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{{Short description|none}}
{{history of Romania}}
The '''history of Christianity in Romania''' began within the [[Roman province]] of [[Lower Moesia]], where many [[Christians]] were martyred at the end of the 3rd century. Evidence of Christian communities has been found in the territory of modern [[Romania]] at over a hundred archaeological sites from the 3rd and 4th centuries. However, sources from the 7th and 10th centuries are so scarce that [[Christianity]] seems to have diminished during this period.
The vast majority of [[Romanians]] are adherent to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], while most other populations that speak [[Romance languages]] follow the [[Catholic Church]]. The basic Christian terminology in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] is of [[Latin]] origin, though the Romanians, referred to as [[Vlachs]] in medieval sources, borrowed numerous [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] terms due to the adoption of the [[liturgy]] officiated in [[Old Church Slavonic]]. The earliest Romanian translations of religious texts appeared in the 15th century, and [[Bucharest Bible of 1688|the first complete translation of the Bible]] was published in 1688.
The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river [[Danube]] is a [[papal bull]] of 1234. In the territories east and south of the [[Carpathian Mountains]], two [[metropolitan see]]s subordinate to the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] were set up after the foundation of two principalities, [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] in the 14th century. The growth of [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]] in Moldavia provided a historical link between the 14th-century [[Hesychast]] revival and the modern development of the monastic tradition in [[Eastern Europe]]. Orthodoxy was for centuries only tolerated in the regions west of the Carpathians where [[Roman Catholic]] [[diocese]]s were established within the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in the 11th century. In these territories, transformed into the [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] in the 16th century, four "received religions" – Catholicism, [[Calvinism]], [[Lutheranism]], and [[Unitarianism]] – were granted a privileged status. After the principality was annexed by the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Empire]], a part of the local Orthodox clergy declared the [[Eastern Catholic Churches|union with Rome]] in 1698.
The [[autocephaly]] of the [[Romanian Orthodox Church]] was [[canon law|canonically]] recognized in 1885, years after [[United Principalities|the union of Wallachia and Moldavia into Romania]]. The Orthodox Church and the [[Romanian Church United with Rome]] were declared [[national church]]es in 1923. The [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Communist authorities]] abolished the latter, and the former was subordinated to the government in 1948. The [[Eastern Catholic Churches|Uniate Church]] was reestablished when the Communist regime [[Romanian Revolution|collapsed in 1989]]. Now the [[Constitution of Romania]] emphasizes churches' autonomy from the state.
== Pre-Christian religions ==
{{Main|Dacian mythology|Religion in ancient Rome}}
{{See also|Dacia}}
[[File:Roman province of Dacia (106 - 271 AD).svg|thumb|left|200px|alt=Map of Dacia and Moesia|[[Roman provinces]] in modern Romania (106–117)]]
The religion of the [[Getae]], an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] people inhabiting the [[Lower Danube]] region in [[Ancient history|antiquity]], was characterized by a belief in the [[immortality]] of the [[soul]].<ref name='Treptow 1997 20'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 20.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 98.</ref> Another major feature of this religion was the cult of [[Zalmoxis]]; followers of Zalmoxis communicated with him by [[human sacrifice]].<ref name='Treptow 1997 20'/>
Modern [[Dobruja]] – the territory between the river [[Danube]] and the [[Black Sea]] – was annexed to the [[Roman province]] of [[Moesia]] in 46 AD.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 28.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 88.</ref> Cults of [[List of Greek deities|Greek gods]] remained prevalent in this area, even after the conquest.<ref>MacKendrick 1975, pp. 23, 192.</ref> Modern Banat, [[Oltenia]], and Transylvania were transformed into the Roman province of "[[Roman Dacia|Dacia Traiana]]" in 106.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. 84–85, 201.</ref> Due to massive colonization, cults originating in the empire's other provinces entered Dacia.<ref name='Treptow, Popa 85'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 85.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 173–175.</ref> Around 73% of all [[Epigraphy|epigraphic monuments]] at this time were dedicated to [[Graeco-Roman]] gods.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 94.</ref>
The province of "Dacia Traiana" was dissolved in the 270s.<ref name='Treptow, Popa 85'/> Modern Dobruja became a separate province under the name of [[Scythia Minor (Roman province)|Scythia Minor]] in 297.<ref name='Treptow, Popa 85'/><ref name='Pacurariu 187'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 187</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 103.</ref>
== Origin of the Romanians' Christianity ==
{{See also|Origin of the Romanians}}
The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river [[Danube]] is a [[papal bull]] of 1234. In the territories east and south of the [[Carpathian Mountains]], two [[metropolitan see]]s subordinate to the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]] were set up after the foundation of two principalities, [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] in the 14th century. The growth of [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]] in Moldavia provided a historical link between the 14th-century [[Hesychast]] revival and the modern development of the monastic tradition in [[Eastern Europe]]. Orthodoxy was for centuries only tolerated in the regions west of the Carpathians where [[Roman Catholic]] [[diocese]]s were established within the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in the 11th century. In these territories, transformed into the [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] in the 16th century, four "received religions" – [[Calvinism]], Catholicism, [[Lutheranism]], and [[Unitarianism]] – were granted a privileged status. After the principality was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, a part of the local Orthodox clergy declared the [[Eastern Catholic Churches|union with Rome]] in 1698.
The core religious vocabulary of the Romanian language originated from Latin.<ref name='Treptow 1997 45'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 45.</ref> Christian words that have been preserved from Latin include ''a boteza'' ("[[baptism|to baptize]]"), ''Paște'' ("Easter"),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://pasti.vocabular.ro/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-09-04 |archive-date=2020-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520011530/http://pasti.vocabular.ro// |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''preot'' ("priest"),<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://preot.vocabular.ro/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-09-04 |archive-date=2016-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306080759/http://preot.vocabular.ro/wordSearch.php?view=views%2FwordSearch.xsl&PHPSESSID=fe4bd97f9a69925104c3145c283752cb |url-status=dead }}</ref> and ''cruce'' ("cross").<ref name='Georgescu 11'>Georgescu 1991, p. 11.</ref><ref name='Spinei 269'>Spinei 2009, p. 269.</ref> Some words, such as ''biserică'' ("church", from ''[[basilica]]'') and ''Dumnezeu'' ("God", from ''Domine Deus''), are independent of their [[synonym]]s in other Romance languages.<ref name='Pacurariu 187'/><ref name='Treptow 1997 45'/><ref name='Georgescu 11'/>
The exclusive presence in Romanian language of Latin vocabulary for concepts of [[Christian faith]] may indicate the antiquity of Daco-Roman Christianity;<ref name="Mihaescu">H. Mihăescu (1979): La langue latine dans le sud-est de l'Europe, București, p. 227, nr. 206</ref><ref name="petolescu">Constantin C. Petolescu (2010): "Dacia – Un mileniu de istorie", Ed. Academiei Române, p. 358; {{ISBN|978-973-27-1999-2}}</ref> some examples are:
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*''altar(ium)'' – ''altar'' ("[[altar]]"),
*''baptisare'' – ''a boteza'' ("[[baptism|to baptize]]"),
*''cantare, canticum'' – ''cântare, cântec'' ("sing", "[[song]]"),
*''crux, cruce'' – ''cruce'' ("cross"),
*''communicare'' ("communicate") – ''a cumineca'' ("to receive or give Communion/[[Eucharist]]"),
*''commendare'' ("commend, commit") – ''a comânda'' ("to sacrifice; to remember or pray for someone who died"),
*''credere'' – ''a crede'' ("to believe"),
*''credentia'' – ''credință'' ("[[faith]], belief"),
*''christianus'' – ''creștin'' ("[[Christians|Christian]]"),
*''draco'' – ''drac'' ("[[evil]]", "[[devil]]"),
*''Floralia'' ("ancient festival") – ''Florii'' ("Palm Sunday"),
*''ieiunare'' – ''a ajuna'' ("to fast"),
*''ieiunus'' - ''ajun'' ("fast")
*''ligare'':
**''carnem ligare'' ("tie/bind meat") – ''cârnelegi, cârneleagă'' ("penultimate week of Advent fast when meat can be eaten")
**''caseum ligare'' ("tie/bind cheese")– ''câșlegi'',
*''luminaria'' – ''lumânare'' ("[[candle]]"),
*''lex, lege'' – ''lege'' ("[[law]], faith"),
*''martyr'' – ''martor'' ("witness"),
*''monumentum'' – ''mormânt'' ("[[tomb]]"),
*''presbyter'' – ''preut (preot)'' ("[[priest]]"),
*''paganus'' – ''păgân'' ("[[pagan]]"),
*''pervigilium, pervigilare'' – ''priveghi, priveghea'' ("[[Wake (ceremony)|wake]]", "to keep watch/vigil for a wake"),
*''rogare, rogatio(ne)'' – ''ruga, rugăciune (rugă)'' ("to pray", "[[praying]]"),
*''quadragesima'' – ''păresimi'' ("[[Lent]]"),
*''sanctus'' – ''sânt (sfânt)'' ("[[saint]]"),
*''scriptura'' – ''scriptură'' ("scripture, writing"),
*''*sufflitus'' – ''suflet'' ("soul, spirit")
*''thymiama'' – ''tămâie'' ("incense"),
*''turma'' – ''turmă'' ("flock"), etc.<ref name="Mihaescu"/><ref name="petolescu"/>}}
The same is true for the Christian denominations of the main Christian holidays: ''Crăciun'' ("[[Christmas]]") (from {{langx|la|calatio(nem)}} or rather from {{langx|la|creatio(nem)|links=no}}) and ''Paște'' ("[[Easter]]") (from {{langx|la|Paschae|links=no}}); Several archaic or popular saint names, sometimes found as elements in place names, also seem to derive from Latin: {{lang|la|Sâmpietru, Sângiordz, Sânicoară, Sânmedru, Sântilie, Sântioan, Sântoader, Sântămărie}}, and {{lang|la|Sânvăsii}}. Today, ''sfânt'', of Slavic origin, is the usual way to refer to saint.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex.ro/sant|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=sant|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref>
