with ''I''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1/2, and so the number of lines expected is 2''MI''&nbsp;+ 1&nbsp;= 2(3)(1/2)&nbsp;+ 1&nbsp;= 4, which is as observed.

Two common mechanisms by which electrons and nuclei interact are the [[Fermi contact interaction]] and by dipolar interaction. The former applies largely to the case of isotropic interactions (independent of sample orientation in a magnetic field) and the latter to the case of anisotropic interactions (spectra dependent on sample orientation in a magnetic field). Spin polarization is a third mechanism for interactions between an unpaired electron and a nuclear spin, being especially important for <math>\pi</math>-electron organic radicals, such as the benzene radical anion. The symbols "''a''" or "''A''" are used for isotropic hyperfine coupling constants, while "''B''" is usually employed for anisotropic hyperfine coupling constants.<ref>Strictly speaking, "''a''" refers to the hyperfine splitting constant, a line spacing measured in magnetic field units, while ''A'' and ''B'' refer to hyperfine coupling constants measured in frequency units. Splitting and coupling constants are proportional, but not identical. The book by Wertz and Bolton has more information (pp. 46 and 442). {{cite book | vauthors = Wertz JE, Bolton JR | date = 1972 | title = Electron spin resonance: Elementary theory and practical applications. | ___location = New York | publisher = McGraw-Hill }}</ref>

*For a radical having ''M''₁ equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of ''I''₁, and a group of ''M''₂ equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of ''I''₂, the number of lines expected is (2''M''₁''I''₁&nbsp;+ 1) (2''M''₂''I''₂&nbsp;+ 1). As an example, the methoxymethyl radical, H₂C(OCH₃), has two equivalent ¹H nuclei each with ''I''&nbsp;= 1/2 and three equivalent ¹H nuclei each with ''I''&nbsp;= 1/2, and so the number of lines expected is (2''M''₁''I''₁&nbsp;+ 1) (2''M''₂''I''₂&nbsp;+ 1) = [2(2)(1/2) + 1][2(3)(1/2) + 1] = [3][4] = 12, again as observed.

In many cases, the isotropic hyperfine splitting pattern for a radical freely tumbling in a solution (isotropic system) can be predicted.

[[File:EPR methyl.png|thumb|right|300px||Simulated EPR spectrum of the CH₃ radical]]

====Multiplicity====

*The above can be extended to predict the number of lines for any number of nuclei.

[[File:Methyl and Methoxymethyl Hyperfine Splitting.svg|thumb|right|Simulated EPR spectra of the methyl and methoxymethyl radicals]]

* For a radical having ''M'' equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of ''I'', the number of EPR lines expected is 2''MI''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1. As an example, the methyl radical, CH₃, has three ¹H nuclei, each with ''I''&nbsp;=&nbsp;1/2, and so the number of lines expected is 2''MI''&nbsp;+ 1&nbsp;= 2(3)(1/2)&nbsp;+ 1&nbsp;= 4, which is as observed.

* For a radical having ''M''₁ equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of ''I''₁, and a group of ''M''₂ equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of ''I''₂, the number of lines expected is (2''M''₁''I''₁&nbsp;+ 1) (2''M''₂''I''₂&nbsp;+ 1). As an example, the methoxymethyl radical, {{chem|H|2|C(OCH|3|)}} has two equivalent ¹H nuclei, each with ''I''&nbsp;= 1/2 and three equivalent ¹H nuclei each with ''I''&nbsp;= 1/2, and so the number of lines expected is (2''M''₁''I''₁&nbsp;+ 1) (2''M''₂''I''₂&nbsp;+ 1) = [2(2)(1/2) + 1] [2(3)(1/2) + 1] = 3×4 = 12, again as observed.

* The above can be extended to predict the number of lines for any number of nuclei.

While it is easy to predict the number of lines a radical's EPR spectrum should show, the reverse problem, unraveling a complex multi-line EPR spectrum and assigning the various spacings to specific nuclei, is more difficult.

In the oft-often encountered case of ''I''&nbsp;= 1/2 nuclei (e.g., ¹H, ¹⁹F, ³¹P), the line intensities produced by a population of radicals, each possessing ''M'' equivalent nuclei, will follow [[Pascal's triangle]]. For example, the spectrum at the right shows that the three ¹H nuclei of the CH₃ radical give rise to 2''MI''&nbsp;+ 1&nbsp;= 2(3)(1/2)&nbsp;+ 1&nbsp;= 4 lines with a 1:3:3:1 ratio. The line spacing gives a hyperfine coupling constant of ''a''_H = 23 ''G'' for each of the three ¹H nuclei. Note again that the lines in this spectrum are ''first derivatives'' of absorptions.

As a second example, the methoxymethyl radical, H₃COCH₂^'''.''' the OC''H''₂ center will give an overall 1:2:1 EPR pattern, each component of which is further split by the three methoxy hydrogens into a 1:3:3:1 pattern to give a total of 3×4&nbsp;= 12 lines, a triplet of quartets. A simulation of the observed EPR spectrum is shown and agrees with the 12-line prediction and the expected line intensities. Note that the smaller coupling constant (smaller line spacing) is due to the three methoxy hydrogens, while the larger coupling constant (line spacing) is from the two hydrogens bonded directly to the carbon atom bearing the unpaired electron. It is often the case that coupling constants decrease in size with distance from a radical's unpaired electron, but there are some notable exceptions, such as the ethyl radical (CH₂CH₃).

