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{{Short description|Harmonic grouping of notes}}
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{{Redirect|Chording|the computer input method|Chorded keyboard}}
[[File:Frets, guitar neck, C-major chord.jpg|thumb|A [[guitarist]] performing a C chord with G bass]]
In Western [[music theory]], a '''chord''' is a group{{efn | name = num_notes}} of [[Musical note|notes]] played together for their [[harmony|harmonic]] [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance or dissonance]]. The most basic type of chord is a [[Triad (music)|triad]], so called because it consists of three distinct notes: the [[Root (chord)|root]] note along with [[Interval (music)|intervals]] of a [[Third (chord)|third]] and a [[Fifth (chord)|fifth]] above the root note.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hutchinson |first1=Robert |title=Music Theory for the 21st-Century Classroom |publisher=University of Puget Sound |url=https://musictheory.pugetsound.edu/mt21c/frontmatter.html |chapter-url=https://musictheory.pugetsound.edu/mt21c/TriadsIntroduction.html |chapter=Introduction to Triads}}</ref> Chords with more than three notes include [[added tone chord]]s, [[extended chord]]s and [[tone cluster]]s, which are used in [[contemporary classical music]], [[jazz]], and other genres.
Chords are the building blocks of harmony and form the harmonic foundation of a piece of music. They provide the harmonic support and coloration that accompany melodies and contribute to the overall sound and mood of a musical composition. The [[factor (chord)|factors]], or component notes, of a chord are often sounded simultaneously but can instead be sounded consecutively, as in an [[arpeggio]].
A succession of chords is called a [[chord progression]].{{sfn|Moylan|2014|p=39}} One example of a widely used chord progression in Western [[traditional music]] and [[blues]] is the [[12-bar blues|12 bar blues progression]]. Although any chord may in principle be followed by any other chord, certain patterns of chords are more common in Western music, and some patterns have been accepted as establishing the [[Key (music)|key]] ([[tonic note]]) in [[Common practice harmony|common-practice harmony]]—notably the [[Resolution (music)|resolution]] of a [[dominant chord]] to a [[tonic chord]]. To describe this, Western [[music theory]] has developed the practice of numbering chords using [[Roman numeral analysis|Roman numerals]]{{sfn|Schoenberg|1983|pp=1-2}} to represent the number of [[diatonic]] steps up from the tonic note of the [[Scale (music)|scale]].
Common ways of notating or representing chords{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=77}} in Western music (other than conventional [[staff notation]]) include [[Roman numeral analysis|Roman numerals]], the [[Nashville Number System]], [[figured bass]], [[chord letters]] (sometimes used in modern [[musicology]]), and [[chord chart]]s.
==Definition==
{{Main|Harmony}}
The English word ''chord'' derives from Middle English ''cord'', a [[back-formation]] of ''accord''<ref name=MWDict /> in the original sense of ''agreement'' and later, ''harmonious sound''.<ref name=OxfordDict /> A sequence of chords is known as a chord progression or harmonic progression. These are frequently used in Western music.{{sfn|Malm|1996|p=15|ps=, "Indeed, this harmonic orientation is one of the major differences between Western and much non-Western music."}} A chord progression "aims for a definite goal" of establishing (or contradicting) a tonality founded on a key, root or [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] chord.{{sfn|Schoenberg|1983|pp=1-2}} The study of harmony involves chords and chord progressions and the principles of connection that govern them.{{sfn|Dahlhaus|2001}}
{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1">
{ #(set-global-staff-size 18)
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff <<
\new voice \relative c'' {
\set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 4 = 112
\clef treble \key bes \major
\time 5/4
<bes, d g>4 <a c f> <bes d bes'> \stemDown <c a'> \stemNeutral <f a>
\time 6/4
\stemDown <c a'> \stemNeutral <f bes> <d g bes> <e g c> <g, c g'> <a c f>
}
\new Voice \relative c'' {
\time 5/4
s2. \stemUp c8^( f d4)
\time 6/4
\stemUp c8^( f d4) s1
}
>>
\new Staff <<
\clef bass \key bes \major
\relative c {
\time 5/4
<g g'>4 <a f'> <g g'> <f f'> <d d'>
\time 6/4
<f f'> <bes bes'> <g g'> <c, c'> <e e'> <f f'>
}
>>
>> }
</score>|width=440|caption=[[Mussorgsky]]'s ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]'' "Promenade", is a piece showing an explicit chord progression.{{sfn|Nattiez|1990|p=218}}}}
[[Ottó Károlyi]]{{sfn|Károlyi|1965|p=63}} writes that, "Two or more notes sounded simultaneously are known as a chord," though, since instances of any given note in different [[octave]]s may be taken as the same note, it is more precise for the purposes of analysis to speak of distinct ''[[pitch class]]es''. Furthermore, as three notes are needed to define any [[Common chord (music)|common chord]], three is often taken as the minimum number of notes that form a definite chord.{{sfn | Schoenberg | 2010 | p=26|ps=, "It is required of a chord that it consist of three different tones."}} Hence, [[Andrew Surmani]], for example, states, "When three or more notes are sounded together, the combination is called a chord."{{sfn|Surmani|2004|p=72}} George T. Jones agrees: "Two tones sounding together are usually termed an ''interval'', while three or more tones are called a ''chord''."{{sfn|Jones|1994|p=43}} According to Monath, "a chord is a combination of three or more tones sounded simultaneously", and the distances between the tones are called intervals.{{sfn|Monath|1984|p=37}} However, sonorities of two pitches, or even single-note melodies, are commonly heard as ''implying'' chords.{{sfn|Schellenberg|Bigand|Poulin-Charronnat|Garnier|2005|pp=551-566}} A simple example of two notes being interpreted as a chord is when the root and third are played but the fifth is omitted. In the key of C major, if the music stops on the two notes G and B, most listeners hear this as a G major chord.