The Romanian language also adopted many Slavic religious terms.<ref name='Spinei 269'/> For example, words like ''duh'' ("soul, spirit"), ''iad'' ("[[Hell in Christian beliefs|hell]]"), ''rai'' ("[[Paradise#Christianity|paradise]]"), ''grijanie'' ("Holy Communion"), ''popă'' ("priest"), ''slujbă'' ("church service") and ''taină'' ("mystery, [[sacrament]]") are of South Slavic origin.<ref name='Spinei 269'/> Even some terms of [[Greek language|Greek]] and Latin origin, such as ''călugar'' ("monk") and ''Rusalii'' ("[[Whitsuntide]]"), entered Romanian through Slavic. Several terms relating to church hierarchy, such as ''episcop'' ("bishop"), ''arhiepiscop'' ("archbishop"), ''ierarh'' ("hierarch"), ''mitropolit'' ("archbishop"), came from Medieval or Byzantine Greek, sometimes partly through a South Slavic intermediate<ref name='Spinei 269'/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex-online.ro/calugar/cauta/|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=călugar|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române pe internet|date=2004–2008|access-date=2011-03-04|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708225029/http://dex-online.ro/calugar/cauta/|archive-date=2012-07-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex-online.ro/Rusalii/cauta/|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=Rusalie|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române pe internet|date=2004–2008|access-date=2011-03-04|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707102055/http://dex-online.ro/Rusalii/cauta/|archive-date=2012-07-07|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex.ro/grijanie|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=grijanie|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex.ro/slujba|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=slujba|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex.ro/popa|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=popa|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex.ro/episcop|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=episcop|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române|access-date=2020-05-04}}</ref> A smaller number of religious terms were borrowed from Hungarian, for instance ''mântuire'' ([[salvation]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex-online.ro/calugar/cauta/|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=mântuire|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române pe internet|date=2004–2008|access-date=2011-07-27|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708225029/http://dex-online.ro/calugar/cauta/|archive-date=2012-07-08|url-status=dead}}</ref> and ''pildă'' ([[Parables of Jesus|parable]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dex-online.ro/calugar/cauta/|publisher=dex-online.ro|title=pildă|work=Dicționar explicativ al limbii române pe internet|date=2004–2008|access-date=2011-07-27|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708225029/http://dex-online.ro/calugar/cauta/|archive-date=2012-07-08|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Several theories exist regarding the origin of Christianity in Romania.<ref name='Boia 11'>Boia 2001, p. 11.</ref><ref>Niculescu 2007, p. 151.</ref><ref>Keul 1994, pp. 16, 23.</ref> Those who think that [[Origin of the Romanians#Summary of theories|the Romanians descended from the inhabitants of "Dacia Traiana"]] suggest that the spread of Christianity coincided with the formation of the Romanian nation.<ref name='Treptow 1997 45' /><ref>Keul 1994, p. 17.</ref> Their ancestors' Romanization and Christianization, a direct result of the contact between the native Dacians and the Roman colonists, lasted for several centuries.<ref name='Treptow 1997 45' /><ref name='Pacurariu 189'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 189.</ref> According to historian Ioan-Aurel Pop, Romanians were the first to adopt Christianity among the peoples who now inhabit the territories bordering Romania.<ref>Pop 1996, p. 39.</ref> They adopted Slavonic liturgy when it was introduced in the neighboring [[First Bulgarian Empire]] and [[Kievan Rus']] in the 9th and 10th centuries.<ref>Spinei 2009, p. 104.</ref> According to a [[Origin of the Romanians#Summary of theories|concurring scholarly theory]], the Romanians' ancestors turned to Christianity in the provinces to the south of the Danube (in present-day Bulgaria and Serbia) after [[Edict of Milan|it was legalized throughout the Roman Empire in 313]].<ref>Schramm 1997, pp. 276–277, 333–335.</ref> They adopted the Slavonic liturgy during the First Bulgarian Empire before their migration to the territory of modern Romania began in the 11th or 12th century.<ref>Schramm 1997, pp. 337–338.</ref>
==
{{See also|Lower Moesia|Roman Dacia|Scythia Minor (Roman province)}}
[[File:Martyrsinscription.jpg|thumb|left|200px|alt=Crypt at Niculițel|The Latin transliteration of the Greek martyrs' names from [[Niculițel]]: {{small|ZOTICOS}}, {{small|ATTALOS}}, {{small|KAMASIS}}, {{small|FILIPPOS}}.]]
[[File:Tombofmartyrs.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Crypt at Niculițel|Four martyrs' tomb at Niculițel (4th century)]]
[[Christians|Christian]] communities in Romania date at least from the 3rd century.<ref>Cunningham 1999, p. 100.</ref><ref name='Madgearu 2004 41'>Madgearu 2004, p. 41</ref><ref name='Zugravu 165'>Zugravu 1995–1996, p. 165</ref> According to an oral history first recorded by [[Hippolytus of Rome]] in the early 3rd century, [[Jesus Christ|Jesus Christ's]] teachings were first propagated in "Scythia" by Saint Andrew.<ref name='Boia 11'/><ref>Păcurariu 2007, p. 186.</ref> If "Scythia" refers to Scythia Minor, and not to the [[Crimea]] as has been claimed by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], Christianity in Romania can be considered of apostolic origin.<ref name='Pacurariu 187'/><ref name='Boia 11'/>
The existence of Christian communities in Dacia Traiana is disputed.<ref name='Boia 11'/><ref>MacKendrick 1975, p. 187.</ref> Some Christian objects found there are dated from the 3rd century, preceding the Roman withdrawal from the region.<ref name='Madgearu 2004 41'/><ref name='Zugravu 165'/><ref name="Pop et al. 2005, pp. 186–187">Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 186–187.</ref> Vessels with the sign of the cross, fish, grape stalks, and other Christian symbols were discovered in [[Ulpia Traiana]], [[Porolissum]], [[Potaissa]], [[Alba Iulia|Apulum]], [[Romula]], and [[Gherla]], among other settlements. A gem representing the [[Good Shepherd]] was found at Potaissa.<ref name='Madgearu 2004 41'/><ref name='Zugravu 165'/><ref name="Pop et al. 2005, pp. 186–187"/> On a funerary altar in Napoca the sign of the cross was carved inside the letter "O" of the original pagan inscription of the monument, and pagan monuments that were later Christianized were also found at [[Zlatna|Ampelum]] and Potaissa.<ref name='Madgearu 2004 41'/><ref name="Pop et al. 2005, p. 188">Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 188.</ref> A turquoise and gold ring with the inscription "{{small|EGO SVM FLAGELLVM IOVIS CONTRA PERVERSOS CHRISTIANOS}}" ("I am Jupiter's scourge against the dissolute Christians") was also found and may be related to the [[Decius#Persecution of Christians|Christian persecutions]] during the 3rd century.<ref name='Zugravu 165'/>
In Scythia Minor, a large number of Christians were [[Christian martyrs|martyred]] during the [[Diocletianic Persecution]] at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries.<ref name='Pacurariu 187'/> Four martyrs' relics were discovered in a crypt at [[Niculițel]], with their names written in Greek on the crypt's inner wall.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 115.</ref> Thirty-five [[basilica]]s built between the 4th and 6th centuries have been discovered in the main towns of the province.<ref name='Pacurariu 188'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 188.</ref><ref>MacKendrick 1995, pp. 172–174.</ref> The earliest basilica, built north of the Lower Danube, was erected at [[Sucidava]] (now [[Tismana|Celei]]), in one of the [[Roman forts]] rebuilt under [[Justinian I]] (527–565).<ref>MacKendrick 1975, pp. 165–166.</ref><ref name='Niculescu 152'>Niculescu 2007, p. 152.</ref> Burial chambers were built in [[Callatis]] (now [[Mangalia]]), [[Capidava]], and other towns of Scythia Minor during the 6th century. The walls were painted with quotes from [[Psalms]].<ref>Curta 2006, p. 48.</ref>
Clerics from Scythia Minor were involved in the theological controversies debated at the [[First seven Ecumenical Councils|first four Ecumenical Councils]].<ref name='Pacurariu 188'/> [[Saint Bretanion]] defended the Orthodox faith against [[Arianism]] in the 360s.<ref name='Pacurariu 188'/><ref>'''Sozomen''', ''Ecclesiastical History'', Book VI, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.iii.xi.xxi.html Chapter XXI].</ref> The [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitans]] of the province who supervised fourteen bishops by the end of the 5th century had their See in Tomis (modernly [[Constanța]]).<ref name='Pacurariu 188'/> The last metropolitan was mentioned in the 6th century, before Scythia Minor fell to the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avars]] and [[Sclaveni|Sclavenes]] who destroyed the forts on the Lower Danube.<ref name='Stephenson 64'>Stephenson 2000, p. 64.</ref><ref>MacKendrick 1995, pp. 166, 210, 220–222.</ref> [[John Cassian]] (360–435), [[Dionysius Exiguus]] (470–574) and [[Joannes Maxentius]] (leader of the so-called [[Scythian Monks]]) lived in Scythia Minor and contributed to its Christianization.<ref>Mircea Păcurariu, "Sfinți daco-români și români", Editura Mitropoliei Moldovei și Bucovinei, (Iași, 1994)</ref>
== Early Middle Ages ==
{{See also|Romania in the Early Middle Ages}}
=== East Roman Empire period ===
{{See also|Gothic Christianity}}
[[File:DonariumBiertan.JPG|thumb|right|200px|alt=Biertan Donarium|The [[Biertan Donarium]] with the Latin writing: "I, Zenovius, brought this offering" (4th century)<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 187.</ref>]]
Most Christian objects from the 4th to 6th centuries found in the former province of Dacia Traiana were imported from the Roman Empire.<ref name=autogenerated7>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 187–188.</ref> The idea that public [[edifice]]s were transformed into Christian cult sites at [[Slăveni]] and [[Porolissum]] has not been unanimously accepted by archaeologists.<ref name='Pacurariu 187'/><ref name='Niculescu 152'/> One of the first Christian objects found in Transylvania was [[Biertan Donarium|a pierced bronze inscription]] discovered at [[Biertan]].<ref>MacKendrick 1975, p. 192.</ref> A few 4th century graves in the [[Chernyakhov culture|Sântana de Mureș–Chernyakhov]] [[necropolis]]es was arranged in a Christian orientation.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, pp. 188–189.</ref> Clay lamps bearing depictions of crosses from the 5th and 6th centuries were also found here.<ref name="Pop et al. 2005, p. 188"/><ref name=autogenerated7 />
