Utente:Itrucid/Sandbox: differenze tra le versioni

Versione delle 18:40, 27 set 2013

Versione attuale delle 23:24, 5 giu 2016

(3 versioni intermedie di 3 utenti non mostrate)

Riga 1:

<!-- La '''Shari'a''' ({{lang-ar|شريعة}}, "[[wikt:legge|legge]]"; traslitterata anche come ''shariah'', ''sharīʿah'';<ref>Ritter, R.M. (editor) (2005). ''New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors&nbsp;– The Essential A-Z Guide to the Written Word''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. p. 349.</ref> anche scritta قانون إسلامي ''qānūn ʾIslāmī'', ''la legge islamica'') costituisce il [[codice etico]] e la legge religiosa dell'[[Islam]]. La Shari'a si occupa di aspetti quali i crimini, la politica e l'[[finanza islamica|economia]], ma anche di questioni più personali e religiose come il sesso, l'igiene, la [[Ṣalāt|preghiera]], la dieta alimentare e il [[Sawm|digiuno]]. Sebbene le interpretazioni della Shari'a varino in culture diverse, nella sua definizione più stretta è considerata l'infallibile legge di [[Allah|Dio]], in contrapposizione con la sua interpretazione (''[[fiqh]]'').

Le due [[fonte primaria|fonti primarie]] della shari'a sono i precetti contenuti nel [[Corano]] e l'esempio del profeta [[Maometto]] come riportato nella [[Sunna]]. Dove mantiene lo status di legge ufficiale, la shari'a è interpretata da giudici islamici (''[[Qadi]]''), che in alcuni casi condividono la responsabilità con i leader religiosi (''[[Imam]]''). Per questioni non direttamente trattate nelle fonti primarie, l'applicazione della shari'a è estesa dopo il consenso degli studiosi (''[[ulema]]''), pensato per raccogliere il consenso della comunità musulmana (''[[Ijma']]''). A volte viene incorporata della giurisprudenza per analogia dal Corano e dalla Sunna tramite le cosiddette [[qiyas]], sebbene i giuristi [[Sciismo|sciiti]] preferiscano il ragionamento ('''aql'') all'analogia.

La reintroduzione della Sharia è uno degli obbiettivi dei movimenti [[islamismo|islamisti]] nei paesi musulmani, ma i tentativi di imporla hanno portato a controversie,<ref>Hamann, Katie (December 29, 2009). [http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/religion/Acehs-Sharia-Law-Still-Controversial-in-Indonesia-80257482.html "Aceh's Sharia Law Still Controversial in Indonesia"]. [[Voice of America]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref><ref>Iijima, Masako (January 13, 2010). [http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE60D07420100114 "Islamic Police Tighten Grip on Indonesia's Aceh"]. [[Reuters]]. Retrieved September 18, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/02/08/aceh-sharia-police-loved-and-hated.html "Aceh Sharia Police Loved and Hated"]. ''[[The Jakarta Post]].</ref>, violenza,<ref>Staff (January 3, 2003). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2632939.stm "Analysis: Nigeria's Sharia Split"]. [[BBC News]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people have been killed in fighting between Christians and Muslims following the introduction of sharia punishments in northern Nigerian states over the past three years".</ref><ref>Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008).<br />{{•}}

p. 16. "When the Governor of Kaduna announced the introduction of Sharia, although non-Muslims form almost half of the population, violence erupted, leaving more than 1,000 people dead."<br />{{•}} p. 189. "When a violent confrontation loomed in February 200, because the strong Christian minority in Kaduna was unwilling to accept the proposed sharia law, the sultan and his delegation of 18 emirs went to see the governor and insisted on the passage of the bill."</ref><ref>Mshelizza, Ibrahim (July 28, 2009). [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/fight-for-sharia-leaves-dozens-dead-in-nigeria-1763253.html "Fight for Sharia Leaves Dozens Dead in Nigeria&nbsp;– Islamic Militants Resisting Western Education Extend Their Campaign of Violence"]. ''[[The Independent]]''. Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/africa/nigeria/religous_violence.html "Nigeria in Transition: Recent Religious Tensions and Violence"]. [[PBS]].</ref><ref>Staff (December 28, 2010). [http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2010/01/201012314018187505.html "Timeline: Tensions in Nigeria&nbsp;– A Look at the Country's Bouts of Inter-Religious and Ethnic Clashes and Terror Attacks"]. [[Al Jazeera English]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "Thousands of people are killed in northern Nigeria as non-Muslims opposed to the introduction of sharia, or Islamic law, fight Muslims who demand its implementation in the northern state of Kaduna.".</ref><ref>Ibrahimova, Roza (July 27, 2009). [http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2009/07/2009727182749635965.html "Dozens Killed in Violence in Northern Nigeria"] (video (requires [[Adobe Flash]]; 00:01:49)). [[Al Jazeera English]]. Retrieved September 19, 2011. "The group Boko Haram, which wants to impose sharia (Islamic law) across the country, has attacked police stations and churches."</ref> e persino a guerre, come la [[Seconda guerra civile sudanese]].<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/sudan/63.htm]. ''[[Library of Congress Country Studies|Library of Congress Country Studies: Sudan:]]''. "The factors that provoked the military coup, primarily the closely intertwined issues of Islamic law and of the civil war in the south, remained unresolved in 1991. The September 1983 implementation of the sharia throughout the country had been controversial and provoked widespread resistance in the predominantly non-Muslim south ... Opposition to the sharia, especially to the application of hudud (sing., hadd), or Islamic penalties, such as the public amputation of hands for theft, was not confined to the south and had been a principal factor leading to the popular uprising of April 1985 that overthrew the government of Jaafar an Nimeiri".</ref><ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/sudan/facts.html |titletitolo=PBS Frontline: "Civil war was sparked in 1983 when the military regime tried to impose sharia law as part of its overall policy to "Islamicize" all of Sudan." |publishereditore=Pbs.org |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref><ref>{{dead link|date=September 2011}} {{clarify|date=September 2011|reason=doubt this is a headline/title. rather it is probably a quotation (from editorial/op-ed essay?) at moment, can't research easily with dead link.}} [http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/pdf/darfur_040707.pdf "The war flared again in 1983 after then-President Jaafar Nimeri abrogated the peace accord and announced he would turn Sudan into a Muslim Arab state, where Islamic law, or sharia, would prevail, including in the southern provinces. Sharia can include amputation of limbs for theft, public flogging and stoning. The war, fought between the government and several rebel groups, continued for two decades."] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]; requires [[Adobe Acrobat|Adobe Reader]]). ''[[The Washington Post]]''.</ref><ref>[[Bassam Tibi|Tibi, Bassam]] (2008). ''Political Islam, World Politics and Europe''. [[Routledge]]. p. 33. "The shari'a was imposed on non-Muslim Sudanese peoples in September 1983, and since that time Muslims in the north have been fighting a jihad against the non-Muslims in the south."</ref> In alcuni territori palestinesi e in alcuni paesi asiatici la shari'a continua ad essere riconosciuta istituzionalmente, ed è utilizzata nei giudizi dei processi. Nei paesi occidentali dove l'immigrazione islamica è più recente, alcune minoranze musulmane hanno introdotto la shari'a a livello familiare per le dispute civili come in [[Regno Unito]] con il ''Muslim Arbitration Tribunal''.