[[File:EPR methoxymethyl.png|thumb|right|300px||Simulated EPR spectrum of the H₂C(OCH₃) radical]]

As a second example, consider the methoxymethyl radical, H₂C(OCH₃). The two equivalent methyl hydrogens will give an overall 1:2:1 EPR pattern, each component of which is further split by the three methoxy hydrogens into a 1:3:3:1 pattern to give a total of 3×4&nbsp;= 12 lines, a triplet of quartets. A simulation of the observed EPR spectrum is shown at the right, and agrees with the 12-line prediction and the expected line intensities. Note that the smaller coupling constant (smaller line spacing) is due to the three methoxy hydrogens, while the larger coupling constant (line spacing) is from the two hydrogens bonded directly to the carbon atom bearing the unpaired electron. It is often the case that coupling constants decrease in size with distance from a radical's unpaired electron, but there are some notable exceptions, such as the ethyl radical (CH₂CH₃).

=== Resonance linewidth definition ===

Resonance linewidths are defined in terms of the magnetic induction ''B'' and its corresponding units, and are measured along the ''x'' axis of an EPR spectrum, from a line's center to a chosen reference point of the line. These defined widths are called [[spectroscopic line shape|halfwidths]] and possess some advantages: for asymmetric lines, values of left and right halfwidth can be given. The halfwidth <math>\Delta B_h</math> is the distance measured from the line's center to the point in which [[absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorption]] value has half of maximal absorption value in the center of [[resonance]] line. First inclination width <math>\Delta B_{1/2}</math> is a distance from center of the line to the point of maximal absorption curve inclination. In practice, a full definition of linewidth is used. For symmetric lines, halfwidth <math>\Delta B_{1/2} = 2\Delta B_h</math>, and full inclination width <math>\Delta B_\text{max} = 2\Delta B_{1s}</math>.

== Applications ==

Resonance linewidths are defined in terms of the magnetic induction ''B'', and its corresponding units, and are measured along the ''x'' axis of an EPR spectrum, from a line's center to a chosen reference point of the line. These defined widths are called halfwidths and possess some advantages: for asymmetric lines values of left and right halfwidth can be given. The halfwidth <math>\Delta B_h</math> is the distance measured from the line's center to the point in which [[absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorption]] value has half of maximal absorption value in the center of [[resonance]] line. First inclination width <math>\Delta B_{1/2}</math> is a distance from center of the line to the point of maximal absorption curve inclination. In practice, a full definition of linewidth is used. For symmetric lines, halfwidth <math>\Delta B_{1/2} = 2\Delta B_h</math>, and full inclination width <math>\Delta B_{max} = 2\Delta B_{1s}</math>

[[File:ESR-STM at QNS in Ewha - front view.jpg|thumb|This low-temperature ESR-[[Scanning tunneling microscope|STM]] in the [[Center for Quantum Nanoscience]] is one of the first STMs globally to measure electron spin resonance on single atoms.]]

EPR/ESR spectroscopy is used in various branches of science, such as [[biology]], [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], for the detection and identification of [[radical (chemistry)|free radicals]] in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state,<ref>Wertz, John, and James R Bolton. Electron Spin Resonance: Elementary Theory and Practical Application. Chapman and Hall, 1986.</ref> and in paramagnetic centers such as [[F-center]]s.

==Pulsed=Chemical EPRreactions===

EPR is a sensitive, specific method for studying both radicals formed in chemical reactions and the reactions themselves. For example, when ice (solid H₂O) is decomposed by exposure to high-energy radiation, radicals such as H, OH, and HO₂ are produced. Such radicals can be identified and studied by EPR. Organic and inorganic radicals can be detected in electrochemical systems and in materials exposed to [[UV]] light. In many cases, the reactions to make the radicals and the subsequent reactions of the radicals are of interest, while in other cases EPR is used to provide information on a radical's geometry and the orbital of the unpaired electron.

{{details|Pulsed EPR}}

EPR is useful in [[homogeneous catalysis]] research for characterization of [[Paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] complexes and [[reactive intermediate]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goswami|first1=Monalisa|last2=Chirila|first2=Andrei|last3=Rebreyend|first3=Christophe|last4=de Bruin|first4=Bas|date=2015-09-01|title=EPR Spectroscopy as a Tool in Homogeneous Catalysis Research|journal=Topics in Catalysis|language=en|volume=58|issue=12|pages=719–750|doi=10.1007/s11244-015-0414-9|issn=1572-9028|doi-access=free}}</ref> EPR spectroscopy is a particularly useful tool to investigate their [[electronic structure]]s, which is fundamental to understand their [[Reactivity (chemistry)|reactivity]].

The dynamics of electron spins are best studied with pulsed measurements.<ref>{{cite book

|author = Arthur Schweiger, Gunnar Jeschke

|title = Principles of Pulse Electron Paramagnetic Resonance

|publisher = Oxford University Press

|year = 2001

|isbn = 978-0-19-850634-8

}}</ref> Microwave pulses typically 10–100 ns long are used to control the spins in the [[Bloch sphere]]. The [[Spin-lattice relaxation time|spin-lattice]] relaxation time can be measured with an [[inversion recovery]] experiment.