The spread of Christianity in the former Roman Dacia is connected to the [[Constantine the Great|Constantinian]] reconquest of parts of the former Roman Dacia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Aemulatio Traiani? Constantine's Restored Dacia and the Tervingi {{!}} Society for Classical Studies |url=https://classicalstudies.org/aemulatio-traiani-constantine%E2%80%99s-restored-dacia-and-tervingi |website=classicalstudies.org}}</ref> At the Roman fortress of [[Sucidava]] (Olt county) have been discovered the largest number of early Christian finds in the former Roman Dacia, most of them dating from the 4th century. Other objects bearing probable Christian symbols were found as far as Alba Iulia, Dej, Lipova, Deva, Cluj-Napoca, Zlatna.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnea |first1=Ion |title=Arta Crestina Vol I |date=1979 |pages=29–34 |url=https://dokumen.tips/documents/barnea-arta-crestina-vol-i-introducere.html |access-date=7 December 2023 |language=ro}}</ref>
Dacia Traiana was dominated by "[[Taifali]], [[Victuali]], and [[Tervingi]]" around 350.<ref>Wolfram 1988, pp. 57, 401.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans8.html#2|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130503021132/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/eutropius/trans8.html#2|url-status=usurped|archive-date=May 3, 2013|publisher=www.forumromanum.org|title=Abridgement of Roman History|work=Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum|year=1853|author1=Eutropius |author2=Watson, John Selby |access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Christian teachings among the Tervingi who formed the Western [[Goths]] started in the 3rd century.<ref name=autogenerated6>Todd 1992, p. 142.</ref> For instance, the ancestors of [[Ulfilas]], who was consecrated "bishop of the Christians in the Getic land" in 341, had been captured in [[Capadocia]] ([[Turkey]]) around 250.<ref>Wolfram 1988, p. 78.</ref> During the first Gothic persecution of Christians in 348, Ulfilas was expelled to Moesia, where he continued to preach Greek, Latin, and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] languages.<ref>Wolfram 1988, pp. 76–78, 80.</ref><ref>Todd 1992, p. 119.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html|publisher=www9.georgetown.edu (Georgetown University)|title=Letter|work=Texts|year=2010|author1=Durostorum, Auxentius |author2=Marchand, Jim |access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> During the second persecution between 369 and 372, many believers were martyred, including [[Sabbas the Goth]].<ref>Wolfram 1988, pp. 81–82.</ref> The remains of [[Wereka and Batwin|twenty-six Gothic martyrs]] were transferred to the Roman Empire after the invasion of the Huns in 376.<ref name=autogenerated6 /><ref>Wolfram 1988, pp. 82, 96.</ref>
Following the collapse of the [[Huns#Unified Empire under Attila|Hunnic Empire]] in 454, the [[Gepids]] "ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/33.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=The Kingdom of the Gepids|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Bóna, István|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://people.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html#L|publisher=people.ucalgary.ca (University of Calgary)|title=The Origin and Deeds of the Goths by Jordanes|work=Texts for Ancient History Courses|date=1997-04-22|author=Mierow, Charles C.|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> A gold ring from a 5th-century grave at [[Apahida]] is ornamented with crosses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/36.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Gepidic Kings in Transylvania|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Bóna, István|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Another ring from the grave bears the inscription "{{small|OMHARIVS}}", probably in reference to Omharus, one of the known Gepid kings.<ref>Todd 1992, p. 223.</ref> The Gepidic kingdom was annihilated in 567–568 by the Avars.<ref>Todd 1992, p. 221.</ref>
The reign of [[Justinian I]] (527-565) was a period of military and religious expansion of the Eastern Roman Empire across the Danube. For this purpose, the emperor rebuilt some fortresses on the northern bank of the river, such as [[Drobeta (castra)|Drobeta]], [[Ram, Serbia|Lederata]], [[Dierna (castra)|Zernes-Dierna]], [[Sucidava]], [[Viminacium]] etc.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnea |first1=Ion |title=Arta Crestina Vol I |date=1979 |pages=34–36 |url=https://dokumen.tips/documents/barnea-arta-crestina-vol-i-introducere.html |access-date=7 December 2023 |language=ro}}</ref> In "Novella XI", the foundation act of the Justiniana Prima Archbishopric, from 535, in the arguments that motivate the establishment of this prefecture, it is affirmed that Empire has expanded to such an extent that Roman towns are situated on both banks of the Danube.<ref>Novella XI:"Cum igitur in praesenti deo auctore ita nostra respublica aucta est, ut utraque ripa Danubii iam nostris civitatibus frequentaretur et iam Viminacium quam Recidiva et Litterata, quae trans Danubium sunt, nostrae iterum dicioni subactae sint, necessarium duximus ipsamgloriosissimam praefecturam, quae in Pannonia fuerat constituta, iuxta Pannoniam in nostra felicissima patria collo- care, cum nihil quidem magni distat a Dacia Mediterranea secunda Pannonia" {{cite book |last1=Popa-Lisseanu |first1=G. |title=Continuitatea romanilor in Dacia. Dovezi noi - G. Popa-Lisseanu |date=1941 |publisher=Analelel Academiei Romane |pages=40 |url=https://bcub.ro/lib2life/Continuitatea%20romanilor%20in%20Dacia_Popa-Lisseanu%20Gheorghe_Bucuresti_1941.pdf |language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Scott |first1=S. P. |title=The Novels of Justinian : Novel 11 |url=https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Anglica/N11_Scott.htm |website=droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr |publisher=The Civil Law, XVI, Cincinnati, 1932}}</ref>
The presence of Christians among the "barbarians" has been well documented.<ref name='Curta 2005 188'>Curta 2005, p. 188.</ref> [[Theophylact Simocatta]] wrote of a Gepid who "had once long before been of the Christian religion".<ref name='Curta 2005 188'/> The author of the ''[[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]]'' documented Romans among the ''Sclavenes'', and some of those Romans may have been Christians as well.<ref name='Curta 2005 188'/> The presence and proselytism of these Christians does not go so far as to explain how artifacts with Christian symbolism appeared on sites to the south and east of the Carpathians in the 560s.<ref>Curta 2005, p. 191.</ref> Such artifacts have been found at [[Botoșana]] and [[Vedea, Teleorman|Dulceanca]].<ref>Teodor 2005, pp. 239–241.</ref> Casting molds for pectoral crosses were found in the space around Eastern and Southern Carpathian mountains, starting with the 6th century.<ref>Paliga, Sorin & Teodor, Eugen, Lingvistica si arheologia slavilor timpurii (Early Slavic linguistics and archeology), Cetatea de scaun, 2009,{{ISBN|9786065370043}} pag. 248.</ref>
=== Outer-Carpathian regions and the Balkans ===
{{See also|Christianization of Bulgaria}}
Burial assemblages found in 8th-century cemeteries to the south and east of the Carpathians, for instance at [[Castelu]], prove that local communities practiced [[cremation]]<ref name='Spinei 270'>Spinei 2009, p. 270.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 127.</ref> The idea that local Christians incorporating pre-Christian practices can also be assumed among those who cremated their dead is a matter of debate among historians.<ref>Spinei 2009, p. 271.</ref><ref>Fiedler 2008, p. 158.</ref> Cremation was replaced by inhumation by the beginning of the 11th century.<ref name='Spinei 270'/><ref>Curta 2006, p. 186.</ref>
For the period from the 9th to 11th centuries, in the regions from the East of Carpathians there are known more than 52 discoveries of Christian origin (moulds, brackets, pendants, groundsels, pottery with Christian signs, rings with Christian signs), many of them locally made; some of these discoveries and the content and the orientation of graves show that local people practised the Christian burial ceremony before the Christianization of Bulgars and Slavs.<ref>Teodor, Dan, "Creștinismul la est de Carpați", Editura Mitropoliei Moldovei, Iași, 1991, p. 207.</ref>
The territories between the Lower Danube and the Carpathians were incorporated into the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] by the first half of the 9th century.<ref>Fine 1991, pp. 94, 99.</ref> [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]] (852–889) was the first Bulgarian ruler to accept Christianity, in 863.<ref>Fine 1991, p. 117.</ref> By that time differences between the Eastern and the Western branches of Christianity had grown significantly.<ref name='Sedlar 159'>Sedlar 1994, p. 159.</ref> Boris I allowed the members of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox clergy]] to enter his country in 864, and the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]] adopted the Bulgarian alphabet in 893.<ref>Curta 2006, p. 168.</ref><ref>Fine 1991, p. 128.</ref> An inscription in [[Mircea Vodă, Constanța|Mircea Vodă]] from 943 is the earliest example of the use of [[Cyrillic script]] in Romania.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, pp. 136, 143.</ref>
The First Bulgarian Empire [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|was conquered by the Byzantines]] under [[Basil II]] (976–1025).<ref>Stephenson 2000, pp. 51–53, 55.</ref> He soon revived the Metropolitan See of Scythia Minor at [[Constanța]], but this put Christian Bulgarians under the jurisdiction of the [[archbishop of Ohrid]].<ref>Fine 1991, p. 199.</ref><ref>Stephenson 2000, pp. 64, 75.</ref> The Metropolitan See of Moesia was reestablished in ''[[Silistra|Dristra]]'' (now Silistra, Bulgaria) in the 1040s when a mission of mass evangelization was dispatched among the [[Pechenegs]] who had settled in the Byzantine Empire.<ref name='Stephenson 97'>Stephenson 2000, p. 97.</ref><ref>Curta 2006, p. 299.</ref> The Metropolitan See of ''Dristra'' was taken over by the bishop of ''[[Vicina (town)|Vicina]]'' in the 1260s.<ref>Shepard 2006, p. 25.</ref><ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 339.</ref>
The Vlachs living in [[Boeotia]], [[Greece]] were described as false Christians by [[Benjamin of Tudela]] in 1165.<ref>Curta 2006, p. 357.</ref> However, the brothers [[Peter IV of Bulgaria|Peter]] and [[Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria|Asen]] built a church in order to gather [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] and Vlach prophets to announce that St [[Demetrius of Thessaloniki]] had abandoned their enemies, while arranging [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|their rebellion against the Byzantine Empire]].<ref>Stephenson 2000, pp. 289–290.</ref><ref>Curta 2006, pp. 358–359.</ref> The Bulgarians and the Vlachs revolted and created the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]].<ref name='Pop 2006 170'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 170.</ref> The head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church was elevated to the rank of "Primate of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs" in 1204.<ref name='Pop 2006 170'/><ref>Fine 1994, p. 56.</ref>