==Etimologia==

Riga 15:

==Definitions and descriptions==

Sharia, in its strictest definition, is a [[God in Islam|divine]] law, as expressed in the [[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah|Muhammad's example]] (often called the ''sunnah''). As such, it is related to but different from [[fiqh]], which is emphasized as the human interpretation of the law.<ref>Esposito (2004), "Shariah", pg. 288</ref><ref>Calder, N. "Sharīa." ''[[Encyclopaedia of Islam]]''. "Within Muslim discourse, sharia designates the rules and regulations governing the lives of Muslims, derived in principle from the Kuran and hadith. In this sense, the word is closely associated with fiḳh [q.v.], which signifies academic discussion of divine law."</ref> Many scholars have pointed out that the sharia is not formally a code,<ref name="hamilton">{{CiteCita booklibro| author autore= Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen|titletitolo=Mohammedanism&nbsp;– An Historical Survey|publishereditore=[[Oxford University Press]] |yearanno=1970|pagep=68|isbn=0-19-500245-8}}</ref> nor a well-defined set of rules.<ref name="hunt">Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer in ''Islamic Law: the Sharia from Muhammad's Time to the Present'' by Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer, McFarland and Co. Publishers, 2007, p. 3. ISBN 0786429216</ref> The sharia is characterized as a discussion on the duties of Muslims<ref name="hamilton"/> based on both the opinion of the Muslim community and extensive literature.<ref>''[http://www.hf.uib.no/smi/pao/vikor.html The Sharia and The Nation State: Who Can Codify the Divine Law?]'' p.2. Accessed 20 September 2005.</ref> Hunt Janin and Andre Kahlmeyer thus conclude that the sharia is "long, diverse, and complicated."<ref name="hunt"/>

From the 9th century, the power to interpret and refine law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars ([[ulema]]). This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community.<ref>Basim Musallam, ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by [[Francis Robinson]]''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996, p. 176.</ref> Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''[[The Venture of Islam]] Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3''. [[University of Chicago]], 1958, pp. 105–108.</ref> At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution introduced an era of European world [[hegemony]] that included the domination of most of the lands of Islam.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3''. [[University of Chicago]], 1958, pp. 176–177.</ref><ref>Sarah Ansari, ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996, p. 90.</ref> At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires.<ref>[[Marshall Hodgson]], ''The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3''. [[University of Chicago]], 1958, pp. 366–367.</ref> The wide variety of forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world.<ref>Ansari, Sarah. ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World edited by Francis Robinson''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1996, pp. 103– 111.</ref><ref>[[Marshall Hodgson|Hodgson, Marshall]]. ''The Venture of Islam Conscience and History in a World Civilization Vol 3''. [[University of Chicago]], 1958, pp. 384–386.</ref>

Riga 27:

#[[Ijma]], consensus amongst scholars ("collective reasoning")

#[[Qiyas]]/[[Ijtihad]] analogical deduction ("individual reasoning")

Amongst the sources unique to fiqh, i.e. ijma and qiyas/ijtihad, the former is preferred.<ref name=R57/> In Shi'a jurisprudence the fourth source may be expanded to include formal [[logic]] (''[[Logic in Islamic philosophy|mantiq]]'').<ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://al-islam.org/index.php?t=258&cat=258 |titletitolo=by the Ahlul Bayt DILP - Hawza - Advanced Islamic Studies |publishereditore=Al-islam.org |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref> Historically the fiqh also came to include comparative law,<ref name="Glenn, H. Patrick 2007. p. 199"/> local customs (''[[urf]]'')<ref name="H. Patrick Glenn 2007, pg. 201"/> and laws motivated by public interest, so long as they were allowed by the above four sources.<ref name="H. Patrick Glenn 2007, pg. 201">Glenn, H. Patrick (2007). p. 201.</ref> Because of the involvement of human interpretation, the fiqh is considered fallible, and thus not a part of Sharia (although scholars categorize it as Islamic law).<ref name=R57/>

There exist five schools of thought of fiqh, all founded within the first four centuries of Islam. Four are Sunni [[Hanafi]], [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]] and [[Hanbali]] and one Shia: [[Ja'afri]] (followed by most

Riga 39:

*Sharia in the secular Muslim states: Muslim countries such as [[Mali]], [[Kazakhstan]], and [[Turkey]] have declared themselves to be secular, meaning religious interference in state affairs, law, and politics is prohibited. In short, sharia is limited to personal and family matters.<ref>Otto, Jan Michiel (2008) p. 9.</ref>

**The [[Nigeria]]n legal system is based on the [[English common law]] and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion and [[separation of church and state]], though 11 northern states have adopted sharia for those who practice Islam.<ref>{{citeCita journalpubblicazione|url=http://www.umes.edu/WorkArea/showcontent.aspx?id=33898

|url=http://www.umes.edu/WorkArea/showcontent.aspx?id=33898

|ISSN=1554-3897

|journalrivista=[[African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies]]

|volume=4 |issuenumero=2 |datedata=April 2011

|titletitolo=The Problems of Administration of Justice on Female Offenders in Nigeria

|authorautore=Chioma Daisy Ebeniro, PhD

|accessdateaccesso= June 26, giugno 2011}}</ref>

**[[Malaysia]]'s legal system is also based on the English common law, and so sharia law is only applicable to Muslims and is restricted to family law and religious observances. Although the Malaysian [[Constitution of Malaysia|Constitution]] declares Islam the "official religion" with ceremonial [[Monarchies in Malaysia|rulers]] as head of Islam in their respective states, other religions may be freely practiced (albeit with restrictions on [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] to Muslims).