EPR/ESR spectroscopy can be applied only to systems in which the balance between radical decay and radical formation keeps the free radicals concentration above the detection limit of the spectrometer used. This can be a particularly severe problem in studying reactions in liquids. An alternative approach is to slow down reactions by studying samples held at [[cryogenic]] temperatures, such as 77 K ([[liquid nitrogen]]) or 4.2 K ([[liquid helium]]). An example of this work is the study of radical reactions in single crystals of amino acids exposed to x-rays, work that sometimes leads to [[activation energy|activation energies]] and rate constants for radical reactions.

As with pulsed [[NMR]], the [[Hahn echo]] is central to many pulsed EPR experiments. A [[Spin echo|Hahn echo]] decay experiment can be used to measure the dephasing time, as shown in the animation below. The size of the echo is recorded for different spacings of the two pulses. This reveals the decoherence, which is not refocused by the <math>\pi</math> pulse. In simple cases, an [[exponential decay]] is measured, which is described by the <math>T_2</math> time.

===Medical and biological===

[[File:GWM HahnEchoDecay.gif]]

[[medicine|Medical]] and [[biology|biological]] applications of EPR also exist. Although radicals are very reactive, so they do not normally occur in high concentrations in biology, special reagents have been developed to attach "[[spin label]]s", also called "spin probes", to molecules of interest. Specially-designed nonreactive radical molecules can attach to specific sites in a [[cell (biology)|biological cell]], and EPR spectra then give information on the environment of the spin labels. Spin-labeled fatty acids have been extensively used to study dynamic organisation of lipids in biological membranes,<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02702669| title = Magnetic resonance studies of dynamic organisation of lipids in chloroplast membranes| journal = Journal of Biosciences| volume = 15| issue = 4| pages = 281–288| year = 1990| vauthors = Yashroy RC | s2cid = 360223}}</ref> lipid-protein interactions<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = YashRoy RC | title = Protein heat denaturation and study of membrane lipid-protein interactions by spin label ESR | journal = Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Methods | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–9 | date = January 1991 | pmid = 1848569 | doi = 10.1016/0165-022X(91)90081-7 }}</ref> and temperature of transition of gel to liquid crystalline phases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = YashRoy RC | title = Determination of membrane lipid phase transition temperature from 13C-NMR intensities | journal = Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Methods | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 353–6 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2365951 | doi = 10.1016/0165-022X(90)90097-V }}</ref> Injection of spin-labeled molecules allows for [[electron resonance imaging]] of living organisms.

==Applications==

A type of [[dosimetry]] system has been designed for reference standards and routine use in medicine, based on EPR signals of radicals from irradiated polycrystalline α-[[alanine]] (the alanine deamination radical, the hydrogen abstraction radical, and the {{chem2|(CO-(OH))\dC(CH3)NH2+}} radical). This method is suitable for measuring [[gamma ray|gamma]] and [[X-ray]]s, electrons, protons, and high-[[linear energy transfer]] (LET) radiation of [[absorbed dose|doses]] in the 1 [[Gray (unit)|Gy]] to 100 kGy range.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chu RD, McLaughlin WL, Miller A, Sharpe PH | title = 5. Dosimetry systems | journal = Journal of the ICRU | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 29–70 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 24174520 | doi = 10.1093/jicru/ndn027 }}</ref>

EPR spectroscopy is used in various branches of science, such as [[biology]], [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], for the detection and identification of [[radical (chemistry)|free radical]]s and paramagnetic centers such as [[F-center|F centers]]. EPR is a sensitive, specific method for studying both radicals formed in chemical reactions and the reactions themselves. For example, when ice (solid H₂O) is decomposed by exposure to high-energy radiation, radicals such as H, OH, and HO₂ are produced. Such radicals can be identified and studied by EPR. Organic and inorganic radicals can be detected in electrochemical systems and in materials exposed to [[UV]] light. In many cases, the reactions to make the radicals and the subsequent reactions of the radicals are of interest, while in other cases EPR is used to provide information on a radical's geometry and the orbital of the unpaired electron.

EPR can be used to measure [[microviscosity]] and micropolarity within drug delivery systems as well as the characterization of colloidal drug carriers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kempe S, Metz H, Mader K | title = Application of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and imaging in drug delivery research - chances and challenges | journal = European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 55–66 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19723580 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejpb.2009.08.007}}</ref>

[[medicine|Medical]] and [[biology|biological]] applications of EPR also exist. Although radicals are very reactive, and so do not normally occur in high concentrations in biology, special reagents have been developed to spin-label molecules of interest. These reagents are particularly useful in biological systems. Specially-designed nonreactive radical molecules can attach to specific sites in a [[cell (biology)|biological cell]], and EPR spectra can then give information on the environment of these so-called [[spin label|spin-label]] or [[spin probe|spin-probes]].