Catholic missionaries among the [[Cumans]], who had controlled the territories north of the Lower Danube and east of the Carpathians from the 1070s, were first conducted by the [[Teutonic Knights]], and later by the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], after 1225.<ref>Dobre 2009, pp. 20–21.</ref><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 54.</ref> A [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania|new Catholic diocese]] was set up in the region in 1228 by Archbishop [[Robert (archbishop of Esztergom)|Robert of Esztergom]], the papal legate for "Cumania and the [[Brodnici|Brodnik]] lands".<ref>Curta 2006, p. 406.</ref><ref>Spinei 2009, pp. 153–154.</ref> A letter written by [[Pope Gregory IX]] revealed that many of the inhabitants of this diocese were Orthodox Romanians, who also converted Hungarian and Saxon colonists to their faith.<ref name='Spinei 155'>Spinei 2009, p. 155.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/74.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=The Cumanian Country and the Province of Severin|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|As I was informed, there are certain people within the Cuman bishopric named Vlachs, who although calling themselves Christians, gather various rites and customs in one religion and do things that are alien to this name. For disregarding the Roman Church, they receive all the sacraments not from our venerable brother, the Cuman bishop, who is the diocesan of that territory, but from some pseudo-bishops of the Greek rite.|Letter of Pope Gregory IX of November 14, 1234.<ref name='Spinei 155'/><ref name=autogenerated2>Curta 2006, p. 408.</ref>}}
=== Intra-Carpathian regions ===
{{See also|East–West Schism}}
Christian objects disappeared in Transylvania after the 7th century.<ref name='Madgearu 141'>Madgearu 2005, p. 141.</ref> Most local cemeteries had cremation graves by this point,<ref>Madgearu 2005, pp. 141–142.</ref> but [[inhumation]] graves with west–east orientation from the late 9th or early 10th century were found at [[Ciumbrud]] and [[Orăștie]].<ref>Fiedler 2008, p. 161.</ref> The territory was invaded by the Hungarians around 896.<ref name='Treptow 1997 59'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 59.</ref>
[[File:Herina.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Herina Monastery|Monastery at [[Herina]] (''c.'' 1200)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/92.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=The Romanesque Style in Transylvania|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>]]
[[File:Streisangeorgiu HD.SE.jpg|thumb|200 px|Medieval church in Streisângeorgiu, Hunedoara county, dating from 1313 built over old timber church from the 11th century and with tombs from the 11th and 12th centuries<ref>G. Mihăilă, "Studii de lingvistică și filologie", Editura Facla, Timișoara, 1981, p. 10</ref>]]
The second-in-command of the Hungarian tribal federation, known as the [[Gyula (title)|gyula]], converted to Christianity in [[Constantinople]] around 952.<ref name='Pop 2006 147'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 147.</ref><ref name='Stephenson 40'>Stephenson 2000, p. 40.</ref> The gyula was accompanied back to Hungary by the Greek Hierotheos, who was the [[Metropolitanate of Tourkia|bishop of Tourkia]] (Hungary) appointed by the Ecumenical Patriarch.<ref name='Pop 2006 147'/><ref name='Stephenson 40'/> [[Pectoral cross]]es of Byzantine origin from this period have been found at the confluence of the [[Mureș River|Mureș]] and [[Tisza|Tisa]] Rivers.<ref>Curta 2006, p. 190.</ref> A bronze cross from [[Alba Iulia]], and a Byzantine pectoral cross from [[Dăbâca, Cluj|Dăbâca]] from the 10th century have been found in Transylvania.<ref name='Madgearu 141'/> Additionally, a Greek monastery was founded at [[Cenad]] by a chieftain named [[Achtum]] who was baptized according to the [[Byzantine Rite|Greek rite]] around 1002.<ref>Stephenson 2000, p. 65.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 148.</ref>
[[Gyula III|Gyula]]'s territory was incorporated with Achtum's territory into the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] under [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]], who was baptized according to the Latin rite.<ref>Berend ''et al.'' 2007, pp. 331, 345.</ref> Stephen I introduced the [[tithe]], a church tax assessed on agricultural products.<ref>Berend ''et al.'' 2007, p. 351.</ref><ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 167.</ref> [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia]], [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Szeged–Csanád]], and [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Oradea Mare]] were the first three Roman Catholic dioceses in Romania and all became [[Suffragan Diocese|suffragans]] of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kalocsa-Kecskemét|archbishop of Kalocsa]] in [[Hungary]].<ref>Curta 2006, p. 432.</ref> The [[Provost (religion)#Roman Catholic Church|provostship]] of [[Sibiu]] was transferred, upon the local [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxons]]'s request, under the jurisdiction of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Esztergom-Budapest|archbishop of Esztergom]] (Hungary) in 1212.<ref>Kristó 2003, pp. 123–124.</ref>
Large cemeteries developed around churches after church officials insisted on churchyard burials.<ref>Curta 2006, p. 351.</ref><ref>Berend ''et al.'' 2007, pp. 333–334.</ref> The first [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] monastery in Transylvania was founded at [[Mănăștur|Cluj-Manăștur]] in the second half of the 11th century.<ref name='Kristó 86'>Kristó 2003, p. 86.</ref> New monasteries were established during the next few centuries in [[Almașu]], [[Galații Bistriței|Herina]], [[Mănăstireni]], and [[Mirșid|Meseș]].<ref name='Curta 354'>Curta 2006, p. 354.</ref><ref name='MMO'>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/89.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Monastic and Mendicant Orders|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> When the [[Cistercians|Cistercian]] [[Cârța Monastery|abbey at Cârța]] was founded in the early 13th century, its estates were created on land belonging to the Vlachs.<ref name='Curta 354'/> The [[East–West Schism|enmity between the Eastern and Western Churches]] also increased during the 11th century.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 161.</ref>
== Middle Ages ==
{{See also|Romania in the Middle Ages}}
=== Orthodox Church in the intra-Carpathian regions ===
[[File:Densus.bis sf nicolae.SE.jpg|thumb|left|200px|alt=Church at Densuș|The [[Densuș Church|church at Densuș]] (13th century)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ran.cimec.ro/sel.asp?lang=EN&descript=densus-densus-hunedoara-situl-bisericii-sf.-nicolae-din-densus-cod-sit-ran-89357.01|publisher=ran.cimec.ro|title=Situl Bisericii Sf. Nicolae din Densuș|work=National Archaeological Record of Romania (RAN)|date=2012-12-14|access-date=1 June 2013}}</ref>]]
Although the Council of Buda prohibited the [[Schism (religion)#Christianity|Eastern schism]] from erecting churches in 1279, numerous Orthodox churches were built in the period starting in the late 13th century.<ref name='RGO'>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/94.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Romanian Greek-Orthodox Priests and Churches|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 207.</ref><ref name='Pop 2005 288'>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 288.</ref> These churches were mainly made of wood, though some landowners erected stone churches on their estates.<ref name='RGO'/> Most of these churches were built on the plan of a [[Greek cross]]. Some churches also display elements of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] or [[Gothic architecture]].<ref name='RGO'/><ref name='Pop 2005 288'/> Many churches were painted with [[votive portrait]]s illustrating the church founders.<ref name='Pop 2005 288'/>
[[File:GurasadaHD2012 (60).JPG|thumb|300px|Medieval church in Gurasada, Hunedoara county, from the 13th century, with walls from the 11th century<ref>Florin Dobrei, "Bisericile ortodoxe hunedorene", Ed. Eftimie Murgu, Reșița, 2011, pp. 70–78.</ref>]]
Local Orthodox hierarchies were often under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Sees of Wallachia and Moldavia by the late 14th century.<ref name='Pop 2005 284'>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 284.</ref> For instance, the Metropolitan of Wallachia also styled himself "[[Exarch#Ecclesiastical exarchs|Exarch]] of all Hungary and the borderlands" in 1401.<ref name='Pop 2005 284'/><ref name='ORT'>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/95.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Orthodox Romanians and Their Church Hierarchy|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Orthodox monasteries in Romania, including [[St. Nicholas Church, Brașov|Șcheii Brașovului]], were centers of Slavonic writing.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 289.</ref> The Bible was first translated into Romanian by monks in [[Maramureș]] during the 15th century.<ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 66.</ref>
In 1356, [[Pope Innocent VI]] strengthened a previous bull addressed to the prior of the [[Dominican Order]] of Hungary, where he was instructed to preach the crusade “against all the inhabitants of Transylvania, [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and [[Slavonia]], which are heretics” (''contra omnes Transilvanos, Bosnenses et Sclavonie, qui heretici fuerint'').<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2010, p. 35.</ref>
Treatment of Orthodox Christians worsened under [[Louis I of Hungary]], who ordered the arrest of Eastern Orthodox priests in Cuvin and Caraș in 1366.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 277, 288.</ref> He also decreed that only those who "loyally follow the faith of the Roman Church may keep and own properties" in Hațeg, [[Caransebeș]], and [[Mehadia]].<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 278.</ref> However, conversion was infrequent in this period; the [[Franciscan]] Bartholomew of Alverna complained in 1379 that "some stupid and indifferent people" disapprove of the conversion of "the Slavs and Romanians".<ref name='RCR'>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/96.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Religious Culture of the Romanians|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Both Romanians and Catholic landowners objected to this command.<ref name='RCR'/><ref name='Pop 2005 287'>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 287.</ref> Romanian chapels and stone churches built on the estates of Catholic noblemen and bishops were frequently mentioned in documents from the late 14th century.<ref name='RGO'/>
