User:Quentin.Ncs/sandbox: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 14:15, 22 November 2013

Latest revision as of 15:20, 17 May 2021

(28 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown)

Line 8:

Geneva Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies

This proposal aims to outline a plan to comprehensively improve the existing article of the Gender and Development in Wikipedia. We identify three key fallacies and omissions that the current version of the section suffers.

'''Existing Omissions'''

The '''Gender and Development''' (GAD) approach is a way of determining how best to structure development projects and programs based on analysis of gender relationships. It was developed in the 1980s as an alternative to the [[Women in Development]] (WID) approach that was in common use until then.{{sfn|Shifting views...}}

First, the current article talks exclusively about GAD (gender and development) approach that emerged as a response to other approaches such as WID (women in development) and WAD (women and development). The article explains minimally about the approach and does not locate its argument into a broader theoretical framework of gender and development in general, while not extensively referring to relevant topics in development economics.

Second, the current article entirely lacks considerations of relevant institutions that implement policies of gender and development. Although the World Bank remains as a key champion of the mainstream neoliberalism, the article writes nothing about it. Further, the recent efforts to incorporate gender approaches into the framework of neoliberalism (such as Smart Economics proposed by the World Bank) is completely absent from the description.

Third, the current description fails to present a balanced mix of empirical evidence, policy analyses and linkage to other related concepts. For example, the article currently has only two sentences describing the criticism towards GAD approach, while a wide variety of critics exists arguing from different perspectives in feminism.

==Theory==

'''Proposal for Improvement'''

===Women in Development===

To ameliorate those fallacies that the current article suffer, a newly edited article of Gender and Development will consists of five subsections while preserving and integrating existent instrumental descriptions (of WID and GAD, while there is not even one Wikipedia article talks about WAD).

///Start of my part///

:The term “women and development” was originally coined by a Washington-based network of female development professionals in the early 1970s<ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book|author=Irene Tinker|title=Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6aCgdeafDAC|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-506158-1|page=30}}</ref> who sought to put in question the trickle down theories of development by contesting that modernization had identical impact on men and women<ref name="Razavi1995">{{cite journal |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |date=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=www.http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=Occasional Paper |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |pages=2 |accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref>. The Women in Development movement (WID) gained momentum in the 1970s, driven by the resurgence of women's movement in northern countries, whereby liberal feminists were striving for equal rights and labour opportunities in the United States<ref>Ibid., 3.</ref>. Liberal feminism, postulating that women's disadvantages in society may be eliminated by breaking down stereotyped customary expectations of women by offering better education to women and introducing equal opportunity programmes<ref name="Connell1987">{{cite book|author=Robert Connell|title=Gender and power: society, the person, and sexual politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qywNrBHAGxwC|year=1987|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-1430-3}}</ref>, had a notable influence on the formulation of the WID approaches, whereby little attention was given to men and to power relations between genders<ref name="Razavi1995">{{cite journal |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |date=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=www.http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=Occasional Paper |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |pages=3 |accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref>.

:The translation of the 1970s feminist movements and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare<ref>Ibid., 3.</ref>. Yet this focus was part of the approach pushed forward by advocates of the WID movement, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers<ref>Ibid., 3.</ref>. The WID's opposition to this “welfare approach” was in part motivated by the work of Danish economist Ester Boserup in the early 1970s, who challenged the assumptions of the said approach and highlighted the role women by women in the agricultural production and economy<ref>Ibid., 4.</ref>.

:A dominant strand of thinking within WID sought to link women’s issues with development, highlighting how such issues acted as impediments to economic growth; this “relevance” approach stemmed from the experience of WID advocates which illustrated that it was more effective if demands of equity and social justice for women were strategically linked to mainstream development concerns, in an attempt to have WID policy goals taken up by development agencies<ref>Ibid., 6.</ref>.

:This led to the WID movement facing a number of criticisms.: such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of depicting women as an unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, associating increased female status with the value of cash income in women’s lives<ref>Ibid., i.</ref>. Furthermore, the WID, although it advocated for greated gender equality, did not tackle the unequal gender relations and roles at the basis of women's exclusion and gender subordination rather than addressing the stereotyped expectations entertained by men<ref>{{cite web |url=http://http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf |title=Women's role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Sarah |date=May 2013 |website=UNSDSN |publisher=UNSDSN |accessdate=22 November 2013}}</ref>. Moreover, the underlying assumption behind the call for the integration of Third World women with their national economy was that women were not already participating in development, thus downplaying women's roles in household production and informal economic and political activities<ref name="Koczberski1998">{{cite journal |last=Koczberski |first=Sarah |date=1998 |title=Women In Development: A Critical Analysis |journal=Third World Quarterly |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=399 |doi=10.1080/01436599814316 |hdl=20.500.11937/14444 }}</ref>. The WID was also criticized for its views on the fact that women's status will improve by moving into “productive employment”, implying that the move to the “modern sector” need to be made from the “traditional” sector to achieve self-advancement, further implying that “traditional” work roles often occupied by women in the developping world were inhibiting to self-development<ref>Ibid., 400.</ref>. The Women in Development approach was the first contemporary movement to specifically integrate women in the broader development agenda and acted as the precursor to later movements such as the Women and Development (WAD), and ultimately, the Gender and Development approach, departing from some of the criticized aspects imputed to the WID.