The study of radiation-induced free radicals in biological substances (for cancer research) poses the additional problem that tissue contains water, and water (due to its [[electric dipole moment]]) has a strong absorption band in the [[microwave]] region used in EPR spectrometers.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}

A type of [[dosimetry|dosimetry system]] has been designed for reference standards and routine use in medicine, based on EPR signals of radicals from irradiated polycrystalline α-[[alanine]](the alanine deamination radical, the hydrogen abstraction radical, and the (CO^-(OH))=C(CH₃)NH₂⁺ radical) . This method is suitable for measuring [[gamma ray|gamma]] and [[x-ray]]s, electrons, protons, and high-[[linear energy transfer]] (LET) radiation of [[absorbed dose|doses]] in the 1 [[Gray (unit)|Gy]] to 100 kGy range.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Dosimetry Systems|journal = Journal of the ICRU|year = 2008|volume = 8|issue = 5|doi = 10.1093/jicru/ndn027|pages = 29}}</ref>

EPR spectroscopy can be applied only to systems in which the balance between radical decay and radical formation keeps the free-radicals concentration above the detection limit of the spectrometer used. This can be a particularly severe problem in studying reactions in liquids. An alternative approach is to slow down reactions by studying samples held at [[cryogenic]] temperatures, such as 77 K ([[liquid nitrogen]]) or 4.2 K (liquid helium). An example of this work is the study of radical reactions in single crystals of amino acids exposed to x-rays, work that sometimes leads to [[activation energy|activation energies]] and rate constants for radical reactions.

===Material characterization===

The study of radiation-induced free radicals in biological substances (for cancer research) poses the additional problem that tissue contains water, and water (due to its [[electric dipole moment]]) has a strong absorption band in the [[microwave]] region used in EPR spectrometers.

EPR/ESR spectroscopy is used in geology and archaeology as a [[Electron spin resonance dating|dating tool]]. It can be applied to a wide range of materials such as organic shales, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, silica or other silicates.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Applications of Electron Spin Resonance|last=Ikeya|first=Motoji | name-list-style = vanc |doi=10.1142/1854|year = 1993|isbn = 978-981-02-1199-8}}</ref> When applied to shales, the EPR data correlates to the maturity of the kerogen in the shale.<ref>{{ cite journal |

EPR also has been used by archaeologists for the dating of teeth. Radiation damage over long periods of time creates free radicals in tooth enamel, which can then be examined by EPR and, after proper calibration, dated. Alternatively, material extracted from the teeth of people during dental procedures can be used to quantify their cumulative exposure to ionizing radiation. People exposed to radiation from the [[Chernobyl disaster]] have been examined by this method.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Gualtieri, G.|coauthors = Colacicchia, S, Sgattonic, R., Giannonic, M.|title = The Chernobyl Accident: EPR Dosimetry on Dental Enamel of Children|journal = Applied Radiation and Isotopes|year = 2001|volume = 55|issue = 1|pages = 71–79|doi = 10.1016/S0969-8043(00)00351-1|pmid = 11339534}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author = Chumak, V.|coauthors = Sholom, S.; Pasalskaya, L.|title = Application of High Precision EPR Dosimetry with Teeth for Reconstruction of Doses to Chernobyl Populations|journal = Radiation Protection Dosimetry|year = 1999|volume = 84|issue =|pages = 515–520|url = http://rpd.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/84/1-4/515|doi =}}</ref>

title = ESR assessment of kerogen maturation and its relation with petroleum genesis | doi = 10.1016/0146-6380(90)90104-8 |

vauthors = Bakr MY, Akiyama M, Sanada Y | journal = Organic Geochemistry | volume = 15 | issue = 6 | date = 1990| pages = 595–599| bibcode = 1990OrGeo..15..595B }}</ref>

EPR spectroscopy has been used to measure properties of [[crude oil]], such as determination of [[asphaltene]] and [[vanadium]] content.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Investigation of the nature of free radicals in petroleum asphaltenes and related substance by electron spin resonance|journal=Analytical Chemistry|year=1962|volume=34|pages=694–700|doi=10.1021/ac60186a034|last1=Yen|first1=T. F.|last2=Erdman|first2=J. G.|last3=Saraceno|first3=A. J. | issue=6 }}</ref> The free-radical component of the EPR signal is proportional to the amount of asphaltene in the oil regardless of any solvents, or precipitants that may be present in that oil.<ref>{{cite conference | vauthors = Lovell J, Abdullah D, Punnapala S, Al Daghar K, Kulbrandstad O, Madem S, Meza D | title = A Chemical IoT System for Flow Assurance - From Single-Well Applications to Field Implementation | conference = ADIPEC | book-title = SPE-203286-MS| date = Nov 2020 | doi = 10.2118/203286-MS }}</ref> When the oil is subject to a precipitant such as [[hexane]], [[heptane]], [[pyridine]] however, then much of the asphaltene can be subsequently extracted from the oil by gravimetric techniques. The EPR measurement of that extract will then be function of the polarity of the precipitant that was used.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Khulbe K, Mann R, Lu B, Lamarche G, Lamarche A | date = 1992 | title = Effects of solvents on free radicals of bitumen and asphaltenes | journal = Fuel Processing Technology | volume = 32 | issue = 3 | pages = 133–141 | doi = 10.1016/0378-3820(92)90027-N| bibcode = 1992FuPrT..32..133K }}</ref> Consequently, it is preferable to apply the EPR measurement directly to the crude. In the case that the measurement is made upstream of a [[separator (oil production)]], then it may also be necessary determine the oil fraction within the crude (e.g., if a certain crude contains 80% oil and 20% water, then the EPR signature will be 80% of the signature of downstream of the separator).

Radiation-sterilized foods have been examined with EPR spectroscopy, the aim being to develop methods to determine if a particular food sample has been irradiated and to what dose.