A special [[inquisitor]] sent against the [[Hussite]]s by the pope also took forcible measures against "schismatics" in 1436.<ref name='Sedlar 189'>Sedlar 1994, p. 189.</ref> Following the union of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches at the [[Council of Florence]] in 1439, the local Romanian Church was considered to be united with Rome.<ref>Sedlar 1994, p. 250.</ref><ref name='Pop 2006 240'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 240.</ref> Those who opposed the [[Church union]], such as John of Caffa, were imprisoned.<ref name='Pop 2005 284'/>
Although the monarchs only insisted on the conversion of the Romanians living in the southern borderlands, many Romanian [[Nobility in the Kingdom of Hungary|noblemen]] converted to Catholicism in the 15th century.<ref name='RCR'/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/59.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Romanian Voivodes and Cnezes, Nobles and Villeins|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Transylvanian authorities made systematic efforts to convert Romanians to Calvinism in the second half of the 16th century,<ref>Keul 1994, p. 104.</ref> and the expulsion of priests who did not convert to the "true faith" was ordered in 1566.<ref name='Keul 105'>Keul 1994, p. 105.</ref> Orthodox hierarchy was only restored under [[Stephen Báthory]] with the appointment of the Moldavian monk, [[Eftimie (Orthodox bishop of Transylvania)|Eftimie]], as Orthodox bishop in 1571.<ref name='Keul 105'/><ref name='Pop 2006 283'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 283.</ref>
=== Orthodox Church in Moldavia and Wallachia ===
{{See also|Foundation of Wallachia|Foundation of Moldavia}}
[[File:Man Curtea de Arges.SV.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Curtea de Argeș Cathedral|The [[Curtea de Argeș Cathedral|Cathedral at Curtea de Argeș]] built in 1517<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 94.</ref>]]
An unknown [[Italians|Italian]] geographer wrongly described the "Romanians and the Vlachs" as [[pagan]]s in the early 14th century.<ref>Spinei 2009, p. 179.</ref> For instance, [[Basarab I of Wallachia|Basarab I]] (c. 1310–1352), the Romanian ruler who achieved the independence of [[Wallachia]] in the territories between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube, was mentioned as "schismatic" by a royal diploma of 1332, referring to the Orthodox Church.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rri.ro/arh-art.shtml?lang=1&sec=9&art=5241|publisher=www.rri.ro (Radio România Internațional)|title=The Cumans in Romania's History|work=Pro Memoria: The History of Romanians|date=2007-09-10|author=Lambru, Steliu|access-date=2011-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928131220/http://www.rri.ro/arh-art.shtml?lang=1&sec=9&art=5241|archive-date=2011-09-28|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 65–67.</ref> The [[Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia|Metropolitan See of Wallachia]] was established in 1359<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 152.</ref> when the Ecumenical Patriarch assigned Hyakinthos, the last metropolitan of Vicina, to lead the local Orthodox Church.<ref name='Papadakis 262'>Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 262.</ref> Although a second Metropolitan See, with jurisdiction over [[Oltenia]], was set up in Severin (now [[Drobeta-Turnu Severin]]) in 1370, there was again only one Metropolitan in the principality after around 1403.<ref name='Papadakis 262'/><ref name='Pacurariu 192'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 192.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 217.</ref> The local Church was reorganized under [[Radu IV the Great]] (1496–1508) by [[Patriarch Nephon II of Constantinople]], the former Ecumenical Patriarch who founded two suffragan bishoprics.<ref name='Pacurariu 192'/><ref name='Pop 2006 237'/>
A second principality, [[Moldavia]], achieved its independence in the territories to the east of the Carpathians under [[Bogdan I of Moldavia|Bogdan I]] (1359 – c. 1365), but it still remained under the jurisdiction of the Orthodox hierarch of [[Halych]] ([[Ukraine]]).<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 71–72.</ref><ref>Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 263.</ref> Although the metropolitan of Halych consecrated two bishops for Moldavia in 1386, the Ecumenical Patriarch objected to this.<ref name='Papadakis 264'>Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 264.</ref> The patriarch established a [[Metropolis of Moldavia and Bukovina|separate metropolitan see for Moldavia]] in 1394, but his appointee was refused by Stephen I of Moldavia (1394–1399).<ref name='Pacurariu 192'/><ref name='Papadakis 264'/> The conflict was solved when the patriarch recognized a member of the princely family as metropolitan in 1401.<ref>Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, pp. 265–266.</ref> In Moldavia, two suffragan bishoprics in [[Roman, Romania|Roman]], and [[Rădăuți]] were first recorded in 1408 and 1471.<ref name='Pacurariu 192'/><ref name='Pop 2006 237'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 237.</ref>
[[File:אבישי טייכר 094.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Voroneț Monastery|[[Voroneț Monastery]], with its exterior [[mural]]s painted in 1547<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 124.</ref>]]
From the second half of the 14th century, Romanian princes sponsored the monasteries of [[Mount Athos]] (Greece).<ref name='Pacurariu 195'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 195.</ref> First, the [[Koutloumousiou monastery]] received donations from [[Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia]] (1352–1364).<ref>Shepard 2006, p. 26.</ref> In Wallachia, the monastery at Vodița was established in 1372 by the monk [[Nicodemus of Tismana|Nicodemus]] from [[Serbia]], who had embraced monastic life at [[Chilandar]] on [[Mount Athos]].<ref name='Pop 2006 240' /><ref>Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 272.</ref> Monks fleeing from the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] founded the earliest monastery in Moldavia at [[Neamț Monastery|Neamț]] in 1407.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, pp. 240–241.</ref><ref>Papadakis, Meyendorff 1994, p. 273.</ref> From the 15th century the [[Pentarchy|four Eastern patriarchs]] and several monastic institutions in the [[Ottoman Empire]] also received landed properties and other sources of income, such as [[Mill (grinding)|mills]], in the two principalities.<ref name='Pacurariu 195'/>
Many monasteries, such as [[Cozia Monastery|Cozia]] in Wallachia, and [[Bistrița Monastery|Bistrița]] in Moldavia, became important centers of Slavonic literature.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 122.</ref> The earliest local chronicles, such as the "Chronicle of Putna", were also written by monks.<ref>Păcurariu 2007, p. 194.</ref> Religious books in Old Church Slavonic were printed in Târgoviște under the auspices of the monk Macaria from [[Montenegro]] after 1508.<ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 64.</ref><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 136.</ref> Wallachia in particular became a leading center of the Orthodox world, which was demonstrated by the consecration of [[Curtea de Argeș Cathedral|the cathedral of Curtea de Argeș]] in 1517 in the presence of the Ecumenical Patriarch and the [[Protos (monastic office)|Protos]] of Mount Athos.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 273.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 147.</ref> The [[Painted churches of northern Moldavia|painted monasteries of Moldavia]] are still an important symbol of cultural heritage today.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 69–70.</ref><ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 68.</ref>
The extensive lands owned by monasteries made the monasteries a significant political and economic force.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 92.</ref> Many of these monasteries also owned [[Romani people|Romani]] and [[Crimean Tatars|Tatar]] [[Slavery in Romania|slaves]].<ref>Crowe 2007, p. 108.</ref> Monastic institutions enjoyed fiscal privileges, including an exemption from taxes, although 16th-century monarchs occasionally tried to seize monastic assets.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, pp. 241, 279.</ref>
Wallachia and Moldavia maintained their autonomous status, though the princes were obliged to pay a yearly tax to the sultans starting during the 15th century.<ref name='Pacurariu 191'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 191.</ref> Dobruja was annexed in 1417 by the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the Ottomans also occupied parts of southern Moldavia in 1484, and Proilavia (now [[Brăila]]) in 1540.<ref name='Pacurariu 191'/><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, pp. 283–284.</ref> These territories were under the jurisdiction of the metropolitans of Dristra and Proilavia for several centuries following the annexation.<ref name='Pacurariu 192'/>
=== Other denominations ===
[[File:Piata Unirii Cluj-Napoca.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Gothic Church in Cluj|[[St. Michael's Church, Cluj-Napoca|St Michael's Church in Cluj]] (14th century)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/93.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=The Gothic and Renaissance Styles|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>]]
The Diocese of Cumania was destroyed during [[Mongol invasion of Europe|the Mongol invasion of 1241–1242]].<ref name=autogenerated2 /><ref name=autogenerated5>Dobre 2009, p. 28.</ref> After this, Catholic missions to the East were carried on by the Franciscans.<ref name=autogenerated5 /> For example, [[Pope Nicholas IV]] sent Franciscan missionaries to the "country of the Vlachs" in 1288.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 197.</ref> In the 14th and 15th centuries new Catholic dioceses were established in the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians, mainly due to the presence of Hungarian and Saxon colonists.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 198.</ref> Local Romanians also sent a complaint to the [[Holy See]] in 1374 demanding a Romanian-speaking bishop.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, pp. 284, 287.</ref> [[Alexander the Good]] of Moldavia (1400–1432) also founded an [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian]] bishopric in Suceava in 1401.<ref name='Pop 2006 237'/><ref name='Treptow 1997 102'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 102.</ref> In Moldavia, however, many Catholic believers were forced to convert to Orthodoxy under [[Ștefan VI Rareș]] (1551–1552) and [[Alexandru Lăpușneanu]] (1552–1561).<ref name='Pozsony 89'>Pozsony 2002, p. 89.</ref>