First subsection of '''WID Women in Development''', led by Quentin Nicaise, explores the emergence of WID in the 1970s and its historical context and its influence, rooted in a time of strong liberal feminism in the United-States and the themes defended by its proponents, such as equal employment opportunities. It will also be relevant to understand the prevailing approaches to women as economic actors within developing countries at the time, which largely overlooked their contributions and importance, to which WID sought to react . This section will in this respect explore how WID discourses further highlight how the importance of women in developing countries was overlooked, by touching upon how colonial and post-colonial agricultural policies further alienated women from developing the sector, and confining them to “traditional” activities.

///End of my part///

The section will proceed by studying how some WID advocates attempted to linking women’s issues with development, highlighting how such issues acted as impediments to economic growth. The point will be made that such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of depicting women as an unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, thus hindering their demands for equity and overshadowing questions of social welfare and reproductive concerns. WID also focused very little on power relations between men and women as opposed to addressing the stereotyped expectations entertained by men.

===Women and Development===

The second subsection of '''Women and Development (WAD'''), led by Simon Fuerstenberg, explores the origins of WAD (as a theoretical model as well as a practical approach to development), and its emergence into gender-studies scholarship in the mid 1970s. It goes on to outline the points of departure from the previously predominant theory, WID. Finally, it discusses major criticisms of the WAD approach, and the weaknesses that it shares with the WID perspective.

It is important to explicate the neo-Marxist derivations of the theory, and investigate the criticisms of the previous approach, for which WAD is meant to correct. These include the explanatory limitations of modernization theory, as well as practical arguments for a development-based approach to women that did not include their integration into a patriarchal social structure, and rather construct development projects for women exclusively. The WAD paradigm stresses the relationship between women, and the work that they perform in their societies as economic agents in both the public and domestic spheres. It also emphasizes the distinctive nature of the roles women play in the maintenance and development of their societies, with the understanding that purely the integration of women into development efforts would serve to reinforce the existing structures of inequality present in societies overrun by patriarchal interests.

Some of the common critiques of the WAD approach include concerns that the women-only development projects would struggle, or ultimately fail, due to their scale, and the marginalized status of these women. Furthermore, the WAD perspective suffers from a tendency to view women as a class, and pay little attention to the differences among women, including race and ethnicity, and prescribe development endeavors that may only serve to address the needs of a particular group. While an improvement on WID, WAD fails to fully consider the relationships between patriarchy, modes of production, and the marginalization of women. It also presumes that the position of women around the world will improve when international conditions become more equitable.

===Gender and Development===

Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}}

[[Caroline Moser]] developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp=55}}

The Moser framework follows the Gender and Development approach in emphasizing the importance of gender relations.

As with the WID-based [[Harvard Analytical Framework]], it includes collection of quantitative empirical facts. Going further, it investigates the reasons and processes that lead to conventions of access and control.

The Moser Framework includes gender roles identification, gender needs assessment, disaggregation control of resources and decision making withn the household, planning for balancing the triple role, distinguishing between different aims in interventions and involving women and gender-aware organizations in planning.{{sfn|Van Marle|2006|pp=126}}

Third subsection of '''GAD Gender and Development''', led by Opeyemi Samuel Obe explore the emergence and relevance of GAD in development. To achieve this, emphasis would be drawn to its historical development in the 1980s, which was shaped as a reaction to the Women in Development approach developed in the 1970s. For a proper understanding of the GAD approach, its theoretical underpinnings and basic assumptions would be discussed before drawing out its major criticisms.

Line 34 ⟶ 44:

Gender and development has been subjected to many criticisms. Through ‘gender’ neutral terminology, women issues have become depoliticized. Also development agencies still advance gender transformation to mean economic betterment on neoliberal economic agenda.

==Neoliberal approaches==

Fourth subsection '''Neoliberal approaches''', led by Samuel Rohr, describes current discussions in the literature on the relationship between Neoliberal Economics, Gender and Feminism. Gender issues have increasingly become part of economic development agendas, as examples such as the [World Bank’s] focus on gender show. The World Bank started focusing on gender in 1977 with the appointment of a first Women in Development Advisor[1]. Thirty years later, a Gender Action Plan was launched to underline the importance of the topic within development strategies. In 2012, the World Development Report was the first report of the series examining Gender Equality and Development[2].