Riga 104 ⟶ 103:

===Topics of Islamic law===

Shari'ah law can be organized in different ways and Professor Abdur Rahman I. Doi, author of ''Shari'ah: The Islamic Law''<ref>Doi ARI. Shariah: The Islamic Law, AS Noordeen Publishers, Kuala Lumpur, ISBN 9679963330</ref><ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://www.abdurrahmandoi.net |titletitolo=Online Book |publishereditore=Abdurrahmandoi.net |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=2012-11-26 novembre 2012}}</ref> has divided Shari'ah content into five main branches:

# ''Family relations''

Riga 180 ⟶ 179:

=====Polygamy=====

The Qur'an permits a Muslim man to marry more than one woman at a time (up to a maximum of four), but does not encourage such behaviour. Polygamy is only permitted in certain circumstances, such as when the death of another man has left his wife with no other means of support.<ref name= Pohl/> All wives are entitled to separate living quarters at the behest of the husband and, if possible, all should receive equal attention, support, treatment and inheritance. In modern practice, it is uncommon for a Muslim man to have more than one wife; if he does so, it is often due to the infertility of his first wife. The practice of polygamy has been regulated or abolished in some Muslim states.<ref name= Pohl>{{citeCita booklibro|lastcognome=Pohl|firstnome=Florian |titletitolo=Modern Muslim Societies|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC|yearanno=2010|publishereditore=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7927-7|chaptercapitolo=Polygamy|chapter-urlurlcapitolo=http://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&pg=PA32}}</ref><ref>Horrie, Chris; Chippindale, Peter (1991). pp. 50–51.</ref>

Historically, Muslim rulers have often remarried the wives of their conquered opponents in order to gain ties of kinship with their new subjects. In these cases, the wives of leaders have sometimes numbered in the tens or even hundreds. In Ottoman Turkey, the practice also filtered down to the aristocracy. This became the basis for the Western image of a powerful, wealthy Muslim with a vast [[harem]].<ref>Horrie, Chris; Chippindale, Peter (1991). p. 51.</ref>

Riga 198 ⟶ 197:

Under faskh, a qadi judge can end or annul a marriage.<ref name="Peter Chippindale pg. 52"/> [[Apostasy]], on the part of the husband or wife, ends a Muslim marriage in this way. Hardship or suffering on the part of the wife in a marriage may also be remedied in this way. This procedure is also used to annul a marriage in which one of the parties has a serious disability.<ref>al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib (edited and translated from Arabic (with commentary) by Nuh Ha Mim Keller) (1994 revised edition). pp. 531–532.</ref>

Except in the case of a khul' divorce initiated by a woman, the divorced wife generally keeps her [[dowry]] from when she was married. A divorced woman is given [[child support]] until the age of weaning. The mother is usually granted custody of the child.<ref name="islam-qa.com">{{citeCita web|url=http://www.islam-qa.com/en/ref/8189 |titletitolo=Who has more right to custody in Islam? |publishereditore=Islam-qa.com |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref> If the couple has divorced fewer than three times (meaning it is not a final divorce) the wife also receives [[Alimony|spousal support]] for three menstrual cycles after the divorce, until it can be determined whether she is pregnant. Even in a threefold divorce, a pregnant wife will be supported during the waiting period, and the child will be supported afterwards.<ref name="Misri pg. 546">al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib (edited and translated from Arabic (with commentary) by Nuh Ha Mim Keller) (1994 revised edition). p. 546 (m 11.10 (2)).</ref>

=====Child custody=====

Riga 284 ⟶ 283:

All of these must be met under the scrutiny of judicial authority.{{cite quran|5|38}}<ref>{{dead link|date=September 2011}} Wiechman, Denis J.; Kendall, Jerry D.; Azarian, Mohammad K. [http://muslim-canada.org/Islam_myths.htm "Islamic Law: Myths and Realities"]. muslim-canada.org.</ref>

In accordance with hadith, stoning to death is the penalty for married men and women who commit adultery. In addition, there are several conditions related to the person who commits it that must be met. One of the difficult ones is that the punishment cannot be enforced unless there is a confession of the person, or four male eyewitnesses who each saw the act being committed. All of these must be met under the scrutiny of judicial authority.<ref>{{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|8|82|815}}; {{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|8|82|826}}.</ref> For unmarried men and women, the punishment prescribed in the Quran and hadith is 100 lashes.<ref>{{cite quran|24|2|style=ref}}; {{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|8|82|818}}.</ref> However, Islamists in northern Mali, citing shariah law, stoned an unmarried couple who allegedly had children together to death in 2012.<ref name=NYT73012>{{citeCita news|titletitolo=Islamists in North Mali Stone Couple to Death|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/31/world/africa/couple-stoned-to-death-by-islamists-in-mali.html|accessdateaccesso=July 31, luglio 2012|newspapergiornale=The New York Times|datedata=July 30, luglio 2012|authorautore=Adam Nossiter}}</ref>

The "four witness" standard comes from the Quran itself, a revelation Muhammad announced in response to accusations of adultery leveled at his wife, [[Aisha]]: "Why did they not produce four witnesses? Since they produce not witnesses, they verily are liars in the sight of [[Allah]]."{{cite quran|24|13}}

Riga 404 ⟶ 403:

In September 2008, newspapers in the [[United Kingdom]] stated the government had "quietly sanctioned" the recognition of sharia courts. This refers to situations where both sides in a legal dispute freely choose a sharia court as a binding arbitrator rather than taking a matter before the official courts. The decision did not break new ground: the decisions of similar Jewish [[beth din]] court arbitrations have been recognized in England for over 100 years.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/crime/article4749183.ece "Revealed: UK's First Official Sharia Courts"]. ''[[The Times]]''.</ref> Neither party can be forced into arbitration by a sharia or a Jewish court.