{{Image frame|content=<score override_ogg="Claude_Debussy_-_Première_Arabesque_-_Patrizia_Prati.ogg">
{
#(set-global-staff-size 16)
<<
\new Staff <<
\relative c' {
\clef treble \time 4/4 \key e \major
\tuplet 3/2 { cis8 e a } \tuplet 3/2 { cis e fis } \tuplet 3/2 {gis dis b } \tuplet 3/2 { gis dis b } \tuplet 3/2 { a cis fis } \tuplet 3/2 { a cis dis } \tuplet 3/2 { e b gis } \tuplet 3/2 { e b gis }
}
>>
\new Staff <<
\relative c' {
\clef treble \time 4/4 \key e \major
\tempo "Andantino con moto"
<cis e a>2 <b dis gis> <a cis fis> <gis b e>
}
>>
>> }
</score>|width=530|align=left|caption=[[Claude Debussy]]'s ''[[Deux arabesques|Première arabesque]]''. The chords on the lower stave are constructed from the notes in the actual piece, shown in the upper stave.}}
Since a chord may be understood as such even when all its notes are not simultaneously audible, there has been some academic discussion regarding the point at which a group of notes may be called a ''chord''. [[Jean-Jacques Nattiez]] explains that, "We can encounter 'pure chords' in a musical work", such as in the "Promenade" of [[Modest Mussorgsky]]'s ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]'' but, "often, we must go from a textual given to a more ''abstract'' representation of the chords being used", as in [[Claude Debussy]]'s ''[[Arabesques (Debussy)|Première arabesque]]''.{{sfn|Nattiez|1990|p=218}}
{{Clear}}
== History ==
Chords evolved out of the early church ''[[organum]]'', which reflected the different vocal ranges. In its earliest written form, found in the treatise ''Musica enchiriadis'' (c. 900), organum consisted of two melodic lines moving simultaneously note against note. Organum was further developed with the staff notation established by monk [[Guido d'Arezzo]] (c.1025).<ref>{{cite web | title=Organum | Polyphony, Gregorian Chant, Counterpoint | Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/organum }}</ref>
In the [[medieval music|medieval]] era, early Christian [[hymn]]s featured [[organum]] (which used the simultaneous perfect intervals of a fourth, a fifth, and an octave{{sfn|Duarter|2008|p=49}}), with chord progressions and harmony - an incidental result of the emphasis on melodic lines during the medieval and then [[Renaissance]] (15th to 17th centuries).{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=185}}{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=70}}
The [[Baroque]] period, the 17th and 18th centuries, began to feature the major and minor scale based tonal system and harmony, including chord progressions and [[circle progression]]s.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=77}} It was in the Baroque period that the [[accompaniment]] of melodies with chords was developed, as in [[figured bass]],{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=70}} and the familiar [[cadence]]s (perfect authentic, etc.).{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=100}} In the Renaissance, certain dissonant sonorities that suggest the [[Dominant seventh chord|dominant seventh]] occurred with frequency.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=201}} In the Baroque period, the dominant seventh proper was introduced and was in constant use in the [[Classical period (music)|Classical]] and [[Romantic music|Romantic periods]].{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=201}} The [[leading-tone seventh chord|leading-tone seventh]] appeared in the Baroque period and remains in use.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=220}} Composers began to use [[nondominant seventh chord]]s in the Baroque period. They became frequent in the Classical period, gave way to [[Altered chord|altered dominants]] in the Romantic period, and underwent a resurgence in the [[Post-romanticism|Post-Romantic]] and [[Impressionist music|Impressionistic]] period.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=231}}
The [[Romantic period]], the 19th century, featured increased [[chromaticism]].{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=77}} Composers began to use [[Secondary chord|secondary dominants]] in the Baroque, and they became common in the Romantic period.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=274}} Many contemporary popular Western genres continue to rely on simple diatonic harmony, though far from universally:{{sfn|Harrison|2005|p=33}} notable exceptions include the music of [[film score]]s, which often use chromatic, [[Atonality|atonal]] or [[Post tonal|post-tonal]] harmony, and modern jazz (especially {{circa|1960}}), in which chords may include up to seven notes (and occasionally more).{{sfn|Pachet|1999|pp=187-206}} When referring to chords that do not function as harmony, such as in atonal music, the term "sonority" is often used specifically to avoid any tonal implications of the word "chord"{{Citation needed|date=January 2016}}.
Chords are also used for timbre effects. In organ registers, certain chords are activated by a single key, so playing a melody results in parallel voice leading. These voices, losing independence, are fused into one with a new timbre. The same effect is also used in synthesizers and orchestral arrangements; for instance, in [[Ravel]]’s ''Bolero'' #5 the parallel parts of flutes, horn and celesta, being tuned as a chord, resemble the sound of an electric organ.{{sfn|Tanguiane|1993}}{{sfn|Tanguiane|1994}}
== Usage and trends ==
===
A 2025 analysis of 52 million chords across 680,000 songs found that G major and C major were the most commonly used chords, accounting for 24% of all chords. These were followed by D major, A major, and F major. The study also observed a decline in chord diversity over time, with songs containing fewer unique chords and a decreasing ratio of unique chords to total chords. This ratio fell from 13% in the 1930s to 8% in the 2020s, indicating a trend toward more straightforward chord progressions in popular music.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I Analyzed Chord Progressions in 680,000 Songs—Here's What I Found |url=https://www.cantgetmuchhigher.com/p/i-analyzed-chord-progressions-in |website=CantGetMuchHigher |access-date=2025-04-24}}</ref>
==Notation==
{{Redirect|Chord symbol||Chord names and symbols (popular music)}}{{Image frame|content=<score>
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
<c e g>1
} }
</score>|width=100|caption=A C major triad in staff notation}}Chords can be represented in various ways. The most common notation systems are:{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=77}}
# Plain staff notation, used in classical music.
#[[Roman numeral analysis|Roman numerals]], commonly used in [[harmonic analysis (music)|harmonic analysis]] to denote the [[Scale (music)|scale step]] on which the chord is built.{{sfn|Schoenberg|1983|pp=1-2}}
#[[Figured bass]], much used in the Baroque era, uses numbers added to a bass line written on a [[staff (music)|staff]], to enable keyboard players to [[Improvised music|improvise]] chords with the right hand while playing the bass with their left.
#[[Chord letters]], sometimes used in modern musicology, to denote chord [[Root (chord)|root]] and [[Chord quality|quality]].
# Various [[Chord names and symbols (popular music)|chord names and symbols]] used in popular music lead sheets, [[fake book]]s, and chord charts, to quickly lay out the harmonic ground plan of a piece so that the musician may [[musical improvisation|improvise]], [[Jam (music)|jam]], or [[Vamp (music)|vamp]] on it.