EPR has been used by archaeologists for the dating of teeth. Radiation damage over long periods of time creates free radicals in tooth enamel, which can then be examined by EPR and, after proper calibration, dated. Similarly, material extracted from the teeth of people during dental procedures can be used to quantify their cumulative exposure to ionizing radiation. People (and other mammals<ref>{{cite journal | title = ESR assessment of tooth enamel dose from cattle bred in areas contaminated due to the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear power plant accident | journal = Radiation Measurements | volume = 136 | date = August 2020 | number = 106357 | doi = 10.1016/j.radmeas.2020.106357 | author1 = Azumi Todaka | author2 = Shin Toyoda | author3 = Masahiro Natsuhori | author4 = Keiji Okada | author5 = Itaru Sato | author6 = Hiroshi Sato | author7 = Jun Sasaki| page = 106357 | bibcode = 2020RadM..13606357T | s2cid = 218993842 }}

Because of its high sensitivity, EPR was used recently to measure the quantity of energy used locally during a mechanochemical milling process.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Baron, M., Chamayou, A., Marchioro, L., Raffi, J.|year=2005|title=Radicalar probes to measure the action of energy on granular materials|journal=Adv. Powder Technol|volume=16|issue=3|pages=199–212|doi=10.1163/1568552053750242}}</ref>

</ref>) exposed to radiation from the atomic bombs,<ref>{{cite journal | title = Gamma-ray and neutron dosimetry by EPR and AMS, using tooth enamel from atomic-bomb survivors: a mini review | journal = Radiation Protection Dosimetry | year = 2012 | volume = 149 | number = 1 | pages = 79–83 | author1 = Nori Nakamura | author2 = Yuko Hirai | author3 = Yoshiaki Kodama | doi = 10.1093/rpd/ncr478| pmid = 22267275 | doi-access = free }}</ref> from the [[Chernobyl disaster]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gualtieri G, Colacicchi S, Sgattoni R, Giannoni M | title = The Chernobyl accident: EPR dosimetry on dental enamel of children | journal = Applied Radiation and Isotopes | volume = 55 | issue = 1 | pages = 71–9 | date = July 2001 | pmid = 11339534 | doi = 10.1016/S0969-8043(00)00351-1 | bibcode = 2001AppRI..55...71G }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = Chumak V, Sholom S, Pasalskaya L |title = Application of High Precision EPR Dosimetry with Teeth for Reconstruction of Doses to Chernobyl Populations|journal = Radiation Protection Dosimetry|year = 1999|volume = 84|pages = 515–520|doi =10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a032790}}</ref> and from the [[Fukushima nuclear disaster|Fukushima accident]] have been examined by this method.<ref>{{cite journal | title = ESR measurements of background doses in teeth of Japanese residents | journal = Radiation Measurements | volume = 46 | issue = 9 | date = September 2011 | pages = 797–800 | author1 = S. Toyoda | author2 = A. Kondo | author3 = K. Zumadilov | author4 = M. Hoshi | author5 = C. Miyazawa | author6 = A. Ivannikov | doi = 10.1016/j.radmeas.2011.05.008| bibcode = 2011RadM...46..797T }}</ref>

EPR spectroscopy has been used to measure properties of [[crude oil]], in particular [[asphaltene]] and [[vanadium]] content. EPR measurement of [[asphaltene]] content is a function of spin density and solvent polarity. Prior work dating to the 1960s has demonstrated the ability to measure [[vanadium]] content to sub-ppm levels.

Radiation-sterilized foods have been examined with EPR spectroscopy, aiming to develop methods to determine whether a food sample has been irradiated and to what dose.<ref name="Chauhan2008">{{cite journal |last1=Chauhan |first1=S. K. |display-authors=etal |title=Detection Methods for Irradiated Foods |journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety |date=2008 |volume=8 |page=4 |doi=10.1111/j.1541-4337.2008.00063.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In the field of [[quantum computer|quantum computing]], [[pulsed EPR]] is used to control the state of electron spin [[qubit|qubits]] in materials such as diamond, silicon and galium arsenide.

===Electrochemistry applications===

==High-field high-frequency measurements==

EPR is a very important technique in the electrochemical field because it operates to detect [[Paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] species and unpaired electrons. The technique has a long history of being coupled to the field, starting with a report in 1958 using EPR to detect free radicals generated via electrochemistry. In an experiment performed by Austen, Given, Ingram, and Peover, solutions of aromatics were electrolyzed and placed into an EPR instrument, resulting in a broad signal response.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Austen |first1=D. E. G. |last2=Given |first2=P. H. |last3=Ingram |first3=D. J. E. |last4=Peover |first4=M. E. |date=1958 |title=Electron Resonance Study of the Radicals Produced by Controlled Potential Electrolysis of Aromatic Substances |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/1821784a0 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=182 |issue=4652 |pages=1784–1786 |doi=10.1038/1821784a0 |bibcode=1958Natur.182.1784A |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }}</ref> While this result could not be used for any specific identification, the presence of an EPR signal validated the theory that free radical species were involved in electron transfer reactions as an intermediate state. Soon after, other groups discovered the possibility of coupling [[In situ electron microscopy|in situ electrolysis]] with EPR, producing the first resolved spectra of the nitrobenzene anion [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] from a mercury electrode sealed within the instrument cavity.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Gareth |title=Foundations of Modern EPR |publisher=World Scientific |year=1998}}</ref> Since then, the impact of EPR on the field of electrochemistry has only expanded, serving as a way to monitor free radicals produced by other electrolysis reactions.