In the Kingdom of Hungary [[Parish (Catholic Church)|parish organization]] became fully developed in the 14th to 15th centuries.<ref>Berend ''et al.'' 2007, p. 356.</ref> In the 1330s, according to a papal tithe-register, the average ratio of villages with Catholic parishes was around forty percent in the entire kingdom, but in the territory of modern Romania there was a Catholic church in 954 settlements out of 2100 and 2200 settlements.<ref name='Kristó 135'>Kristó 2003, p. 135.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 268.</ref> The institutional and economic power of the Catholic Church in Transylvania was systematically dismantled by the authorities in the second half of the 16th century.<ref name='Keul 60'>Keul 1994, p. 60.</ref><ref name='Murdock 14'>Murdock 2000, p. 14.</ref> The extensive lands of the bishopric of Transylvania were confiscated in 1542.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 61.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 233.</ref> The Catholic Church soon became deprived of its own higher local hierarchy and subordinate to a state governed by Protestant monarchs and Estates.<ref name='Keul 60'/><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 281.</ref> Some of the local noblemen, including a branch of the powerful [[Báthory]] family and many [[Székelys]], remained Catholics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/115.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Society and Political Power|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Barta, Gábor|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>
=== Reformation ===
[[File:John II Sigismund.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=John II Sigismund of Hungary|[[John II Sigismund Zápolya|John II Sigismund]], the first [[prince of Transylvania]] (1570–1571)]]
First the Hussite movement for religious reform began in Transylvania in the 1430s.<ref>Sedlar 1994, pp. 40–41.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/83.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=The Hussite Movement and the Peasant Revolt|work=History of Transylvania, Volume I: From the Beginnings to 1606|year=2001|author=Makkai, László|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Many of the Hussites moved to Moldavia, the only state in Europe outside [[Bohemia]] where they remained free of persecution.<ref name='Sedlar 189'/><ref name='Pop 2006 237'/>
The earliest evidence that Lutheran teachings "were known and followed" in Transylvania is a royal letter written to the town council of Sibiu in 1524.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 47.</ref> The Transylvanian Saxons' assembly decreed the adoption of the Lutheran creed by all the Saxon towns in 1544.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 231.</ref> Municipal authorities also tried to influence the ritual of the Orthodox services.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 76.</ref> A Romanian [[Catechism]] was published in 1543, and a Romanian translation of the four [[Gospels]] in 1560.<ref>Keul 1994, pp. 76, 92.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 284.</ref>
Calvinist preachers first became active in Oradea in the early 1550s.<ref>Keul 1994, pp. 94–96.</ref> The Diet recognized the existence of two distinct Protestant churches in 1564 after the Saxon and Hungarian clergy had failed to agree on the contested points of theology, such as the [[Eucharist#Ritual and liturgy|nature of communion services]].<ref name='Murdock 15'>Murdock 2000, p. 15.</ref><ref>Keul 1994, p. 245.</ref> The government also exerted pressure on the Romanians in order to change their faith.<ref name='Pop 2006 240'/> The Diet of 1566 decreed that a Romanian Calvinist bishop, [[Gheorghe of Sîngeorgiu]], be their sole religious leader.<ref name='Keul 105'/>
A faction of Hungarian preachers raised doubts over the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] in the 1560s.<ref name='Murdock 15'/> In a decade [[Cluj-Napoca|Cluj]] became the center of the Unitarian movement.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 234.</ref><ref>Keul 1994, p. 115.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 235.</ref> The four "received religions" was recognized in 1568 by the Diet of Turda which also gave [[Minister (Christianity)|ministers]] the right to teach according to their own understanding of Christianity.<ref>Murdock 2000, p. 16.</ref> Although a ban on further religious innovation was enacted in 1572, many Székelys turned to [[Szekler Sabbatarians|Sabbatarianism]] in the 1580s.<ref>Keul 1994, pp. 130, 248.</ref>
The process of giving up pre-Reformation traditions was extremely slow in Transylvania.<ref name='Pop 2009 253'>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 253.</ref> Although all or some of the images were eliminated in the churches, sacred vessels were kept.<ref name='Pop 2009 253'/> Protestant [[Christian denomination|denominations]] also kept the strict observance of [[Holiday#Religious holidays|holidays]] and [[fasting]] periods.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, p. 254.</ref>
== Early Modern and Modern Times ==
{{See also|Early Modern Romania|National awakening of Romania|Kingdom of Romania}}
=== Orthodox Church in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Romania ===
[[File:Dosoftei.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Metropolitan Dosofter|Metropolitan [[Dosoftei]] of Moldavia (1670–1686)]]
The use of Romanian in church service was first introduced in Wallachia under [[Matei Basarab]] (1632–1654), and in Moldavia under [[Vasile Lupu]] (1634–1652).<ref name='Treptow 1997 200'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 200.</ref> During Vasile Lupu's reign a pan-Orthodox synod adopted the "Orthodox Confession of Faith" in [[Iași]] in 1642 in order to reject any Calvinist influence over Orthodox hierarchy.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 332.</ref><ref name=autogenerated3>Murdock 2000, p. 135.</ref> The first complete Romanian "Book of Prayer" was published in 1679 by Metropolitan [[Dosoftei]] of Moldavia (1670–1686).<ref name='Treptow 1997 200'/><ref name='Pop 2006 386'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 386.</ref> A team of scholars also completed the [[Bucharest Bible of 1688|Romanian translation of the Bible]] in 1688.<ref name='Pop 2006 386'/><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 200–201.</ref>
The two principalities suffered the highest degree of Ottoman exploitation during the "[[Phanariotes#Phanariotes in the Danubian Principalities|Phanariot century]]" (1711–1821) when princes appointed by the sultans ruled in both of them.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 205.</ref> The second half of the 18th century, brought a spiritual renaissance, initiated by [[Paisius Velichkovsky]].<ref>Păcurariu 2007, p. 193.</ref> His influence led to a resurgence of Hesychastic prayer in the monasteries in Moldavia.<ref>Binns 2002, pp. 130, 132.</ref> In this period Romanian theological culture benefited from new translations from [[patristic]] literature.<ref name='Pacurariu 199'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 199.</ref> In the first decades of the 19th century [[Seminary|theological seminaries]] were established in both principalities, such as in the [[Socola Monastery]] in 1803, and in Bucharest in 1836.<ref name='Pacurariu 199'/>
A new archbishopric subordinated to the [[Most Holy Synod|Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church]] was created in [[Chișinău]] when the [[Russian Empire]] annexed [[Bessarabia]] in 1812.<ref name='Pacurariu 198'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 198.</ref> The Russian authorities soon forbade its archbishop from having any connections with the Orthodox Church in the Romanian principalities.<ref name='Pacurariu 198'/>
Romanian society embarked upon a rapid development following the reinstallation of native princes in 1821.<ref name='Pacurariu 197'/><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 12.</ref> For instance, the Romani slaves owned by the monasteries were freed in Moldavia in 1844, and in Wallachia in 1847.<ref>Crowe 2007, p. 115.</ref> The two principalities were united under [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza]] (1859–1866), and the new state adopted the name of Romania in 1862.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 13.</ref> In his reign, [[Secularization of monastic estates in Romania|the estates of the monasteries were nationalized]].<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 292.</ref><ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 150.</ref><ref name='Pacurariu 200'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 200.</ref> He also endorsed the use of Romanian in the liturgy, and replaced the Cyrillic alphabet with the [[Romanian alphabet]].<ref name='Stan 20'>Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 20.</ref> In 1860, the first Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded at the [[Alexandru Ioan Cuza University|University of Iași]].<ref>[http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/general/articol/istoria-cre-tinismului-ne-am-cunoscut-acelasi-timp-popor-origine-latina Istoria creștinismului] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227054205/http://www.historia.ro/exclusiv_web/general/articol/istoria-cre-tinismului-ne-am-cunoscut-acelasi-timp-popor-origine-latina |date=2013-12-27 }} at historia.ro {{in lang|ro}}</ref>
[[File:Catedrala Mitropolitana02.JPG|thumb|left|200px|alt=Metropolitan Cathedral at Iași|[[Metropolitan Cathedral, Iași]] (1833–1887)<ref>Păcurariu 2007, pp. 199–200.</ref>]]
The Orthodox churches of the former principalities, the [[Metropolis of Muntenia and Dobrudja|Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia]] and the [[Metropolis of Moldavia and Bukovina|Metropolitan of Moldavia]], merged to form the [[Romanian Orthodox Church]]. In 1864, the Romanian Orthodox Church was proclaimed independent, but the Ecumenical Patriarch pronounced the new ecclesiastic regime contrary to the [[Canon law#Eastern Orthodox Church|holy canons]].<ref name='Pacurariu 198'/><ref name='Kitromilides 239'>Kitromilides 2006, p. 239.</ref> Henceforth all ecclesiastic appointments and decisions were subject to state approval.<ref name='Kitromilides 239'/> The Metropolitan of Wallachia, who received the title of [[Primate (bishop)|Primate Metropolitan]] in 1865, became the head of the General Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church.<ref name='Pacurariu 198'/> The [[1866 Constitution of Romania]] recognized the Orthodox Church as the dominant religion in the kingdom.<ref name='Stan 20'/> A law passed in 1872 declared the church to be "autocephalous". After a long period of negotiations with the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Patriarchate of Constantinople]], the latter finally recognized the Metropolis of Romania in 1885.