===Roman numerals===
{{Main|Roman numeral analysis}}{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1">
{
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
<c e a>1_\markup { \concat { \translate #'(-4 . 0) { "C: vi" \raise #1 \small "6" \hspace #5.5 "ii" \hspace #6.5 "V" \raise #1 \small "6" \hspace #6.2 "I" } } }
<d f a>
<b d g>
<c e g> \bar "||"
} }
</score>|width=300|caption=The chord progression vi–ii–V–I in the key of C major. Using lead sheet chord names, these chords could be referred to as A minor, D minor, G major and C major.{{sfn|Andrews|Sclater|2000|p=227}} }}
While [[scale degree]]s are typically represented in musical analysis or musicology articles with [[Arabic numeral]]s (e.g., 1, 2, 3, ..., sometimes with a [[circumflex]] above the numeral: {{music|scale|1}}, {{music|scale|2}}, {{music|scale|3}}, ...), the triads (three-note chords) that have these degrees as their roots are often identified by Roman numerals (e.g., I, IV, V, which in the key of C major would be the triads C major, F major, G major).
In some conventions (as in this and related articles) upper-case [[Roman numeral]]s indicate major triads (e.g., I, IV, V) while lower-case Roman numerals indicate minor triads (e.g., I for a major chord and i for a minor chord, or using the major key, ii, iii and vi representing typical diatonic minor triads); other writers (e.g., [[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]]) use upper case Roman numerals for both major and minor triads. Some writers use upper-case Roman numerals to indicate the chord is diatonic in the major scale, and lower-case Roman numerals to indicate that the chord is diatonic in the minor scale. Diminished triads may be represented by lower-case Roman numerals with a [[degree symbol]] (e.g., vii{{music|dim}}<sup>7</sup> indicates a diminished seventh chord built on the seventh scale degree; in the key of C major, this chord would be B diminished seventh, which consists of the notes B, D, F and A{{music|♭}}).
Roman numerals can also be used in stringed instrument notation to indicate the [[Violin#Positions|position]] or string to play. In some string music, the string on which it is suggested that the performer play the note is indicated with a Roman numeral (e.g., on a four-string [[string orchestra|orchestral string]] instrument, I indicates the highest-pitched, thinnest string and IV indicates the lowest-pitched, thickest bass string). In some orchestral parts, chamber music and solo works for string instruments, the composer tells the performer which string to use with the Roman numeral. Alternately, the composer starts the note name with the string to use—e.g., "sul G" means "play on the G string".
===Figured bass notation===
{{Main|Figured bass}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+Common conventional symbols for figured bass
! colspan="4" style="background: Silver" |Triads
|-
! align="center" |[[Inverted chord|Inversion]]
! align="center" |Intervals<br>above bass
! align="center" |Symbol
! align="center" |Example
|-
|[[Root position]]
| align="center" |{{su|p=5|b=3}}
| align="center" |None
| rowspan="3" align="center" |<score>
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff <<
\relative c' {
\clef treble \time 3/4
<e g c>4 <c g' c> <c e g>
}
>>
\new Staff <<
\relative c {
\clef bass \time 3/4
c4 e g
}
\figures {
< _ >4 <6> <6 4>
}
>>
>> }
</score>
|-
|[[First inversion|1st inversion]]
| align="center" |{{su|p=6|b=3}}
| align="center" |{{music|6 chord}}
|-
|[[Second inversion|2nd inversion]]
| align="center" |{{su|p=6|b=4}}
| align="center" |{{music|64 chord}}
|-
! colspan="4" style="background: Silver" |Seventh chords
|-
! align="center" |Inversion
! align="center" |Intervals<br>above bass
! align="center" |Symbol
! align="center" |Example
|-
|Root position
| align="center" |{{overset|7|{{SubSup||3|5}}}}
| align="center" |{{music|7 chord}}
| rowspan="4" align="center" |<score>
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\new PianoStaff <<
\new Staff <<
\relative c' {
\clef treble \time 4/4
<b d f>4 <g d' f> <b f' g > <b d g>
}
>>
\new Staff <<
\relative c {
\clef bass \time 4/4
g4 b d f
}
\figures {
<7>4 <6 5> <4 3> <4 2>
}
>>
>> }
</score>
|-
|1st inversion
| align="center" |{{overset|6|{{SubSup||3|5}}}}
| align="center" |{{music|65 chord}}
|-
|2nd inversion
| align="center" |{{overset|6|{{SubSup||3|4}}}}
| align="center" |{{music|43 chord}}
|-
|[[Third inversion|3rd inversion]]
| align="center" |{{overset|6|{{SubSup||2|4}}}}
| align="center" |{{music|42 chord}} or {{music|2 chord}}
|}
Figured bass or thoroughbass is a kind of [[musical notation]] used in almost all Baroque music ({{circa}} 1600–1750), though rarely in music from later than 1750, to indicate harmonies in relation to a conventionally written [[bass line]]. Figured bass is closely associated with chord-playing [[Figured bass#Basso continuo|basso continuo]] [[accompaniment]] instruments, which include [[harpsichord]], [[pipe organ]] and [[lute]]. Added numbers, symbols, and [[Accidental (music)|accidentals]] beneath the staff indicate the intervals above the bass note to play; that is, the numbers stand for the number of scale steps above the written note to play the figured notes.
For example, in the figured bass below, the [[bass note]] is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above (F and A) should be played, giving the [[second inversion]] of the F [[Major chord|major triad]].
{{Block indent|<score>
{
\clef bass
\time 4/4
<<
\override Score.TimeSignature
#'stencil = ##f
\relative c {
<c>1
}
\figures {
<6 4>
}
>>
}
</score> can be realized as <score>
{
\clef bass
\time 4/4
<<
\override Score.TimeSignature
#'stencil = ##f
\relative c {
<c f a>1
}
>>
}
</score>}}
If no numbers are written beneath a bass note, the figure is assumed to be {{su|p=5|b=3}}, which calls for a third and a fifth above the bass note (i.e., a [[root position]] triad).
In the 2010s, some classical musicians who specialize in music from the Baroque era can still perform chords using figured bass notation; in many cases, however, the chord-playing performers read a fully notated accompaniment that has been prepared for the piece by the music publisher. Such a part, with fully written-out chords, is called a "realization" of the figured bass part.