High-field high-frequency EPR measurements are sometimes needed to detect subtle spectroscopic details. However, for many years the use of electromagnets to produce the needed fields above 1.5 T was impossible, due principally to limitations of traditional magnet materials. The first multifunctional millimeter EPR spectrometer with a superconducting solenoid was described in the early 1970s by Prof. Y. S. Lebedev's group (Russian [[Institute of Chemical Physics]], [[Moscow]]) in collaboration with L. G. Oranski's group (Ukrainian Physics and Technics Institute, Donetsk), which began working in the [[Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics]], [[Chernogolovka]] around 1975.<ref name=lowd>[http://hf-epr.awardspace.us/index.htm EPR of low-dimensional systems]</ref> Two decades later, a W-band EPR spectrometer was produced as a small commercial line by the German [[Bruker|Bruker Company]], initiating the expansion of W-band EPR techniques into medium-sized academic laboratories. Today there still are only a few scientific centers in the world capable of high-field high-frequency EPR; among them are the Grenoble High Magnetic Field Laboratory in [[Grenoble]], [[France]], the Physics Department in [[Freie Universität Berlin]], the [[National High Magnetic Field Laboratory]] in [[Tallahassee]], US, the National Center for Advanced ESR Technology (ACERT) at [[Cornell University]] in [[Ithaca]], US, the Department of Physiology, and Biophysics at [[Albert Einstein College of Medicine]], [[Bronx]], NY, the [[Dresden High Magnetic Field Laboratory|HLD]] and [[Leibniz-Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstoffforschung Dresden|IFW]] in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], the Institute of Physics of Complex Matter in [[Lausanne]] in [[Switzerland]], and the Institute of Physics of the [[Leiden University]], [[Netherlands]].

In more recent years, EPR has also been used within the context of electrochemistry to study redox-flow reactions and batteries. Because of the in situ possibilities, it is possible to construct an electrochemical cell inside the EPR instrument and capture the short-lived intermediates involved at lower concentrations than necessitated for [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]]. Often, NMR and EPR experiments are coupled to get a full picture of the electrochemical reaction over time. It is also possible to determine the concentration of a specific radical species via EPR, as it is proportional to the double integral of the EPR signal as referenced to a calibration standard. A specific application example can be seen in [[Lithium-ion battery|Lithium ion batteries]], specifically studying Li-S battery sulfate ion formation or in Li-O2 battery oxygen radical formation via the 4-oxo-TEMP to 4-oxo-TEMPO conversion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=den Hartog |first1=Stephan |last2=Neukermans |first2=Sander |last3=Samanipour |first3=Mohammad |last4=Ching |first4=H. Y. Vincent |last5=Breugelmans |first5=Tom |last6=Hubin |first6=Annick |last7=Ustarroz |first7=Jon |date=2022-03-01 |title=Electrocatalysis under a magnetic lens: A combined electrochemistry and electron paramagnetic resonance review |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013468621019885 |journal=Electrochimica Acta |volume=407 |article-number=139704 |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2021.139704 |issn=0013-4686|hdl=10067/1857000151162165141 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Coupled In Situ NMR and EPR Studies Reveal the Electron Transfer Rate and Electrolyte Decomposition in Redox Flow Batteries |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jacs.0c10650.s001 |access-date=2024-11-12 |doi=10.1021/jacs.0c10650.s001 }}</ref>

Other electrochemical applications to EPR can be found in the context of water purification reactions and oxygen reduction reactions. In water purification reactions, reactive radical species such as singlet oxygen and hydroxyl, oxygen, and hydrogen radicals are consistently present, generated electrochemically in the breakdown of water pollutants. These intermediates are highly reactive and unstable, thus necessitating a technique such as EPR that can identify radical species specifically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Webster |first=R |title=Electrochemistry combined with electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy for studying catalytic and energy storage processes. Current Opinion in Electrochemistry |journal=Current Opinion in Electrochemistry |volume=40 |pages=101308|doi=10.1016/j.coelec.2023.101308 }}</ref>

===Other applications===

In the field of [[quantum computer|quantum computing]], [[pulsed EPR]] is used to control the state of electron spin [[qubit]]s in materials such as diamond, silicon and gallium arsenide.{{Citation needed|date=November 2018}}

== High-field high-frequency measurements ==

High-field high-frequency EPR measurements are sometimes needed to detect subtle spectroscopic details. However, for many years the use of electromagnets to produce the needed fields above 1.5 T was impossible, due principally to limitations of traditional magnet materials. The first multifunctional millimeter EPR spectrometer with a superconducting solenoid was described in the early 1970s by Y. S. Lebedev's group (Russian [[Institute of Chemical Physics]], Moscow) in collaboration with L. G. Oranski's group (Ukrainian Physics and Technics Institute, Donetsk), which began working in the [[Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics]], Chernogolovka around 1975.<ref name=lowd>[http://hf-epr.awardspace.us/index.htm EPR of low-dimensional systems]</ref> Two decades later, a W-band EPR spectrometer was produced as a small commercial line by the German [[Bruker]] Company, initiating the expansion of W-band EPR techniques into medium-sized academic laboratories.