The World Bank, together with other institutions, such as the IMF are often understand as “major exponents of the neoliberal agenda”[3] (Makwana 2006) suggesting therefore, that gender issues have become part of the [neoliberal] development agenda.

Line 42 ⟶ 52:

A current topic in the feminist literature on economic development is the ‘gendering’ of [microfinance], as women have increasingly become the target borrowers for rural [microcredit] lending. This, in turn creates the assumption of a “rational economic woman” which can exacerbate existing social hierarchies (Rankin 2001). Therefore, the critique is that the assumption of economic development through microfinance does not take into account all possible outcomes, especially the ones affecting women.

==Smart economics==

Fifth subsection of '''Smart Economics''', led by Kazushige Kobayashi, synthesizes how the neoliberal institutions responded to the fierce criticisms by trying to incorporate gender perspectives into their programs. An initial effort came from World Bank. By presenting various quantitative and analytical perspectives on women in international economics, the World Development Report 2012 marshaled the importance of gender mainstreaming on a basis of intrinsic and instrumental values. Establishing a new framework to incorporate gender into its framework, the Bank named a new approach Smart Economics. While the report marked a monumental significance that a chief proponent of neoliberal development emphasizing gender roles in a globalized world, the report also met a series of denouncement and further criticisms from various authors such as Bedford (2012).

Foremost, the criticism of Bedford is based on both ideological and practical grounds. Ideologically, she emphasizes an intrinsic incompatibility between feminism and neoliberalism by casting a doubt if free market system, which generally commoditize human labor and subjugate female workers, can function in a way that champion the interest of women. Practically, she also points out that an apparent absence of the World Bank in the proposed international measures to eradicate gender inequality is a reflection of the bank’s reluctance to go beyond simple rhetoric in making more concrete, tangible actions.

As Bedford expressed her grave concern, neoliberalism emphasizes quantitative, liner, and universal features of economic development which does not take any consideration of pluralism and multiple identities. While neoliberal development tends to aggravate and institutionalize the existent socio-economic inequalities, the feminist opponents call for a greater respect on diversity and a more intersectional perspective that is still lacking in the framework of Smart Economics. Although it is recognized that the utility of neoliberalism as an organizing force to accelerate economic development, it is also fallacious to assume that a simple progress of material life would naturally result in ameliorated conditions of gender disparity.

'''Tentative References:'''

Bradshaw, Sarah. "Women’s role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints." UNSDSN. http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf (accessed October 20, 2013).

Fraser, Nancy. 2012. “Feminism, Capitalism, and the Cunning of History”

Makwana, Rajesh. 2006. “Neoliberalism and Economic Globalization.” In Share the World’s Resources: Sustainable Economics to End Global Poverty.

Parpart, Jane L., Patricia Connelly, and Eudine Barriteau. 2000. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.

Parpart, Jane L. 1993. "Who is the "other"?: a postmodern feminist critique of women and development theory and practice". Development and Change. 24 (3): 439-464.

Rankin, Katharine N. 2001. “Governing Development: Neoliberalism, Microcredit, and Rational Economic Woman.” Economy and Society 30 (1): 18–37. doi:10.1080/03085140020019070

Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990. “WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice.” The Journal of Developing Areas. 24(4): 289-502.

Razavi, Shahrashoub, and Carol Miller. 1995. From WID to GAD: conceptual shifts in the women and development discourse. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development..

Vagliani, Winifred. 1985. The integration of women in development projects. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Wilson, Elizabeth. 1977. Women and the Welfare State. London: Tavistock Publications.

World Bank. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. World Bank Publications, 2011.

Wagner, Gernot. But Will the Planet Notice?: How Smart Economics Can Save the World. Macmillan, 2011.

Kate Bedford . Bretton Woods Project -Gender WDR: Limits, gaps, and fudges. http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2012/02/art-569646/.2012.

Visvanathan, Nalini, et al., eds. The women, gender, and development reader. New Africa Books, 1997.

Benería, Lourdes, Günseli Berik, and Maria Floro. Gender, development, and globalization: Economics as if all people mattered. New York: Routledge, 2003.

The '''Gender and Development''' (GAD) approach is a way of determining how best to structure development projects and programs based on analysis of gender relationships. It was developed in the 1980s as an alternative to the [[Women in Development]] (WID) approach that was in common use until then.{{sfn|Shifting views...}}

===Women in Development===

==Theory==

Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}}

[[Caroline Moser]] developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp=55}}

The Moser framework follows the Gender and Development approach in emphasizing the importance of gender relations.

As with the WID-based [[Harvard Analytical Framework]], it includes collection of quantitative empirical facts. Going further, it investigates the reasons and processes that lead to conventions of access and control.