{{Clear}}
===Chord letters===
{{Main|Chord letters}}{{Image frame|content=<score>
{
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
<c e g>1^\markup { "C" }
<c es g>1^\markup { "c" }
<c e gis>1^\markup { "C+" }
<c es ges>1^\markup { \concat { "c" \raise #1 \small "o" } }
} }
</score>|width=300|caption=Chord letters for triads on C}}
Chord letters are used by [[musicologist]]s, music theorists and advanced university music students to analyze songs and pieces. Chord letters use upper-case and lower-case letters to indicate the roots of chords, followed by symbols that specify the chord quality.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|pp=74–75}}
===Notation in popular music===
[[File:chord_intervals.svg|thumb|Intervals in some C chords with major thirds in red and minor thirds in blue – in [{{filepath:chord_intervals.svg}} the SVG file,] tap or hover over a button to show other keys]]
{{Main|Chord names and symbols (popular music)}}
In most [[List of popular music genres|genres]] of popular music, including [[jazz]], [[pop music|pop]], and [[Rock music|rock]], a chord name and the corresponding symbol are typically composed of one or more parts. In these genres, chord-playing musicians in the [[rhythm section]] (e.g., [[electric guitar]], [[acoustic guitar]], [[piano]], [[Hammond organ]], etc.) typically [[improvisation (music)|improvise]] the specific "[[Voicing (music)|voicing]]" of each chord from a song's chord progression by interpreting the written chord symbols appearing in the lead sheet or [[fake book]]. Normally, these chord symbols include:
* A (big) letter indicating the [[root (chord)|root note]] (e.g., C).
* A symbol or abbreviation indicating the [[Chord names and symbols (popular music)#Chord quality|chord quality]] (e.g., minor, aug or {{music|dim}} ). If no chord quality is specified, the chord is assumed to be a major triad by default.
* Number(s) indicating the stacked [[Interval (music)#Number|intervals]] above the root note (e.g., 7 or 13).
* Additional musical symbols or abbreviations for special alterations (e.g., {{music|b}}5, {{music|#}}5 or add13).
* An added slash "/" and an upper case letter indicates that a [[bass note]] other than the root should be played. These are called ''[[slash chord]]s''. For instance, C/F indicates that a C major triad should be played with an added F in the bass. In some genres of modern jazz, two chords with a slash between them may indicate an advanced chord type called a [[polychord]], which is the playing of two chords simultaneously. The correct notation of this should be {{sfrac|F|C}}, which sometimes get mixed up with slash chords.
Chord qualities are related with the [[Interval (music)#Quality|qualities]] of the component intervals that define the chord. The main chord qualities are:
* Major and minor (a chord is "Major" by default and altered with added info: "C" = C major, "Cm" = c minor).
* [[Augmented chord|augmented]], [[diminished triad|diminished]], and [[half-diminished seventh chord|half-diminished]],
* [[dominant chord|dominant seventh]].
====Symbols====
The symbols used for notating chords are:
* '''m''', '''min''', or '''−''' indicates a minor chord. The "m" must be lowercase to distinguish it from the "M" for major.
* '''M''', '''Ma''', '''Maj''', '''{{music|major}}''', or '''(no symbol)''' indicates a major chord. In a jazz context, this typically indicates that the player should use any suitable chord of a major quality, for example a [[major seventh chord]] or a [[6/9 chord]]. In a lot of jazz styles, an unembellished major triad is rarely if ever played, but in a lead sheet the choice of which major quality chord to use is left to the performer.
* '''+''' or '''aug''' or {{sup|'''aug'''}} indicates an [[augmented chord]] (A or a is not used).
* '''{{music|dim}}''' or '''dim''' indicates a diminished chord, either a [[diminished triad]] or a [[diminished seventh chord]] (d is not used).
* '''{{music|halfdim}}''' indicates a [[half-diminished seventh chord]]. In some [[fake book]]s, the abbreviation m<sup>7({{music|b}}5)</sup> is used as an equivalent symbol.
* '''2''' is mostly used as an extra note in a chord (e.g., add2, sus2).
* '''3''' is the minor or major quality of the chord and is rarely written as a number.
* '''4''' is mostly used as an extra note in a chord (e.g., add4, sus4).
* '''5''' is the (perfect) fifth of the chord and is only written as a number when [[Chord names and symbols (popular music)#Altered fifths|altered]] (e.g., F7<sup>({{music|b}}5)</sup>). In guitar music, like rock, a "5" indicates a [[power chord]], which consists of only the root and fifth, possibly with the root doubled an octave higher.
* '''6''' indicates a [[sixth chord]]. There are no rules if the 6 ''replaces'' the 5th or not.
* '''7''' indicates a [[dominant seventh chord]]. However, if Maj7, M7 or {{music|major}}7 is indicated, this is a [[major seventh|major 7th chord]] (e.g., G{{sup|M7}} or F{{sup|Δ7}}). Very rarely, also '''dom''' is used for dominant 7th.
* '''9''' indicates a [[ninth chord]], which in jazz usually includes the dominant seventh as well, if it is a dominant chord.
* '''11''' indicates an [[eleventh chord]], which in jazz usually includes the dominant seventh and ninth as well, if it is a dominant chord.
* '''13''' indicates a [[thirteenth chord]], which in jazz usually includes the dominant seventh, ninth and eleventh as well.
* '''6/9''' indicates a triad with the addition of the sixth and ninth.
* '''sus4''' (or simply '''4''') indicates a [[sus chord]] with the third omitted and the fourth used instead. Other notes may be added to a sus4 chord, indicated with the word "add" and the scale degree (e.g., A<sup>sus4(add9)</sup> or A<sup>sus4(add7)</sup>).
* '''sus2''' (or simply '''2''') indicates a sus chord with the third omitted and the second (which may also be called the ninth) used instead. As with "sus4", a "sus2" chord can have other scale degrees added (e.g., A<sup>sus2(add{{music|b}}7)</sup> or A<sup>sus2(add4)</sup>).
* '''({{music|b}}9)''' (parenthesis) is used to indicate explicit chord alterations (e.g., A<sup>7({{music|b}}9)</sup>). The parenthesis is probably left from older days when jazz musicians weren't used to "altered chords". Albeit important, the parenthesis can be left unplayed (with no "musical harm").