Most countries of the Middle East and North Africa maintain a [[Secularism in the Middle East|dual system]] of secular courts and religious courts, in which the religious courts mainly regulate marriage and inheritance. [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Iran]] maintain religious courts for all aspects of jurisprudence, and the [[Mutaween]] (religious police) assert social compliance, while [[Somaliland]], and [[Maldives]] adopted sharia in legal aspects but with a western style of judiciary system (Common law or civil law). Laws derived from sharia are also applied in [[Afghanistan]], [[Libya]] and [[Sudan]]. Sharia law is officially recognised by the justice system in [[Israel]] in matters of personal status of Muslims if they choose a sharia court (e.g. marriage, divorce, guardianship). Judges' salaries are paid by the state.<ref>{{citeCita web |author autore= Pfeffer, Anshel | url=http://website.thejc.com/printartform.aspx?Aid=58075 |titletitolo=Why Islamic Law Is Official in Israel | work sito= [[The Jewish Chronicle]] |datedata= February 14, febbraio 2008 |accessdateaccesso= September15 15,settembre 2011}}</ref> Lebanon also incorporates sharia law for Muslims in family matters.<ref>{{citeCita news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/lawreports/joshuarozenberg/3239938/Law-lords-say-sharia-is-arbitrary-and-discriminatory.html | workpubblicazione= [[The Daily Telegraph]] | author autore= [[Joshua Rozenberg|Rozenberg, Joshua]] | titletitolo=Law Lords Say Sharia Is 'Arbitrary and Discriminatory' | datedata= October22 22,ottobre 2008}}</ref> Some states in northern [[Nigeria]] have [[Sharia in Nigeria|reintroduced sharia courts]].<ref>{{citeCita web |url=http://www.onlinenigeria.com/government/index.asp?blurb=141 |titletitolo=The Judiciary |publishereditore=Online Nigeria |datedata= May 1,º maggio 2007 |accessdateaccesso= May1º 1,maggio 2007}}</ref> In practice the new sharia courts in Nigeria have most often meant the reintroduction of harsh punishments without respecting the much tougher rules of evidence and testimony. The punishments include [[amputation]] of one/both hands for theft and [[stoning]] for [[adultery]].<ref>Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008).{{page needed|date=September 2011}}</ref>

Many [[Westerners]] consider the punishments prescribed by some countries' interpretation of Islamic law to be "barbaric and cruel". Islamic scholars argue that, if implemented properly, the punishments serve as a deterrent to crime.<ref>{{citeCita news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/2977446.stm |titletitolo=Debate Rages over Women and Sharia |publishereditore= BBC News |datedata= June 11, giugno 2003 |accessdateaccesso= May 1,º maggio 2007| author autore= Little, Jane}}</ref> In international media, practices by countries applying Islamic law have fallen under considerable criticism at times. This is particularly the case when the sentence carried out is seen to greatly tilt away from established standards of international human rights. This is true for the application of the death penalty for the crimes of adultery, blasphemy, apostasy and homosexuality, amputations for the crime of theft, and [[Flagellation|flogging]] for [[fornication]] or public [[Alcohol intoxication|intoxication]].<ref>[http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/nigeria0904/5.htm "Human Rights Violations under Sharia in Northern Nigeria"]. [[Human Rights Watch]].</ref>

A [[Bill (proposed law)|bill]] proposed by lawmakers in the Indonesian province of [[Aceh]] would implement sharia law for all non-Muslims, the armed forces and law enforcement officers, a local police official has announced.{{Clarify|date=August 2010|reason=Why is an unnamed local police official used as source for a bill proposed by legislators?}} The news comes two months after the [[Deutsche Presse-Agentur]] warned of "[[Taliban]]-style Islamic police terrorizing Indonesia's Aceh".<ref>[http://www.sacbee.com/24hour/religion/story/3285184p-12110557c.html "Draft Law on Indonesia's Aceh Province To Impose Islamic Law on All Residents]{{Dead link|date=June 2010}}, [[Associated Press]] / ''[[The Sacramento Bee]]'', May 24, 2006</ref><ref>England, Vaudine (May 6, 2006). [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/weekend_news_detail.asp?pp_cat=31&art_id=18092&sid=7807661&con_type=3&d_str=20060506 "Indonesia's Dilemma"]. ''[[The Standard]]''.</ref><ref>[http://www.asia-pacific-action.org/news/dpa_islamicpoliceterrorizingaceh_100306.htm Taliban-style "Islamic Police Terrorizing Aceh"].{{Dead link|date=June 2010}}, [[Deutsche Presse Agentur]] / ASAP Aceh News, March 10, 2006.</ref>

Riga 414 ⟶ 413:

===Democracy===

{{Further|Islamic ethics|Islam and democracy|Shura|Ijma}}

Sharia law involves elements of a democratic system, namely electoral procedure, though syntax as to what a "democracy" constitutes leaves this in question.<ref>{{citeCita journalpubblicazione|titletitolo=Liberal Democracy and Political Islam: The Search for Common Ground| author autore= Benhenda, M.|ssrn=1475928|refcid=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> Legal scholar L. Ali Khan argues that "constitutional orders founded on the principles of sharia are fully compatible with democracy, provided that religious minorities are protected and the incumbent Islamic leadership remains committed to the right to recall".<ref>Khan, Ali. [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forum/forumnew59.php "Will The European Court of Human Rights Push Turkey Toward Islamic Revolution?"].</ref><ref>Khan, L. Ali. ''A Theory of Universal Democracy: Beyond the End of History'', The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 2003, ISBN 90-411-2003-3.</ref>

However, European and American courts have generally ruled against the implementation of Sharia law, both in jurisprudence and within a community context, based on Sharia's religious background. Whereas groups within a number of nations are actively seeking to implement Sharia law, in 1998 the [[Constitutional Court of Turkey]] banned and dissolved Turkey's [[Welfare Party|Refah Party]] on the grounds that "Democracy is the antithesis of Sharia", the latter of which Refah sought to introduce.