{| class="wikitable"

! Waveband !! L !! S !! C !! X !! P !! K !! Q !! U !! V !! E !! W !! F !! D !! — !! J !! —

|-

! <math>\lambda/\text{mm}</math>

|300||100||75||30||20||12.5||8.5||6||4.6||4||3.2||2.7||2.1||1.6||1.1||0.83

|-

!<math>\nu / \text{GHz}</math>

|1||3||4||10||15||24||35||50||65||75||95||111||140||190||285||360

Line 166 ⟶ 173:

{{clear}}

[[File:EPR-bands.svg|thumb|Variation in the EPR spectrum of the [[TEMPO]] nitroxide radical as the microwave band (energy of excitation) changes.<ref name=lowd /> Note the improved resolution as frequency rises (neglecting the influence of [[G-strain|''g'' strain]]).]]

The EPR waveband is stipulated by the frequency or wavelength of a spectrometer's microwave source (see Table).

The EPR waveband is stipulated by the frequency or wavelength of a spectrometer's microwave source (see Table).

EPR experiments often are conducted at [[X band|X]] and, less commonly, Q bands, mainly due to the ready availability of the necessary microwave components (which originally were developed for [[radar]] applications). A second reason for widespread X and Q band measurements is that electromagnets can reliably generate fields up to about 1 tesla. However, the low spectral resolution over ''g''-factor at these wavebands limits the study of paramagnetic centers with comparatively low anisotropic magnetic parameters. Measurements at <math>\nu</math> > 40&nbsp;GHz, in the millimeter wavelength region, offer the following advantages:

[[File:EPR multifrequency spectra.png|thumb|400px|EPR spectra of TEMPO, a nitroxide radical, as a function of frequency. Note the improvement in resolution from left to right.<ref name=lowd/>]]

# EPR spectra are simplified due to the reduction of second-order effects at high fields.

# Increase in orientation selectivity and sensitivity in the investigation of disordered systems.

Line 177 ⟶ 184:

# The higher spectral resolution over ''g''-factor, which increases with irradiation frequency <math>\nu</math> and external magnetic field ''B''₀. This is used to investigate the structure, polarity, and dynamics of radical microenvironments in spin-modified organic and biological systems through the [[spin label]] and probe method. The figure shows how spectral resolution improves with increasing frequency.

# Saturation of paramagnetic centers occurs at a comparatively low microwave polarizing field ''B''₁, due to the exponential dependence of the number of excited spins on the radiation frequency <math>\nu</math>. This effect can be successfully used to study the relaxation and dynamics of paramagnetic centers as well as of superslow motion in the systems under study.

# The cross-relaxation of paramagnetic centers decreases dramatically at high magnetic fields, making it easier to obtain more-precise and more-complete information about the system under study.<ref name=lowd />

This was demonstrated experimentally in the study of various biological, polymeric and model systems at D-band EPR.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Krinichnyi VI | date = 1995 | title = 2-mm Wave Band EPR Spectroscopy of Condensed Systems | publisher = CRC Press | ___location = Boca Raton, Fl }}</ref>

== Hardware components ==

[[File:X-band CW EPR spectrometer model.png|thumb|3D model of a typical X-band CW-EPR spectrometer]]

=== Microwave bridge ===

The microwave bridge contains both the microwave source and the detector.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sayWdlbWGfwC&q=microwave+bridge+epr&pg=PA6|title=Quantitative EPR |last1=Eaton|first1=Gareth R. |last2=Eaton|first2=Sandra S.|last3=Barr|first3=David P.|last4=Weber |first4=Ralph T. |name-list-style=vanc |date=2010-04-10|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-211-92948-3}}</ref> Older spectrometers used a vacuum tube called a [[klystron]] to generate microwaves, but modern spectrometers use a [[Gunn diode]]. Immediately after the microwave source there is an isolator which serves to attenuate any reflections back to the source which would result in fluctuations in the microwave frequency.<ref name=Chechik/> The microwave power from the source is then passed through a directional coupler which splits the microwave power into two paths, one directed towards the cavity and the other the reference arm. Along both paths there is a variable attenuator that facilitates the precise control of the flow of microwave power. This in turn allows for accurate control over the intensity of the microwaves subjected to the sample. On the reference arm, after the variable attenuator there is a phase shifter that sets a defined phase relationship between the reference and reflected signal which permits phase sensitive detection.

Most EPR spectrometers are reflection spectrometers, meaning that the detector should only be exposed to microwave radiation coming back from the cavity. This is achieved by the use of a device known as the [[circulator]] which directs the microwave radiation (from the branch that is heading towards the cavity) into the cavity. Reflected microwave radiation (after absorption by the sample) is then passed through the circulator towards the detector, ensuring it does not go back to the microwave source. The reference signal and reflected signal are combined and passed to the detector diode which converts the microwave power into an electrical current.

==== Reference arm ====

At low energies (less than 1 μW) the diode current is proportional to the microwave power and the detector is referred to as a [[square-law detector]]. At higher power levels (greater than 1&nbsp;mW) the diode current is proportional to the square root of the microwave power and the detector is called a linear detector. In order to obtain optimal sensitivity as well as quantitative information the diode should be operating within the linear region. To ensure the detector is operating at that level the reference arm serves to provide a "bias".

=== Magnet ===

In an EPR spectrometer the magnetic assembly includes the magnet with a dedicated power supply as well as a field sensor or regulator such as a [[Hall effect sensor|Hall probe]]. EPR spectrometers use one of two types of magnet which is determined by the operating microwave frequency (which determine the range of magnetic field strengths required). The first is an electromagnet which are generally capable of generating field strengths of up to 1.5 T making them suitable for measurements using the Q-band frequency. In order to generate field strengths appropriate for W-band and higher frequency operation superconducting magnets are employed. The magnetic field is homogeneous across the sample volume and has a high stability at static field.