* '''add''' indicates that an additional interval number should be added to the chord. (e.g., C<sup>7add13</sup> is a C 7th chord plus an added 13th).
* '''alt''' or '''alt dom''' indicates an [[altered dominant]] seventh chord (e.g., G<sup>7{{music|#}}11</sup>).
* '''omit5''' (or simply '''no5''') indicates that the (indicated) note should be omitted.
==== Examples ====
The table below lists common chord types, their symbols, and their components.
:{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" style="background: Silver" |Chord
! colspan="13" style="background: Silver" |Components
|-
! rowspan="2" |Name
! colspan="2" |Symbol (on C)
!<small>Interval</small>
![[Unison|P1]]||[[Minor Second|m2]]||[[Major second|M2]]||[[Minor third|m3]]!![[Major third|M3]]!![[Perfect fourth|P4]]!![[Diminished fifth|d5]]||[[Perfect fifth|P5]]!![[Augmented fifth|A5]]||[[Major sixth|M6]]/[[Diminished seventh|d7]]||[[Minor seventh|m7]]||[[Major seventh|M7]]
|-
!Short
!Long
!<small>Semitones</small>
! 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 || 11
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Major triad]]
|C<br>CΔ
|
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || ||
|-
|[[Major sixth chord]]
|C<sup>6</sup><br>CM<sup>6</sup>
|Cmaj6
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || style="text-align: center;" | M6 || ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Dominant seventh chord]]
|C<sup>7</sup>
|Cdom7
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m7||
|-
|[[Major seventh chord]]
|CM<sup>7</sup><br>C<sup>∆7</sup>
|Cmaj<sup>7</sup>
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M7
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Augmented triad]]
|C+
|Caug
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | A5|| || ||
|-
|[[Augmented seventh chord]]
|C+<sup>7</sup>
|Caug<sup>7</sup>
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M3 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | A5|| ||m7
|
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Minor triad]]
|Cm
|Cmin
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || ||
|-
|[[Minor sixth chord]]
|Cm<sup>6</sup>
|Cmin<sup>6</sup>
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || style="text-align: center;" | M6 || ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Minor seventh chord]]
|Cm<sup>7</sup>
|Cmin<sup>7</sup>
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m7||
|-
|[[Minor-major seventh chord]]
|Cm<sup>M7</sup> <br>Cm/M7 <br>Cm(M7)
|Cmin<sup>maj7</sup> <br>Cmin/maj7 <br>Cmin(maj7)
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | P5 || || || || style="text-align: center;" | M7
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Diminished triad]]
|C{{music|dim}}
|Cdim
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d5|| || || || ||
|-
|[[Diminished seventh chord]]
|C{{music|dim}}<sup>7</sup>
|Cdim<sup>7</sup>
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d5|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d7|| ||
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Half-diminished seventh chord]]
|C{{music|halfdim}}<br>C{{music|halfdim}}<sup>7</sup>
|
|
| style="text-align: center;" | P1 || || || style="text-align: center;" | m3|| || || style="text-align: center;" | d5|| || || || style="text-align: center;" | m7||
|}
====Use====
The basic function of chord symbols is to eliminate the need to write out sheet music. The modern jazz player has extensive knowledge of the chordal functions and can mostly play music by reading the chord symbols only. Advanced chords are common especially in modern jazz. Altered 9ths, 11ths and 5ths are not common in pop music. In jazz, a chord chart is used by [[Comping (jazz)|comping]] musicians ([[jazz guitar]], [[jazz piano]], [[Hammond organ]]) to improvise a chordal accompaniment and to play improvised solos. [[Jazz bass]] players improvise a [[bassline]] from a chord chart. Chord charts are used by horn players and other solo instruments to guide their solo improvisations.
Interpretation of chord symbols depends on the genre of music being played. In jazz from the [[bebop]] era or later, major and minor chords are typically realized as seventh chords even if only "C" or "Cm" appear in the chart. In jazz charts, seventh chords are often realized with upper [[Extended chord|extensions]], such as the ninth, sharp eleventh, and thirteenth, even if the chart only indicates "A<sup>7</sup>". In jazz, the root and fifth are often omitted from chord [[voicing (music)|voicings]], except when there is a diminished fifth or an augmented fifth.
In a pop or rock context, however, "C" and "Cm" would almost always be played as triads, with no sevenths. In pop and rock, in the relatively less common cases where songwriters wish a dominant seventh, major seventh, or minor seventh chord, they indicate this explicitly with the indications "C<sup>7</sup>", "C<sup>maj7</sup>" or "Cm<sup>7</sup>".
==Characteristics==
Within the [[diatonic scale]], every chord has certain characteristics, which include:
* the number of [[pitch class]]es (distinct notes without respect to octave) in the chord,
* the [[Degree (music)|scale degree]] of the [[Root (chord)|root note]],
*the [[Inverted chord|position or inversion]] of the chord,
* the general type of [[Interval (music)|intervals]] it is constructed from—for example, seconds, thirds, or fourths, and
* counts of each pitch class as occurring between all [[combination]]s of notes the chord contains.
===Number
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! {{Abbr|No.|Number of notes}}
! Name
! Alternate name
|-
| 1 || [[Monad (music)|Monad]] || [[Monad (music)|Monochord]]
|-
| 2 || [[Dyad (music)|Dyad]] || [[Dyad (music)|Dichord]]
|-
| 3 || [[Triad (music)|Triad]] || [[Trichord]]
|-
| 4 || [[Tetrad (music)|Tetrad]] || [[Tetrachord]]
|-
| 5 || [[Pentad (music)|Pentad]] || [[Pentachord]]
|-
| 6 || [[Hexad (music)|Hexad]] || [[Hexachord]]
|-
| 7 || [[Heptad (music)|Heptad]] || [[Heptachord]]
|-
| 8 || [[Octad (music)|Octad]] || [[Octachord]]
|-
| 9 || [[Ennead (music)|Ennead]] || [[Nonachord]]
|-
| 10 || [[Decad (music)|Decad]] || [[Decachord]]
|}
Two-note combinations, whether referred to as chords or intervals, are called ''dyads''. In the context of a specific section in a piece of music, dyads can be heard as chords if they contain the most important notes of a certain chord. For example, in a piece in C Major, after a section of tonic C Major chords, a dyad containing the notes B and D sounds to most listeners as a first inversion G Major chord. Other dyads are more ambiguous, an aspect that composers can use creatively. For example, a dyad with a perfect fifth has no third, so it does not sound major or minor; a composer who ends a section on a perfect fifth could subsequently add the missing third. Another example is a dyad outlining the [[tritone]], such as the notes C and F# in C Major. This dyad could be heard as implying a D7 chord (resolving to G Major) or as implying a C diminished chord (resolving to Db Major). In unaccompanied duos for two instruments, such as flute duos, the only combinations of notes that are possible are dyads, which means that all of the chord progressions must be implied through dyads, as well as with arpeggios.