On appeal by Refah the European Court of Human Rights determined that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".<ref>[http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/viewhbkm.asp?sessionId=6495642&skin=hudoc-en&action=html&table=1132746FF1FE2A468ACCBCD1763D4D8149&key=15475&highlight= Judgement]{{dead link|date=November 2012}} in the case of Refah Partisi and Others v. Turkey, Grand Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights, February 13, 2003</ref><ref>[http://www.echr.coe.int/NR/rdonlyres/29AC6DBD-C3F8-411C-9B97-B42BE466EE7A/0/2004__Wildhaber_Cancado_Trindade_BIL__opening_legal_year.pdf Hearing of the European Court of Human Rights], January 22, 2004 (PDF)</ref><ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://www.echr.coe.int/Eng/Press/2001/July/RefahPartisi2001jude.htm |titletitolo=ECHR press release Refah Partisi (2001) |publishereditore=Echr.coe.int |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref> Refah's sharia-based notion of a "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms]]. It was determined that it would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".<ref>{{citation broken|date=November 2010}} [http://www.strasbourgconference.org/papers/Refah%20Revisited-%20Strasbourg's%20Construction%20of%20Islam.pdf Refah Revisited: Strasbourg's Construction of Islam], by Christian Moe, Norwegian Institute of Human Rights, published at the site of [[The Strasbourg Conference]].</ref>

===Human rights===

Riga 438 ⟶ 437:

Slander, gossip, and backbiting, or "ghiba" is regarded as a major sin in the Sharia law.

However, the Qur'an does not command a death penalty for blasphemy.<ref>{{citeCita booklibro|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=isDgI0-0Ip4C&pg=PA106#v=onepage&q&f=false |titletitolo=The Quran- An Encyclopedia |publishereditore=Books.google.com |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref>

===LGBT===

{{Main|LGBT in Islam}}

Homosexual sex is illegal under most interpretations of sharia law, though the prescribed penalties differ from one school of jurisprudence to another. For example, these Muslim-majority countries may impose the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]] for acts perceived as [[sodomy]] and homosexual activities: [[Iran]],<ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://www.gaylawnet.com/laws/ir.htm#sodomy |titletitolo=Laws: Iran, GayLawNet |publishereditore=Gaylawnet.com |datedata= |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref> [[Nigeria]],<ref>[http://www.gaylawnet.com/laws/ng.htm#sodomy Laws,: Nigeria], GayLawNet</ref> [[Saudi Arabia]],<ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://www.gaylawnet.com/laws/sa.htm#sodomy |titletitolo=Laws: Saudi Arabia, GayLawNet |publishereditore=Gaylawnet.com |datedata=8 novembre 2010-11-08 |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref> [[Somalia]].<ref>{{citeCita web|url=http://www.gaylawnet.com/laws/so.htm#sodomy |titletitolo=Laws: Somalia, GayLawNet |publishereditore=Gaylawnet.com |datedata=3 aprile 1964-04-03 |accessdateaccesso=4 aprile 2012-04-04}}</ref> In contrast, in some Muslim-majority countries such as [[Indonesia]] (outside of Aceh province),<ref>{{dead link|date=September 2011}} {{citeCita web|url=http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/SE%2BAsia/Story/STIStory_429633.html|titletitolo=Aceh Passes Stoning Law| work sito= [[The Straits Times]] |datedata=September14 14,settembre 2009|accessdateaccesso=December22 22,dicembre 2009}}</ref> [[Egypt]] and [[Iraq]], same-sex sexual acts are illegal but there is no specific penalty.<ref>{{citeCita booklibro|titletitolo=Rough Guide to South East Asia: Third Edition|pagep=74|url=http://www.roughguides.com/|publishereditore= [[Rough Guides]] |isbn=1-84353-437-1|datedata=August 2005}}</ref>{{Or|date=November 2010}} In Turkey and [[Jordan]], homosexual acts between consenting individuals are legal.<ref>http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/jordan/jordan.htm</ref>

===Women===

Riga 462 ⟶ 461:

{{See also|Ma malakat aymanukum}}{{Why?|date=September 2011|reason=linked article is about slaves. not quite sure of context for leap from "women" (this section's heading) to one on "slaves". perhaps intended to be separate section in future? (or one that was excised, intentionally or by goof, in earlier version?)}}

Historically, Islamic law granted women certain legal rights that Western legal systems did not grant women until the 20th century.<ref>{{CiteCita journalpubblicazione|lastcognome=Dr. Badawi|firstnome=Jamal A.|titletitolo=The Status of Women in Islam|journalrivista=Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies|volume=8|issuenumero=2|datedata=September 1971|refcid=harv|postscript=<!--None-->}}</ref> [[Noah Feldman]], a [[Harvard University]] law professor, has noted:

{{quotation|As for [[sexism]], the common law long denied married women any property rights or indeed legal personality apart from their husbands. When the British applied their law to Muslims in place of shariah, as they did in some colonies, the result was to strip married women of the property that Islamic law had always granted them&nbsp;– hardly progress toward equality of the sexes.<ref name=Feldman>{{citeCita news|authorlinkwkautore=Noah Feldman|lastcognome=Feldman |firstnome=Noah |titletitolo=Why Shariah?| work pubblicazione= [[The New York Times]] |datedata=March 16, marzo 2008|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/16/magazine/16Shariah-t.html?ei=5070&em=&en=5c1b8de536ce606f&ex=1205812800&pagewanted=all|accessdateaccesso= September 17, settembre 2011}}</ref>}}

Since the 20th century, Western legal systems have generally allowed for "greater women's rights" than Islamic law.<ref>{{CiteCita journalpubblicazione| author autore= Hafez, Mohammed|titletitolo=Why Muslims Rebel|journalrivista=[[Al-Ittihad Journal of Islamic Studies]]|volume=1|issuenumero=2|datedata=September 2006|refcid=harv|postscript=.}}</ref>

===Slavery and emancipation===

{{Main|Islamic views on slavery}}

In [[Fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], slavery was an exceptional condition, with the general rule being a presumption of freedom (''al-'asl huwa 'l-hurriya'' — "''The basic principle is liberty''") for a person if his or her origins were unknown.<ref name="eois">Brunschvig. 'Abd; [[Encyclopedia of Islam]]</ref> Lawful enslavement was restricted to two instances: capture in war (on the condition that the prisoner is not a Muslim), or birth in slavery. Islamic law did not recognize the classes of slave from [[pre-Islamic Arabia]] including those sold or given into slavery by themselves and others, and those indebted into slavery.<ref name="eois"/> A well-known [[hadith|prophetic tradition]] has severely chastised those who enslave free people for monetary gain.<ref>{{CiteCita booklibro| publisher editore= Walter de Gruyter| isbn = 9789027976123978-90-279-7612-3| last cognome= Graham| first nome= William Albert| title titolo= Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam: A Reconsideration of the Sources, with Special Reference to the Divine Saying Or Ḥadîth Qudsî| date data= 1977|pagep=192}}</ref> Though a free Muslim could not be enslaved, [[Religious conversion|conversion to Islam]] by a non-Muslim slave did not require that he or she then should be liberated. Slave status was not affected by conversion to Islam.<ref>Lewis 1990, page 9.</ref>