=== Microwave resonator (cavity) ===

The microwave resonator is designed to enhance the microwave magnetic field at the sample in order to induce EPR transitions. It is a metal box with a rectangular or cylindrical shape that resonates with microwaves (like an organ pipe with sound waves). At the resonance frequency of the cavity microwaves remain inside the cavity and are not reflected back. Resonance means the cavity stores microwave energy and its ability to do this is given by the quality factor {{mvar|Q}}, defined by the following equation:

<math>Q=\frac {2\pi(\text{energy stored})}{(\text{energy dissipated})}</math>

The higher the value of {{mvar|Q}} the higher the sensitivity of the spectrometer. The energy dissipated is the energy lost in one microwave period. Energy may be lost to the side walls of the cavity as microwaves may generate currents which in turn generate heat. A consequence of resonance is the creation of a standing wave inside the cavity. Electromagnetic standing waves have their electric and magnetic field components exactly out of phase. This provides an advantage as the electric field provides non-resonant absorption of the microwaves, which in turn increases the dissipated energy and reduces {{mvar|Q}}. To achieve the largest signals and hence sensitivity the sample is positioned such that it lies within the magnetic field maximum and the electric field minimum. When the magnetic field strength is such that an absorption event occurs, the value of {{mvar|Q}} will be reduced due to the extra energy loss. This results in a change of impedance which serves to stop the cavity from being critically coupled. This means microwaves will now be reflected back to the detector (in the microwave bridge) where an EPR signal is detected.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eaton|first1=Gareth R.|last2=Eaton|first2= Sandra S.|last3=Barr|first3= David P.|last4=Weber|first4= Ralph T. |chapter=Basics of Continuous Wave EPR |name-list-style = vanc |title=Quantitative EPR|date=2010|pages=1–14|doi=10.1007/978-3-211-92948-3_1 | isbn=978-3-211-92947-6}}</ref>

== Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance ==

{{further|Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance}}

The dynamics of electron spins are best studied with pulsed measurements.<ref>{{cite book | first1 = Arthur | last1 = Schweiger | first2 = Gunnar | last2 = Jeschke | name-list-style = vanc | title = Principles of Pulse Electron Paramagnetic Resonance | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-0-19-850634-8 }}</ref> Microwave pulses typically 10–100 ns long are used to control the spins in the [[Bloch sphere]]. The [[spin–lattice relaxation time]] can be measured with an [[inversion recovery]] experiment.

As with pulsed [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]], the [[Hahn echo]] is central to many pulsed EPR experiments. A [[Spin echo|Hahn echo]] decay experiment can be used to measure the dephasing time, as shown in the animation below. The size of the echo is recorded for different spacings of the two pulses. This reveals the decoherence, which is not refocused by the <math>\pi</math> pulse. In simple cases, an [[exponential decay]] is measured, which is described by the <math>T_2</math> time.

[[File:GWM HahnEchoDecay.gif|frameless|upright=2]]

Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance could be advanced into [[electron nuclear double resonance]] spectroscopy (ENDOR), which utilizes waves in the radio frequencies. Since different nuclei with unpaired electrons respond to different wavelengths, radio frequencies are required at times. Since the results of the ENDOR gives the coupling resonance between the nuclei and the unpaired electron, the relationship between them can be determined.

This was demonstrated experimentally in the study of various biological, polymeric and model systems at D-band EPR.<ref>V.I. Krinichnyi, 2-mm Wave Band EPR Spectroscopy of Condensed Systems, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl, 1995.</ref>

== See also ==

{{col div|colwidth=18em}}

*[[Ferromagnetic resonance]]

* [[Dynamic nuclear polarisation]]

* [[Spin labelEDMR]]s

* [[Site-directedElectric dipole spin labelingresonance]]

* [[Electron resonance imaging]]

*[[Spin Trapping|Spin trapping]]

* [[Ferromagnetic resonance]]

*[[EDMR]]

* [[Optically detected magnetic resonance]]

* [[Site-directed spin labeling]]

* [[Spin label]]

* [[Spin trapping]]

* [[Albumin transport function analysis by EPR spectroscopy]]

{{colend}}

== References ==

{{reflistReflist|235em}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category}}

*[http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/usershub/scientificdivisions/emr/overview.html Electron Magnetic Resonance Program] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090308090236/http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/usershub/scientificdivisions/emr/overview.html Electron Magnetic Resonance Program] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

*[http://www.rsc.org/shop/books/series.asp?seriesid=49 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (Specialist Periodical Reports)] Published by the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]]

* [http://www.rsc.org/shop/books/series.asp?seriesid=49 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (Specialist Periodical Reports)] Published by the [[Royal Society of Chemistry]]

* [http://www.campoly.com/files/2014/2073/0484/031_ESR_of_engine_oil_ADMIN-0256_v1.1.pdf Using ESR to measure free radicals in used engine oil]

{{Branches of spectroscopy}}

{{BranchesofSpectroscopy}}

{{Protein structural analysis}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT[[Category:Electron Paramagneticparamagnetic Resonance}}resonance| ]]

[[Category:Scientific techniques]]

[[Category:SpectroscopyMagnetism]]

[[Category:Russian inventions]]

[[Category:Neuroimaging]]

[[Category:Soviet inventions]]