Chords constructed of three notes of some underlying [[musical scale|scale]] are described as ''triads''. Chords of four notes are known as ''tetrads'', those containing five are called ''pentads'' and those using six are ''hexads''. Sometimes the terms ''trichord'', ''tetrachord'', ''pentachord'', and ''hexachord'' are used—though these more usually refer to the pitch classes of any scale, not generally played simultaneously. Chords that may contain more than three notes include [[pedal point]] chords, dominant seventh chords, extended chords, added tone chords, [[tone cluster|clusters]], and polychords.
[[Polychord]]s are formed by two or more chords superimposed.{{sfn|Haerle|1982|p=30}} Often these may be analysed as extended chords; examples include [[tertian]], [[altered chord]], [[secundal|secundal chord]], [[quartal and quintal harmony]] and [[Tristan chord]]. Another example is when G<sup>7({{music|#}}11{{music|b}}9)</sup> (G–B–D–F–A{{music|b}}–C{{music|#}}) is formed from G major (G–B–D) and D{{music|b}} major (D{{music|b}}–F–A{{music|b}}).{{sfn|Policastro|1999|p=168}} A [[nonchord tone]] is a [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonant]] or unstable tone that lies outside the chord currently heard, though often [[resolution (music)|resolving]] to a chord tone.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=92}}
{{Clear}}
===Scale degree===
{{Main|Degree (music)}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+Roman Numerals and Scale Degrees for Major Keys
|-
! Roman<br>Numeral
! Scale Degree
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | I || [[Tonic note|tonic]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | ii || [[supertonic]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | iii || [[mediant]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | IV || [[subdominant]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | V || [[dominant (music)|dominant]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | vi || [[submediant]]
|-
| style="text-align: center;" | vii{{music|dim}} / {{music|b}}VII || [[leading tone]] / [[subtonic]]
|}
In the key of [[C major]], the first degree of the scale, called the ''[[tonic (music)|tonic]]'', is the note C itself. A C major chord, the [[major triad]] built on the note C (C–E–G), is referred to as the ''one chord'' of that key and notated in Roman numerals as I. The same C major chord can be found in other scales: it forms chord III in the key of A minor (A→B→C) and chord IV in the key of G major (G→A→B→C). This numbering indicates the chords's [[Function (music)|function]].
Many analysts use lower-case Roman numerals to indicate minor triads and upper-case numerals for major triads, and ''degree'' and ''plus'' signs ( {{music|dim}} and {{music|aug}} ) to indicate [[diminished triad|diminished]] and [[augmented triad]]s respectively. Otherwise, all the numerals may be upper-case and the qualities of the chords inferred from the scale degree. Chords outside the scale can be indicated by placing a flat/sharp sign before the chord—for example, the chord E{{music|b}} major in the key of C major is represented by {{music|b}}III. The tonic of the scale may be indicated to the left (e.g., "F{{music|#}}:") or may be understood from a [[key signature]] or other contextual clues. Indications of [[Inverted chord|inversions]] or [[Added tone chord|added tones]] may be omitted if they are not relevant to the analysis. Roman numeral analysis indicates the root of the chord as a scale degree within a particular major key as follows.
{{Clear}}
==
{{Main|Inverted chord}}
In the harmony of Western art music, a chord is in ''[[root position]]'' when the tonic note is the lowest in the chord (the [[bass note]]), and the other notes are above it. When the lowest note is not the tonic, the chord is ''inverted''. Chords that have many constituent notes can have many different inverted positions as shown below for the C major chord:
:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Bass note || Position || Order of notes<br>(starting from the bass)
! Notation
|-
| C
|[[root position]]|| C–E–G or C–G–E ||{{su|p=5|b=3}} as G is a fifth above C and E is a third above C
|-
| E
|[[first inversion]]|| E–G–C or E–C–G ||{{su|p=6|b=3}} as C is a sixth above E and G is a third above E
|-
| G
|[[second inversion]]|| G–C–E or G–E–C||{{su|p=6|b=4}} as E is a sixth above G and C is a fourth above G
|}
Further, a four-note chord can be inverted to four different positions by the same method as triadic inversion. For example, a G<sup>7</sup> chord can be in root position (G as bass note); first inversion (B as bass note); second inversion (D as bass note); or [[third inversion]] (F as bass note).
{{Block indent|<score>
{
\override Score.TimeSignature
#'stencil = ##f
\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t
\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4)
\time 4/4
\relative c' {
<g b d f>1^\markup { \column { "Root" "position" } }
<b d f g>1^\markup { \column { "First" "inversion" } }
<d f g b>1^\markup { \column { "Second" "inversion" } }
<f g b d>1^\markup { \column { "Third" "inversion" } }
}
}
</score>}}
Where [[guitar chord]]s are concerned, the term "inversion" is used slightly differently; to refer to stock fingering "shapes".{{sfn|Weedon|2007|p=}}
{{Clear}}
===Secundal, tertian, and quartal chords===
{{See also|Secundal|Tertian|Quartal and quintal harmony|Mixed-interval chord}}
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|-
! Type
! Component intervals
|-
| [[Secundal]] || Seconds: [[major second]], [[minor second]]
|-
| [[Tertian]] || Thirds: [[major third]], [[minor third]]
|-
| [[Quartal and quintal harmony|Quartal]] || Fourth: [[perfect fourth]], [[augmented fourth]]
|-
| [[Quartal and quintal harmony|Quintal]] || Fifths: [[diminished fifth]], [[perfect fifth]]
|}
Many chords are a sequence of notes separated by intervals of roughly the same size. Chords can be classified into different categories by this size:
* [[Tertian|Tertian chords]] can be decomposed into a series of (major or minor) thirds. For example, the C [[major triad]] (C–E–G) is defined by a sequence of two intervals, the first (C–E) being a [[major third]] and the second (E–G) being a [[minor third]]. Most common chords are tertian.