===Non-Muslims===

Riga 479 ⟶ 478:

According to law professor [[H. Patrick Glenn]] of the Canadian [[McGill University]], located in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], "[t]oday it is said that the dhimmi are 'excluded from the specifically Muslim privileges, but on the other hand they are excluded from the specifically Muslim duties' while (and here there are clear parallels with western public and private law treatment of aliens&nbsp;– Fremdenrecht, la condition de estrangers), '[f]or the rest, the Muslim and the dhimmi are equal in practically the whole of the law of property and of contracts and obligations'."<ref>Glenn, H. Patrick (2007). p. 219.</ref>

Classical sharia incorporated the [[religious law]]s and [[court]]s of [[Christianity|Christian]]s, [[Judaism|Jews]] and [[Hinduism|Hindus]], as seen in the early [[Caliphate]], [[Al-Andalus]], [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman Millet]] system.<ref name=Weeramantry-138>{{Harvnb|Weeramantry|1997|p=138}}</ref><ref name=Sachedina>{{CiteCita booklibro|titletitolo=The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism| author autore= Sachedina, Abdulaziz Abdulhussein |yearanno=2001|publishereditore= [[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-513991-7|refcid=harv|postscript=.}}</ref> In medieval Islamic societies, the ''[[qadi]]'' (Islamic judges) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily choose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the ''[[dhimmi]]'' communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the sharia law, such as the Jews who would have their own ''[[Halakha]]'' courts.<ref>{{CiteCita booklibro|titletitolo=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|authorautore= [[Mark R. Cohen|Cohen, Mark R.]] |publishereditore=[[Princeton University Press]]|yearanno=1995|isbn=0-691-01082-X|pagep=74|url=http://books.google.com/?id=fgbib5exskUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross&q|accessdateaccesso=April 10, aprile 2010 |refcid=harv|postscript=.}}</ref> These courts did not cover cases involved other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. By the 18th century, however, dhimmis frequently attended the Ottoman Muslim courts, where cases were taken against them by Muslims, or they took cases against Muslims or other dhimmis. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in these courts were tailored to their beliefs.<ref name = "al-Qattan-99">{{Cite journalCita pubblicazione| author autore= al-Qattan, Najwa | titletitolo= Dhimmis in the Muslim Court: Legal Autonomy and Religious Discrimination | journalrivista= [[International Journal of Middle East Studies]] | volume=31 | issuenumero=3 | pagespp=429–444 | publishereditore= [[University of Cambridge]] |yearanno=1999 | postscript=. | issn=00207438 | doi=10.1017/S0020743800055501 | refcid=harv}}</ref>

Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in certain practices (such as the consumption of alcohol and pork) that were usually forbidden by Islamic law. [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] "self-marriages", that were considered incestuous under sharia, were also tolerated. [[Ibn Qayyim]] (1292–1350) opined that non-Muslims were entitled to such practices since they could not be presented to sharia courts and the religious minorities in question held it permissible. This ruling was based on the precedent that the prophet [[Muhammad]] did not forbid such self-marriages among Zoroastrians despite coming into contact with Zoroastrians and knowing about this practice.<ref>Jackson, Sherman A. (2005). [http://books.google.com/?id=nprKYM8sleYC&pg=PA144&dq=ankiha+fasida#v=onepage&q p. 144] (via [[Google Books]]). Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref> Religious minorities were also free to do whatever they wished in their own homes, provided they did not publicly engage in illicit sexual activity in ways that could threaten public morals.<ref>Jackson, Sherman A. (2005). [http://books.google.com/?id=nprKYM8sleYC&pg=PA145&dq=ankiha+fasida#v=onepage&q p. 145] (via [[Google Books]]). Retrieved September 19, 2011.</ref>

Riga 488 ⟶ 487:

Parallels to common law concepts are found in classical Islamic law and jurisprudence including ''[[ratio decidendi]]'' (''illah''). Several fundamental common law institutions may have been adapted from similar legal institutions in Islamic law and jurisprudence, and introduced to England after the Norman conquest of England by the Normans, who conquered and inherited the Islamic legal administration of the Emirate of Sicily, and also by Crusaders during the Crusades. In particular, the "royal English contract protected by the action of debt is identified with the Islamic Aqd, the English assize of novel disseisin is identified with the Islamic Istihqaq, and the English jury is identified with the Islamic Lafif." {{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} The English trust and agency institutions in common law were possible adapted from the Islamic Waqf and Hawala institutions respectively during the Crusades. It is worth noting, however, that transferring property to another for the "use" of another developed largely in response to the requirements of feudal inheritance law. Trust law, in particular, is a creature of equity which derived from the parallel jurisdiction of the Lord Chancellor to decide matters independently to the Royal Courts.

Other English legal institutions such as "the scholastic method, the license to teach", the "law schools known as Inns of Court in England and Madrasas in Islam” and the "European commenda" (Islamic Qirad) may have also originated from Islamic law. The methodology of legal precedent and reasoning by analogy (Qiyas) are also similar in both the Islamic and common law systems. These similarities and influences have led some scholars to suggest that Islamic law may have laid the foundations for "the common law as an integrated whole".<ref>{{Cite journalCita pubblicazione| author autore= Moghul, Umar F. |titletitolo= Approximating Certainty in Ratiocination: How To Ascertain the 'Illah (Effective Cause) in the Islamic Legal System and How To Determine the Ratio Decidendi in the Anglo-American Common Law|journalrivista= [[Journal of Islamic Law]] |volume=4|datedata=Fall/Winter 1999|pagep=125|refcid=harv|postscript=.}}</ref>

===Comparisons with civil law===

Riga 494 ⟶ 493:

===International law===

Islamic law also made "major contributions" to international [[admiralty law]], departing from the previous Roman and [[Byzantine law|Byzantine]] maritime laws in several ways.<ref name=Tai/><ref>{{CiteCita booklibro|titletitolo=Islamic Maritime Law&nbsp;– An Introduction | author autore= Khalilieh, Hassan Salih |publishereditore=[[Leiden]], [[Netherlands]]: [[Brill Publishers]]|yearanno=1998|isbn=978-90-04-10955-1|refcid=harv|postscript=.}}</ref> These included Muslim sailors being "paid a fixed [[wage]] "in advance" with an understanding that they would owe money in the event of [[desertion]] or [[malfeasance]], in keeping with Islamic conventions" in which contracts should specify "a known fee for a known duration", in contrast to Roman and Byzantine sailors who were "stakeholders in a maritime venture, in as much as captain and crew, with few exceptions, were paid proportional divisions of a sea venture's profit, with shares allotted by rank, only after a voyage's successful conclusion." Muslim jurists also distinguished between "coastal navigation, or ''[[cabotage]]''," and voyages on the "[[International waters|high seas]]", and they also made shippers "[[Legal liability|liable]] for freight in most cases except the [[Search and seizure|seizure]] of both a ship and its [[cargo]]." Islamic law also "departed from [[Justinian I|Justinian's]] ''[[Pandects|Digest]]'' and the ''[[Nomos Rhodion Nautikos]]'' in condemning slave jettison", and the Islamic ''Qirad'' was also a precursor to the European ''commenda'' [[limited partnership]]. The "Islamic influence on the development of an international law of the sea" can thus be discerned alongside that of the Roman influence.<ref name=Tai>{{CiteCita journalpubblicazione| author autore= Tai, Emily Sohmer |titletitolo=Book Review: Hassan S. Khalilieh, ''Admiralty and Maritime Laws in the Mediterranean Sea (ca. 800–1050): The "Kitāb Akriyat al-Sufun" vis-à-vis the "Nomos Rhodion Nautikos"''|journalrivista= [[Medieval Encounters]]|volume=13|yearanno=2007|pagespp=602–612|refcid=harv|postscript=.}}</ref>

===Legal education===

{{Main|Madrasah|Ijazah}}

The origins of the [[Ijazah]] dates back to the ''ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd'' ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic [[legal education]] system, which was equivalent to the [[Doctor of Laws]] qualification and was developed during the 9th century after the formation of the ''[[Madh'hab]]'' legal schools. To obtain a doctorate, a student "had to study in a [[guild]] school of law, usually four years for the basic [[undergraduate]] course" and ten or more years for a [[Postgraduate education|post-graduate]] course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral [[Test (student assessment)|examination]] to determine the originality of the candidate's [[Dissertation|theses]]", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in [[disputation]]s set up for the purpose," which were scholarly exercises practiced throughout the student's "career as a [[Graduate school|graduate student]] of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded doctorates giving them the status of ''[[faqih]]'' (meaning "[[Master of Laws|master of law]]"), ''[[mufti]]'' (meaning "professor of [[Fatwā|legal opinions]]") and ''mudarris'' (meaning "teacher"), which were later translated into [[Latin]] as ''[[Magister (degree)|magister]]'', ''[[professor]]'' and ''[[Doctor (title)|doctor]]'' respectively.<ref name=G-Makdisi>{{CiteCita journalpubblicazione| authorautore= Makdisi, George|titletitolo=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journalrivista=[[Journal of the American Oriental Society]]|volume=109|issuenumero=2|datedata=April–June 1989|pagespp=175–182 [175–77]|doi=10.2307/604423|publishereditore=Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 109, No. 2|refcid=harv|postscript=.|jstor=604423}}</ref>

===Role in economic development and corporate law===

Riga 547 ⟶ 546:

* Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (edited and translated from Arabic (with commentary) by Nuh Ha Mim Keller). ''Umdat al-Salik wa Uddat al-Nasik|Reliance of the Traveller&nbsp;– A Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law'' (1994 revised edition). Amana Publications ISBN 978-0-915957-72-9.

* [[Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i|ash-Shafi'i, Muhammad ibn Idris]] (1993). ''Risala: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic Jurisprudence''. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 0-946621-15-2.

*{{Cite journalCita pubblicazione|authorautore=Badr, Gamal Moursi |titletitolo=Islamic Law: Its Relation to Other Legal Systems |journalrivista= American Journal of Comparative Law |volume=26 |issuenumero=2 [Proceedings of an International Conference on Comparative Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, February 24–25, 1977] |datedata=Spring 1978 |pagespp=187–198 |doi=10.2307/839667 |publishereditore=American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 26, No. 2 |refcid=harv |jstor=839667 }}

*{{Cite journalCita pubblicazione|author autore= Badr, Gamal Moursi; Mayer, Ann Elizabeth |titletitolo=Islamic Criminal Justice |journalrivista= American Journal of Comparative Law |volume=32 |issuenumero=1 |datedata=Winter 1984 |pagespp=167–169 |doi=10.2307/840274 |publishereditore=American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 32, No. 1 |refcid=harv |jstor=840274 }}

* Bakhtiar, Laleh; Reinhart, Kevin (1996). ''Encyclopedia of Islamic Law: A Compendium of the Major Schools''. Kazi Publications, ISBN 1-56744-498-9.

* Berg, Herbert (2005). "Islamic Law." ''Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 3''. p.&nbsp;1,030. In History Reference Center [database online]. Available from Snowden Library (accessed February 11, 2008).

Riga 557 ⟶ 556:

* Doi, Abd ar-Rahman I.; Clarke, Abdassamad (2008). ''Shari'ah: Islamic Law''. Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd. ISBN 184200-085-3 (paperback); ISBN 978-1-84200-087-8 (hardback).

* El-Fadl, Khaled Abou (2003). ''Reasoning with God: Rationality and Thought in Islam''. Oneworld. ISBN 1-85168-306-2.