The Moser Framework includes gender roles identification, gender needs assessment, disaggregating control of resources and decision making withn the household, planning for balancing the triple role, distinguishing between different aims in interventions and involving women and gender-aware organizations in planning.{{sfn|Van Marle|2006|pp=126}}

==Usage==

Line 110 ⟶ 73:

'''Sources'''

{{refbegin}}

*{{cite journal |last=Koczberski |first=Sarah |date=1998 |title=Women In Development: A Critical Analysis |journal=Third World Quarterly |publisher=Taylor & Francis, Ltd. |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=395–409 |doi=10.1080/01436599814316 |hdl=20.500.11937/14444 }}

*{{cite web |url=http://http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf |title=Women's role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Sarah |date=May 2013 |website=UNSDSN |publisher=UNSDSN |accessdate=22 November 2013}}

*{{cite book|author=Robert Connell|title=Gender and power: society, the person, and sexual politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qywNrBHAGxwC|year=1987|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-1430-3}}

*{{cite journal |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |date=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=www.http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=Occasional Paper |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development

|volume=1 |pages=1–51 |accessdate=22 November 2013}}

*{{cite book|author=Irene Tinker|title=Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6aCgdeafDAC|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-506158-1|page=30}}

*{{cite web |ref={{harvid|About World Bank}}

|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,pagePK:50004410~piPK:36602~theSitePK:29708,00.html

Line 115 ⟶ 84:

|publisher=World Bank

|accessdate=2011-06-16}}

*{{cite book |reftitle=harvA guide to gender-analysis frameworks

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4JBHy_ObO2UC

|title=A guide to gender-analysis frameworks

|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=4JBHy_ObO2UC&printsec=frontcover

|first1=Candida |last1=March |first2=Inés A. |last2=Smyth |first3=Maitrayee |last3=Mukhopadhyay

|publisher=Oxfam |year=1999

|ISBNisbn=0-85598-403-1}}

*{{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Shifting views...}}

|url=http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/bpaper/boxseng.htm

Line 128 ⟶ 96:

|volume=11 |date=April 1998

|accessdate=2011-06-15}}

*{{cite book |refurl=harvhttps://books.google.com/books?id=zbvFLBTaZS0C&pg=PA125

|url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=zbvFLBTaZS0C&pg=PA125

|title=Sex, gender, becoming: post-apartheid reflections

|first=Karin |last=Van Marle

|publisher=PULP |year=2006

|ISBNisbn=0-9585097-5-1}}

*{{cite web |ref={{harvid|World Bank website}}

|title=[http://www.worldbank.org/gender Gender and Development Website] |author=World Bank}}

Line 146 ⟶ 113:

|author=Janet Henshall Momsen

|publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009

|ISBNisbn=978-0-415-77562-05}}

*{{cite book

|title=Gender and development: a practical guide

|author=Lise Østergaard

|publisher=Routledge |year=1992

|ISBNisbn=0-415-07132-1}}

*{{cite book

|title=Gender and development

Line 157 ⟶ 124:

|publisher=American University in Cairo Press |year=1996}}

[[:Category:Women's rights]]

[[:Category:Development]]

'''Tentative References:'''

Bradshaw, Sarah. "Women’s role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints." UNSDSN. http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf (accessed October 20, 2013).

Fraser, Nancy. 2012. “Feminism, Capitalism, and the Cunning of History”

Makwana, Rajesh. 2006. “Neoliberalism and Economic Globalization.” In Share the World’s Resources: Sustainable Economics to End Global Poverty.

Parpart, Jane L., Patricia Connelly, and Eudine Barriteau. 2000. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender and Development. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre.

Parpart, Jane L. 1993. "Who is the "other"?: a postmodern feminist critique of women and development theory and practice". Development and Change. 24 (3): 439-464.

Rankin, Katharine N. 2001. “Governing Development: Neoliberalism, Microcredit, and Rational Economic Woman.” Economy and Society 30 (1): 18–37. doi:10.1080/03085140020019070

Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990. “WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice.” The Journal of Developing Areas. 24(4): 289-502.

Razavi, Shahrashoub, and Carol Miller. 1995. From WID to GAD: conceptual shifts in the women and development discourse. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development..

Vagliani, Winifred. 1985. The integration of women in development projects. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Wilson, Elizabeth. 1977. Women and the Welfare State. London: Tavistock Publications.

World Bank. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. World Bank Publications, 2011.

Wagner, Gernot. But Will the Planet Notice?: How Smart Economics Can Save the World. Macmillan, 2011.

Kate Bedford . Bretton Woods Project -Gender WDR: Limits, gaps, and fudges. http://www.brettonwoodsproject.org/2012/02/art-569646/.2012.

Visvanathan, Nalini, et al., eds. The women, gender, and development reader. New Africa Books, 1997.

Benería, Lourdes, Günseli Berik, and Maria Floro. Gender, development, and globalization: Economics as if all people mattered. New York: Routledge, 2003.