* [[Secundal|Secundal chords]] can be decomposed into a series of (major or minor) seconds. For example, the chord C–D–E{{music|b}} is a series of seconds, containing a [[major second]] (C–D) and a [[minor second]] (D–E{{music|b}}).
*[[Quartal and quintal harmony|Quartal chords]] can be decomposed into a series of (perfect or augmented) fourths. Quartal harmony normally works with a combination of perfect and augmented fourths. Diminished fourths are enharmonically equivalent to major thirds, so they are uncommon.{{sfn|Mayfield|2012|p=523}} For example, the chord C–F–B is a series of fourths, containing a [[perfect fourth]] (C–F) and an [[augmented fourth]]/[[tritone]] (F–B).
These terms can become ambiguous when dealing with non-[[diatonic scale]]s, such as the [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]] or [[chromatic scale]]s. The use of accidentals can also complicate the terminology. For example, the chord B{{music|#}}–E–A{{music|b}} appears to be quartal, as a series of diminished fourths (B{{music|#}}–E and E–A{{music|b}}), but it is [[enharmonic equivalence|enharmonically equivalent]] to (and sonically indistinguishable from) the tertian chord C–E–G{{music|#}}, which is a series of major thirds (C–E and E–G{{music|#}}).
===Harmonic content===
The notes of a chord form intervals with each of the other notes of the chord in combination. A 3-note chord has 3 of these harmonic intervals, a 4-note chord has 6, a 5-note chord has 10, a 6-note chord has 15.{{sfn|Hanson|1960|p=7}} The absence, presence, and placement of certain key intervals plays a large part in the sound of the chord, and sometimes of the selection of the chord that follows.
A chord containing [[tritone]]s is called [[Anhemitonic scale|''tritonic'']]; one without tritones is ''atritonic''. Harmonic tritones are an important part of [[dominant seventh chord]]s, giving their sound a characteristic tension, and making the tritone interval likely to move in certain stereotypical ways to the following chord.{{sfn | Benjamin | Horvit | Nelson | Koozin | 2014 | pp=46-47}} Tritones are also present in [[Diminished seventh chord|diminished seventh]] and [[Half-diminished seventh chord|half-diminished chords]].
A chord containing [[semitone]]s, whether appearing as [[minor second]]s or [[major seventh]]s, is called ''hemitonic''; one without semitones is ''anhemitonic''. Harmonic semitones are an important part of [[major seventh chord]]s, giving their sound a characteristic high tension, and making the harmonic semitone likely to move in certain stereotypical ways to the following chord.{{sfn | Benjamin | Horvit | Nelson | Koozin | 2014 | pp=48-49}} A chord containing major sevenths but no minor seconds is much less harsh in sound than one containing minor seconds as well.
Other chords of interest might include the
*[[Diminished triad]], which has many [[minor third]]s and no [[major third]]s, many tritones but no [[perfect fifth]]s
*[[Augmented triad]], which has many major thirds and no minor thirds or perfect fifths
*[[Dominant seventh flat five chord]], which has many major thirds and tritones and no minor thirds or perfect fifths
==Common types of chords==
{{More citations needed|date=April 2019}}
===Triads===
{{Main|Triad (music)}}
{{See also|Chord names and symbols (jazz and pop music)#Triads|l1=Jazz and pop notation for triads}}
Triads, also called ''triadic chords'', are tertian chords with three notes. The four basic triads are described below.
:{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=2 | Component [[Interval (music)|intervals]]
! rowspan=2 | [[#Notation|Chord symbol]]
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! Third || Fifth
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Major triad]]
| [[major third|major]] || [[perfect fifth|perfect]] || C, CM, Cmaj, C{{music|major}}, Cma || C E G || {{Audio|Major triad on C.mid|play}}
|-
| [[Minor triad]]
| [[minor third|minor]] || perfect || Cm, Cmin, C−, Cmi || C E{{music|b}} G || {{Audio|Minor triad on C.mid|play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Augmented triad]]
| major || [[augmented fifth|augmented]] || Caug, C{{music|aug}}, C+ || C E G{{music|#}} || {{Audio|Augmented triad on C.mid|play}}
|-
| [[Diminished triad]]
| minor || [[diminished fifth|diminished]] || Cdim, C{{music|dim}}, Cm<sup>({{music|b}}5)</sup> || {{nowrap|C E{{music|b}} G{{music|b}}}} || {{Audio|Diminished triad on C.mid|play}}
|}
===Seventh chords===
{{Main|Seventh chord}}
{{See also|Chord names and symbols (jazz and pop music)#Seventh chords|l1=Jazz and pop notation for seventh chords}}
Seventh chords are tertian chords, constructed by adding a fourth note to a triad, at the interval of a third above the fifth of the chord. This creates the interval of a [[Seventh (interval)|seventh]] above the root of the chord, the next natural step in composing tertian chords. The seventh chord built on the fifth step of the scale (the dominant seventh) is the only dominant seventh chord available in the major scale: it contains all three notes of the diminished triad of the seventh and is frequently used as a stronger substitute for it.
There are various [[Seventh chord#Types of seventh chords|types of seventh chords]] depending on the quality of both the chord and the seventh added. In chord notation the chord type is sometimes superscripted and sometimes not (e.g., Dm7, Dm<sup>7</sup>, and D<sup>m7</sup> are all identical).