*{{CiteCita booklibro| author autore= El-Gamal, Mahmoud A.|titletitolo=Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice|yearanno=2006|publishereditore= [[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=0-521-86414-3|refcid=harv}}

*{{CiteCita booklibro| author autore= Esposito, John|titletitolo=The Oxford dictionary of Islam|yearanno=2004|publishereditore= [[Oxford University Press]]}}

*{{Cite journalCita pubblicazione|author autore= Gaudiosi, Monica M. |titletitolo=The Influence of the Islamic Law of Waqf on the Development of the Trust in England: The Case of Merton College |journalrivista=University of Pennsylvania Law Review |volume=136 |issuenumero=4 |datedata=April 1988 |pagespp=1,231–1,261 |doi=10.2307/3312162 |publishereditore=University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 136, No. 4 |refcid=harv |postscript = . |jstor=3312162 }}

{{col-break}}

*{{Cite bookCita libro| author autore= [[Javed Ahmad Ghamidi|Ghamidi, Javed]] | title titolo= [[Mizan]] | publisher editore= [[Al-Mawrid|Dar al-Ishraq]] | year anno= 2001 | doi = | oclc=52901690 |postscript = .}}

*[[H. Patrick Glenn|Glenn, H. Patrick]] (2007). ''Legal Traditions of the World&nbsp;– Sustainable Diversity in Law'' (3rd edition). New York City; Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]]. ISBN 978-0-19-920541-7.

*Harnischfeger, Johannes (2008). ''Democratization and Islamic Law&nbsp;– The Sharia Conflict in Nigeria''. Frankfurt; New York City: [[Campus Verlag]] and Chicago: [[University of Chicago Press]] (distributor). ISBN 978-3-593-38256-2.

*{{Cite bookCita libro|author autore= Hudson, A. |titletitolo=Equity and Trusts |yearanno=2003 |editionedizione=3rd |publishereditore=[[Cavendish Publishing]] |___locationcittà=London |isbn=1-85941-729-9}}

* [[Chris Horrie|Horrie, Chris]]; Chippindale, Peter (1991). ''What Is Islam? A Comprehensive Introduction''. [[Virgin Books]]. ISBN 0-7535-0827-3.

*{{CiteCita booklibro|titletitolo=Islam and the Blackamerican&nbsp;– Looking Toward the Third Resurrection | authorautore= [[Sherman Jackson|Jackson, Sherman A.]] |publishereditore= New York City; Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]] |yearanno=2005 |isbn= 978-0-19-518081-7}}

* Kafadar, Cemal (1996). ''Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State''. [[University of California Press]]. ISBN 0-520-20600-2.

*Khadduri, Majid and Liebesny, Herbert J. (Editors). Law in the Middle East: Volume I: Origin and Development of Islamic Law. Washington D.C.: The Middle East Institute, 1955.

* {{citeCita booklibro|lastcognome= Lewis|firstnome=Bernard|titletitolo=The Jews of Islam|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C|yearanno=1984|publishereditore=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-00807-3|refcid=harv}}

* Liebesny, Majid &, and Herbert J. (editors) (1955). ''Khadduri. Law in the Middle East: Volume I: Origin and Development of Islamic Law''. Washington D.C.: [[Middle East Institute]].

*{{CiteCita journalpubblicazione| last cognome= Makdisi |firstnome=John A.|titletitolo=The Islamic Origins of the Common Law|journalrivista=[[North Carolina Law Review]]|datedata=June 1999|volume=77|issuenumero=5|pagespp=1,635–1,739|refcid=harv}}

*{{CiteCita booklibro|lastcognome=Makdisi|firstnome=John|yearanno=2005|titletitolo=Islamic Property Law: Cases and Materials for Comparative Analysis with the Common Law|publishereditore=Carolina Academic Press|isbn=1-59460-110-0|refcid=harv}}

* Mumisa, Michael (2002). ''Islamic Law: Theory & Interpretation''. [[Amana Publications]]. ISBN 1-59008-010-6.

* Musa, A. Y. (2008). ''Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam'', New York: [[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave]].

Riga 579 ⟶ 578:

* [[Omar Shahin|Shahin, Omar]] (2007). ''The Muslim Family in Western Society: A Study in Islamic Law''. [[Cloverdale Corporation]]. ISBN 978-1-929569-30-4.

*Standke, Corinna (2008). ''Sharia - The Islamic Law''. [[GRIN Verlag]]

*{{CiteCita booklibro| last cognome=Weeramantry |firstnome=Christopher |titletitolo=Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights|url=http://books.google.com/?id=3-1sH1wc58UC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage|yearanno=1997|publishereditore=[[Brill Publishers]] (via [[Google Books]]) |isbn=90-411-0241-8|refcid=harv}}

*{{Cite bookCita libro| author autore= Weiss, Bernard G. | titletitolo=Studies in Islamic Legal Theory | yearanno=2002 | ___locationcittà=Leiden; Boston | publishereditore= [[Brill Publishers]] | isbn=978-90-04-12066-2}}

{{col-end}}

;General

Riga 588 ⟶ 587:

* Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (2000). ''The Holy Qur'an'' (Translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali). Ware, Hertfordshire, England: Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 978-1-85326-782-6. A popular translation of the Quran.

* Hussain, Jamila (2011). ''Islam: Its Law and Society'' (3rd edition). Annandale, N.S.W., Australia: The Federation Press. ISBN 1-86287-499-9. {{OCLC|742018517}}. A modern discourse on Sharia law.

* {{cite bookCita libro|titletitolo=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law |lastcognome=Kadri |firstnome=Sadakat |yearanno=2011 |publishereditore=The Bodley Head |___locationcittà=London |isbn=1-84792-016-0 |idoclc={{OCLC|774921862}} |id=, {{OCLC|670282592}}, {{OCLC|777379796}}}}

** {{cite bookCita libro|titletitolo=Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia to the Streets of the Modern Muslim World |yearanno=2012 |publishereditore=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |___locationcittà=New York |isbn=0-374-16872-5 |oclc=740628896 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dvRC2vdw1BwC}} American edition.

* Khan, Muhammad Muhsin (1996). ''The English Translation of Ṣaḥīḥ Al Bukhārī with the Arabic Text''. Alexandria, Va.: Al-Saadawi Publications. ISBN 978-1-881963-59-2. {{oclc|35673415}}. The complete translation (in nine volumes) of a popular Sunni collection of hadith.

* Potz, Richard (2011). ''[http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2011112127 Islamic Law and the Transfer of European Law]''. Mainz: European History Online, Institute of European History. Retrieved: November 28, 2011.

Riga 688 ⟶ 687:

[[diq:Şeriet]]

[[zh:伊斯蘭教法]]

-->