Following the [[Romanian War of Independence]], Dobruja was awarded to Romania in 1878.<ref name='Treptow 1996 xxiii'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. xxiii.</ref> At that time the majority of Dobruja's population was [[Muslim]], but a massive colonization effort soon began.<ref>Boia 2001, p. 141.</ref> The region had also been inhabited from the late 17th century by a group of Russian [[Old Believer]]s called [[Lipovans]].<ref>Pope 1992, pp. 157–158.</ref>
The [[Great Powers]] recognized Romania's independence in 1880, after Romania's constitution was modified to allow the [[naturalization]] of non-Christians.<ref name='Treptow 1996 xxiii'/><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 351.</ref> In order to solemnize Romania's independence, in 1882 the Orthodox hierarchy performed the ceremony of blessing the [[Chrism|holy oil]], a privilege that had thereto been reserved for the ecumenical patriarchs.<ref name='Kitromilides 239'/> The new conflict with the patriarch delayed the canonical recognition of the autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church for three years, until 1885.<ref name='Pacurariu 198'/><ref>Kitromilides 2006, pp. 240–241.</ref>
=== Orthodox Church in Transylvania and the Habsburg Empire ===
[[File:Saguna, mitropolit.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Andrei Șaguna|[[Andrei Șaguna]], the first metropolitan of the reestablished Romanian Orthodox Church in Transylvania (1864–1875)<ref name=autogenerated8>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 342.</ref>]]
The 16th-century Calvinist princes of Transylvania insisted on the Orthodox clergy's unconditional subordination to the Calvinist [[Superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendents]].<ref>Keul 1994, p. 190.</ref> For instance, when an Orthodox synod adopted measures for regulation of church life [[Gabriel Bethlen]] (1613–1630) removed the local metropolitan.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 169.</ref> By forcing the use of Romanian instead of Old Church Slavonic in the liturgy, the authorities also contributed to the development of the Romanians' national consciousness.<ref name=autogenerated3 /><ref>Keul 1994, pp. 169, 269.</ref> Local Orthodox believers remained without their own religious leader after the integration of Transylvania into the Habsburg Empire, when a synod led by the metropolitan declared the union with Rome in 1698.<ref name='Pacurariu 197'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 197.</ref><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 187.</ref>
The first movement for the reestablishment of the Orthodox Church was initiated in 1744 by Visarion Sarai, a Serbian monk.<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 437.</ref> The monk [[Sofronie of Cioara|Sofronie]] organized Romanian peasants to demand a Serbian Orthodox bishop in 1759–1760.<ref name='Pop 2006 441'>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 441.</ref> In 1761 the government consented to the establishment of an Orthodox diocese in Sibiu under the jurisdiction of the [[Metropolitanate of Karlovci|Serbian Metropolitan of Sremski Karlovci]].<ref name='Pacurariu 197'/><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 442.</ref><ref>Magocsi 2002, pp. 116–117.</ref> The Serbian Metropolitan was also granted authority, in 1781, over the diocese of Cernăuți (now [[Chernivtsi]], Ukraine) in [[Bukovina]] that had been annexed from Moldavia by the Habsburg Empire.<ref name='Magocsi 117'>Magocsi 2002, p. 117.</ref>
In 1848 [[Andrei Șaguna]] became the bishop of Sibiu and worked to free the local Orthodox Church from the control of the Serbian Metropolitan.<ref name='Pacurariu 199'/><ref name=autogenerated8 /> He succeeded in 1864, when a separate Orthodox Church with its Metropolitan See in Sibiu was established with the consent of the government.<ref name='Magocsi 117'/><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 179.</ref> In the second half of the 19th century, the local Romanian Orthodox Church supervised the activity of four high schools, and over 2,700 elementary schools.<ref name='Pacurariu 199'/> The Orthodox Church in Bukovina also became independent of the Serbian Metropolitan in 1873.<ref name='Magocsi 117'/> A Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded in the [[Chernivtsi University|University of Cernăuți]] in 1875.<ref name='Pacurariu 199'/> However, many Romanian priests were deported or imprisoned for propagating the union of the lands inhabited by Romanians after Romania declared war on Austria–Hungary in 1916.<ref name='Pacurariu 200'/><ref name='Treptow 1996 15'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 15.</ref>
=== Romanian Church united with Rome ===
{{See also|Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic}}
[[File:Atanasie Anghel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Atanasie Anghel|[[Atanasie Anghel]], the first bishop of [[Romanian Church United with Rome|Greek-Catholic Romanians]] in Transylvania (1701–1713)<ref name='Pacurariu 197'/>]]
After the Principality of Transylvania was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, the new Catholic rulers tried to attract the Romanians' support in order to strengthen their control over the principality governed by predominantly Protestant Estates.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 186.</ref> For the Romanians, the Church Union proposed by the imperial court nurtured the hope that the central government would assist them in their conflicts with local authorities.<ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 88.</ref>
The union of the local Romanian Orthodox Church with Rome was declared in Alba Iulia, after years of negotiations, in 1698 by Metropolitan [[Atanasie Anghel]] and thirty-eight archpriests.<ref name='Treptow 1996 101'>Treptow, Popa 1996, p.101.</ref> This union was based on the four points adopted by the Council of Florence, including the recognition of [[papal primacy]].<ref name='Treptow 1996 101'/><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 186–187.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, p. 356.</ref> Atanasie Anghel lost his title of metropolitan and was re-ordained as a bishop subordinated to the archbishop of Esztergom in 1701.<ref name='Pacurariu 197'/><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2006, pp. 356–357.</ref>
The Orthodox world considered the union with Rome as apostasy.<ref name='Treptow 1997 189'>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 189.</ref> Metropolitan Theodosie of Wallachia referred to Atanasie Anghel as "the new [[Judas Iscariot|Judas]]".<ref name='Treptow 1997 189'/> Since many of the local Romanians opposed the Church union, it also created discord among them.<ref name='Pacurariu 197'/><ref name='Treptow 1997 189'/>
Uniate Romanians assumed a leading role in the struggle for the Romanians' political emancipation in Transylvania for the next century.<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, pp. 188–189.</ref> Bishop [[Inocențiu Micu-Klein]] demanded in dozens of memoranda their recognition as the fourth "[[Unio Trium Nationum|political nation]]" in the province.<ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 90.</ref><ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 133.</ref> The Uniate bishopric in Transylvania [[Greek Catholic Archdiocese of Făgăraș and Alba Iulia|was raised to the rank of a Metropolitan See]] and became independent of the archbishop of Esztergom in 1855.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. 102.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/380.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=The Suppression of the Romanian National Initiatives|work=History of Transylvania, Volume III: From 1830 to 1919|year=2001|author=Szász, Zoltán|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>
=== Other denominations ===
Calvinism was popular in Transylvania during the 17th century.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 256.</ref> Over sixty Unitarian ministers were expelled from their parishes in the Székely Land in the 1620s due to the influence of Calvinist Church leaders.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 171.</ref><ref>Murdock 2000, p. 122.</ref> Although Transylanian Diets also enacted anti-Sabbatarian decrees, Sabbatarian communities survived in some Székely villages, such as [[Sângeorgiu de Pădure|Bezid]].<ref>Keul 1994, pp. 174, 222.</ref>
[[File:Biserica Unitariana, Cluj.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Unitarian Church, Cluj|Unitarian Church in Cluj (1791–1796)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.romguide.net/Visit/Unitarian-Church_vt311|publisher=www.romguide.net (Romguide)|title=Unitarian Church, Cluj-Napoca, judetul Cluj|work=Visit|year=2011|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>]]
The Saxon communities' religious life was characterized by both differentiation from Calvinism, and by an increased number of worship services.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 233.</ref> Traditional Lutheranism, due to its concern for individual spiritual needs, always remained more popular than [[Crypto-Calvinism]].<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, pp. 251–252, 253.</ref> The assets of the local Catholic Church were administered by the "Catholic Estates", a [[public body]] consisting of both [[Laity|laymen]] and priests.<ref>Keul 1994, p. 178.</ref><ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2005, p. 252.</ref> A report on [[Canonical visitation|church visitations]] conducted around 1638 revealed that there were numerous Catholic villages without clergymen in the Székely Land.<ref>Keul 1994, pp. 212–213.</ref>
The Principality of Transylvania, following its integration into the Habsburg Empire, was administered according to the principles established by the ''Leopoldine Diploma'' of 1690, which confirmed the privileged status of the four "received religions".<ref>Pop ''et al.'' 2009, pp. 354–355.</ref> In practice the new regime gave preference to the Roman Catholic Church.<ref name='CRP'>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/290.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Counter-Reformation and Protestant Resistance|work=History of Transylvania, Volume II: From 1606 to 1830|year=2001|author=Trócsányi, Zsolt|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Between 1711 and 1750, the apogee of the [[Counter-Reformation]], the government ensured that Catholics would get preference in appointments to high offices.<ref name='CRP'/> The preeminent status of the Roman Catholic Church was not weakened under Joseph II (1780–1790), despite his issuance of the ''1781 Edict of Tolerance''.<ref name='JPR'>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/325.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Josephinist Policies Regarding the Churches, Education, and Censorship|work=History of Transylvania, Volume II: From 1606 to 1830|year=2001|author=Trócsányi, Zsolt|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref> Catholics who wished to convert to any of the other three "received religions" were still required to undergo an instruction.<ref name='JPR'/> The equal status of the Churches was not declared until the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1868.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mek.niif.hu/03400/03407/html/415.html|publisher=mek.niif.hu (Magyar Elektronikus Könyvtár)|title=Constitutionalism and Reunification|work=History of Transylvania, Volume III: From 1830 to 1919|year=2001|author=Szász, Zoltán|access-date=2011-03-04}}</ref>
In the Kingdom of Romania, a new Roman Catholic archbishopric was organized in 1883 with its See in Bucharest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arcb.ro/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1451&Itemid=178|publisher=www.arcb.ro (Arhidieceza Romano-Catolică de București)|title=Istoria Arhidiecezei Romano-Catolice de București|work=Prezentara|date=2009-01-11|access-date=2011-03-04|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222184539/http://www.arcb.ro/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1451&Itemid=178|archive-date=2011-02-22}}</ref><ref>Pozsony 2002, p. 103.</ref> Among the new Protestant movements, the first [[Baptists|Baptist]] congregation was formed in 1856, and the [[Seventh-day Adventist]]s were first introduced in [[Pitești]] in 1870.<ref>Pope 1992, pp. 177, 186.</ref>
== Greater Romania ==
{{See also|Greater Romania}}
[[File:CarolIIYMironCristea.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Patriarch Miron Cristea|[[Miron Cristea]], the first [[Patriarch of All Romania]] (1925–1939), along with King [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] (1930–1940)<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, pp. 63–64, 135.</ref>]]
Following [[World War I]], ethnic Romanians in Banat, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania voted for the union with the Kingdom of Romania.<ref name='Pacurariu 200'/><ref name='Treptow 1996 15' /> The new borders were recognized by [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|international treaties in 1919–1920]].<ref name='Pacurariu 200'/><ref name='Treptow 1996 15'/> Thus, a Romania that had thereto been a relatively homogeneous state now included a mixed religious and ethnic population.<ref name='Stan 20' /> According to the 1930 census, 72 percent of its citizens were Orthodox, 7.9 percent Greek Catholic, 6.8 percent Lutheran, 3.9 percent Roman Catholic, and 2 percent Reformed.<ref name='Pacurariu 201'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 201.</ref><ref>Georgescu 1991, p. 189.</ref>
The [[1923 Constitution of Romania|constitution adopted in 1923]] declared that "differences of religious beliefs and denominations" do not constitute "an impediment either to the acquisition of political rights or to the free exercise thereof".<ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 403.</ref> It also recognized two national churches by declaring the Romanian Orthodox Church as the dominant denomination and by according the Romanian Church united with Rome "priority over other denominations".<ref>Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 44.</ref> The ''1928 Law of Cults'' granted a fully recognized status to seven more denominations, among them the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, the Reformed, the Lutheran, and the Unitarian Churches.<ref>Pope 1992, p. 157.</ref>
All Orthodox hierarchs in the enlarged kingdom became members of the Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1919.<ref name='Pacurariu 201' /> New Orthodox bishoprics were set up, for instance, in Oradea, Cluj, [[Hotin]] (now Khotyn, Ukraine), and [[Timișoara]].<ref name='Pacurariu 201'/> The head of the church was raised to the rank of patriarch in 1925.<ref name='Pacurariu 201'/><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 404.</ref> Orthodox ecclesiastical art flourished in this period due to the erection of new Orthodox churches especially in the towns of Transylvania.<ref name='Pacurariu 202'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 202.</ref> The 1920s also witnessed the emergence of Orthodox [[revival movement]]s, among them the "Lord's Army" founded in 1923 by [[Iosif Trifa]].<ref>Pope 1992, p. 139.</ref> Conservative Orthodox groups who refused to use the [[Gregorian calendar]] adopted by the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1925 formed the separate [[Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church]].<ref>Binns 2002, pp. 26, 85.</ref>
In this period, the preservation of [[ethnic minorities]]' cultural heritage became a primary responsibility of the traditional Protestant denominations.<ref name='Pope 160'>Pope 1992, p. 160.</ref> The Reformed Church became closely identified with a large segment of the [[Hungarians in Romania|local Hungarian community]], and the Lutheran Church perceived itself as the bearer of [[Transylvanian Saxon]] culture.<ref name='Pope 160'/> Among the new Protestant denominations, the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal movement]] was declared illegal in 1923.<ref>Pope 1992, pp. 183–184.</ref> The intense hostility between the Baptist and Orthodox communities also culminated in the temporary closing of all Baptist churches in 1938.<ref>Pope 1992, p. 177.</ref>
== Communist regime ==
{{See also|Communist Romania}}
According to the armistice signed between Romania and the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Powers]] in 1944, Romania lost Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name='Pacurariu 202'/> Consequently, the Orthodox dioceses in these territories were subordinated to the patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church.<ref name='Pacurariu 203'>Păcurariu 2007, p. 203.</ref> In Romania, the [[Romanian Communist Party|Communist Party]] used the same tactics as in other [[Eastern Europe]]an countries.<ref name='Georgescu 224'>Georgescu 1991, p. 224.</ref> The Communist Party supported a coalition government, but in short time drove out all other parties from power.<ref name='Georgescu 224'/>
[[File:Patriarch-Justinian.jpg|thumb|right|200px|alt=Patriarch Justinian|[[Justinian Marina]], [[Patriarch of All Romania]] (1948–1977)]]
The ''1948 Law on Religious Denominations'' formally upheld freedom of religion, but ambiguous stipulations obliged both priests and believers to conform to the constitution, [[national security]], public order, and accepted morality.<ref name='Stan, Turcescu 22'>Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 22.</ref> For example, priests who voiced [[anti-communist]] attitudes could be deprived of their state-sponsored salaries.<ref name='Stan, Turcescu 22'/> The new law acknowledged fourteen denominations, among them the Old Rite Christian, Baptist, Adventist, and Pentecostal churches, but the Romanian Church united with Rome was abolished.<ref name='Pacurariu 203'/><ref>Treptow ''et al.'' 1997, p. 523.</ref>
Although the Orthodox church was completely subordinated to the state through the appointment of patriarchs sympathetic to the Communists, over 1,700 Orthodox priests of the 9,000 Orthodox priests in Romania were arrested between 1945 and 1964.<ref name='Pacurariu 203'/><ref name='Georgescu 236'>Georgescu 1991, p. 236.</ref> The Orthodox theologian [[Dumitru Stăniloae]] whose three-volume ''Dogmatic Theology'' presents a synthesis of patristic and contemporary themes was imprisoned between 1958 and 1964.<ref>Binns 2002, pp. 92–93.</ref> The first Romanian saints were also canonized between 1950 and 1955.<ref name='Boia 73'>Boia 2001, p. 73.</ref> Among them, the 17th-century Sava Brancovici was canonized for his relations with Russia.<ref name='Boia 73'/>
Some other denominations met an even more tragic fate.<ref name='Georgescu 236'/> For instance, four of the five arrested Uniate bishops died in prison.<ref name='Georgescu 236'/> Religious [[dissident]] movements became especially active between 1975 and 1983.<ref name='Georgescu 264'>Georgescu 1991, p. 264.</ref> For instance, the Orthodox priest [[Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa]] spent sixteen years in prison for involvement with the [[fascist]] [[Iron Guard]]<ref name="Manea">{{cite journal |last1=Manea |first1=Gabriel Stelian |title=A suspicious silence. The West about the case of Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa |journal=Historical Yearbook |date=2020 |volume=17 |issue=XVII |pages=73–97 |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=907028 |access-date=21 September 2021 |language=English |issn=1584-854X}}</ref> and was later condemned to ten more because of his sermons on the relationship of [[atheism]], faith, and [[Marxism]].<ref name='Georgescu 264'/> The [[Romanian Revolution of 1989|crisis that led to the regime's fall in 1989]] also started with the staunch resistance of the Reformed pastor [[László Tőkés]], whom the authorities wanted to silence.<ref>Pope 1992, p. 148.</ref>
== Romania since 1989 ==
{{See also|History of Romania since 1989}}
The [[Romanian Revolution of 1989|Communist regime came to an abrupt end]] on 22 December 1989.<ref name='Georgescu 279'>Georgescu 1991, p. 279.</ref> The poet [[Mircea Dinescu]], who was the first to speak on liberated Romanian television, began his statement with the words: "God has turned his face toward Romania once again".<ref name='Georgescu 279'/> The new constitution of Romania, adopted in 1992, guarantees the freedom of thought, opinion, and religious beliefs when manifested in a spirit of tolerance and mutual respect.<ref>Treptow, Popa 1996, p. xliii.</ref><ref>Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 27.</ref> Eighteen groups are currently recognized as religious denominations in the country.<ref name='Stan 28'>Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 28.</ref> Over 350 other religious associations has also been registered, but they do not enjoy the right to build houses of worship or to perform rites of baptism, marriage, or burial.<ref name='Stan 28'/>
Since the fall of Communism, about fourteen new Orthodox theology faculties and seminaries have opened, Orthodox monasteries have been reopened, and even new monasteries have been founded, for example, in [[Ungheni, Mureș|Recea]].<ref>Pacurariu 2007, p. 205.</ref> The Holy Synod has canonized new saints, among them [[Stephen the Great]] of Moldavia (1457–1504), and declared the second Sunday after [[Pentecost]] the "Sunday of the Romanian Saints".<ref>Stan, Turcescu 2007, p. 51.</ref>
The Greek Catholic hierarchy was fully restored in 1990.<ref>Magocsi 2002, p. 214.</ref> The four Roman Catholic dioceses in Transylvania, composed primarily of Hungarian-speaking inhabitants, hoped to be united into a distinct ecclesiastical province, but only Alba Iulia was raised to an archbishopric and placed directly under the jurisdiction of the Holy See in 1992.<ref>Magocsi 2002, p. 213.</ref> After the exodus of the Transylvanian Saxons to Germany, only 30,000 of the members of the German Lutheran Church remained in Romania by the end of 1991.<ref>Pope 1992, pp. 200–201.</ref> According to the 2002 census, 86.7 percent of Romania's total population was Orthodox, 4.7 percent Roman Catholic, 3.2 percent Reformed, 1.5 percent Pentecostal, 0.9 percent Greek Catholic, and 0.6 percent Baptist.<ref>{{cite report|url=http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html|title=Official site of the results of the 2002 Census|language=ro|access-date=2011-03-05|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706084835/http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/rezultate.html|archive-date=2009-07-06}}</ref>
== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Portal|Christianity|Romania}}
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{{History of Christianity in Europe}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Christianity In Romania}}
[[Category:History of Christianity in Romania| ]]
[[Category:Early Christian inscriptions]]
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