:{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=3 | Component intervals
! rowspan=2 | [[#Notation|Chord symbol]]
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! Third || Fifth || Seventh
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Diminished seventh chord|Diminished seventh]]
| minor || diminished || [[diminished seventh|diminished]] || C{{music|dim}}<sup>7</sup>, Cdim<sup>7</sup>|| C E{{music|b}} G{{music|b}} B{{music|bb}} || {{Audio|Diminished seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Half-diminished seventh chord|Half-diminished seventh]]
| minor || diminished || [[minor seventh|minor]] || C{{music|halfdim}}<sup>7</sup>, Cm<sup>7{{music|b}}5</sup>, {{nowrap|C−<sup>({{music|b}}5)</sup>}} || C E{{music|b}} G{{music|b}} B{{music|b}} || {{Audio|Half-diminished seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Minor seventh chord|Minor seventh]]
| minor || perfect || minor || Cm<sup>7</sup>, Cmin<sup>7</sup>, {{nowrap|C−<sup>7</sup>}}, || C E{{music|b}} G B{{music|b}} || {{Audio|Minor seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Minor major seventh chord|Minor major seventh]]
| minor || perfect || [[major seventh|major]] || Cm<sup>M7</sup>, {{nowrap|Cm<sup>maj7</sup>}}, {{nowrap|C−<sup>(j7)</sup>}}, {{nowrap|C−<sup>{{music|major}}7</sup>}}, {{nowrap|C−<sup>M7</sup>}} || C E{{music|b}} G B || {{Audio|Minor major seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Dominant seventh chord|Dominant seventh]]
| major || perfect || minor || C<sup>7</sup>, Cdom<sup>7</sup> || C E G B{{music|b}} || {{Audio|Dominant seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Major seventh chord|Major seventh]]
| major || perfect || major || CM<sup>7</sup>, C<sup>M7</sup>, C<sup>maj7</sup>, C<sup>{{music|major}}7</sup>, C<sup>j7</sup> || C E G B || {{Audio|Major seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Augmented seventh chord|Augmented seventh]]
| major || augmented || minor || C+<sup>7</sup>, Caug<sup>7</sup>, C<sup>7+</sup>, C<sup>7+5</sup>, C<sup>7{{music|#}}5</sup> || C E G{{music|#}} B{{music|b}} || {{Audio|Augmented seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Augmented major seventh chord|Augmented major seventh]]
| major || augmented || major || C+<sup>M7</sup>, C<sup>M7+5</sup>, C<sup>M7{{music|#}}5</sup>, C+<sup>j7</sup>, C+<sup>{{music|major}}7</sup> || C E G{{music|#}} B || {{Audio|Augmented major seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|}
===Extended chords===
{{Main|Extended chord}}
{{see also|Chord names and symbols (jazz and pop music)#Extended tertian chords|l1=Jazz and pop notation for extended chords}}
Extended chords are triads with further tertian notes added beyond the seventh: the [[ninth]], [[eleventh]], and [[thirteenth]] chords. For example, a minor eleventh chord such as A<sup>m11</sup> consists of the notes A–C–E–G–B–D:
{{Block indent|<score sound="1">
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\new Staff <<
\new Voice \relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
\key a \minor
\voiceOne
<a c e>1
}
\new Voice \relative c'' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
\key c \major
\voiceOne
\override NoteHead.color = #red
<g b d>1
}
>>
}
</score>}}
The [[upper structure]] or extensions, i.e., notes beyond the seventh, are shown here in red. This chord is just a theoretical illustration of this chord. In practice, a jazz pianist or jazz guitarist would not normally play the chord all in thirds as illustrated. Jazz [[Voicing (music)|voicings]] typically use the third, seventh, and then the extensions such as the ninth and thirteenth, and in some cases the eleventh. The root is often omitted from chord voicings, as the bass player will play the root. The fifth is often omitted if it is a perfect fifth. Augmented and diminished fifths are normally included in voicings.
After the thirteenth, any notes added in thirds duplicate notes elsewhere in the chord; all seven notes of the scale are present in the chord, so adding more notes does not add new pitch classes. Such chords may be constructed only by using notes that lie outside the diatonic seven-note scale.
:{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Type
! colspan="4" | Components
! rowspan="2" |[[#Notation|Chord<br>symbol]]
! rowspan="2" | Notes
! rowspan="2" | Audio
|-
! colspan="1" | Chord
! colspan="3" | Extensions
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Ninth chord#Dominant ninth|Dominant ninth]]
| dominant seventh ||[[major ninth]]|| style="text-align: center;" | — || style="text-align: center;" | — || C<sup>9</sup>|| C E G B{{music|b}} D ||{{Audio|Dominant ninth chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
|[[Eleventh chord|Dominant eleventh]]
| dominant seventh<br /><small>(the third is usually omitted)</small>|| major ninth || perfect [[eleventh]]|| style="text-align: center;" | — || C<sup>11</sup>|| C E G B{{music|b}} D F ||{{Audio|Dominant eleventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
|[[Thirteenth#Dominant thirteenth|Dominant thirteenth]]
| dominant seventh || major ninth || perfect eleventh<br /><small>(usually omitted)</small>||[[thirteenth|major thirteenth]]|| C<sup>13</sup>|| C E G B{{music|b}} D F A ||{{Audio|Dominant thirteenth chord on C.mid|Play}}
|}
Other extended chords follow similar rules, so that for example maj<sup>9</sup>, maj<sup>11</sup>, and maj<sup>13</sup> contain major seventh chords rather than dominant seventh chords, while m<sup>9</sup>, m<sup>11</sup>, and m<sup>13</sup> contain minor seventh chords.
===Altered chords===
{{Main|Altered chord}}{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1">
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
<c e ges bes des>1
} }
</score>|width=300|caption=An altered chord on C with a diminished fifth and a minor seventh and ninth.}}The third and seventh of the chord are always determined by the symbols shown above. The root cannot be so altered without changing the name of the chord, while the third cannot be altered without altering the chord's quality. Nevertheless, the fifth, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth may all be chromatically altered by accidentals.
These are noted alongside the altered element. Accidentals are most often used with dominant seventh chords. [[Altered dominant seventh chord]]s (C<sup>7alt</sup>) may have a minor ninth, a sharp ninth, a diminished fifth, or an augmented fifth. Some write this as C<sup>7+9</sup>, which assumes also the minor ninth, diminished fifth and augmented fifth. The augmented ninth is often referred to in blues and jazz as a [[blue note]], being enharmonically equivalent to the minor third or tenth. When superscripted numerals are used the different numbers may be listed horizontally or vertically.
:{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=2 | Components
! rowspan=2 | [[#Notation|Chord symbol]]
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! colspan=1 | Chord
! colspan=1 | Alteration
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Augmented seventh chord|Seventh augmented fifth]]
| [[dominant seventh]] || augmented fifth || C<sup>7+5</sup>, C<sup>7{{music|#}}5</sup> ||C E G{{music|sharp}} B{{music|flat}}
|{{Audio|Seventh augmented fifth chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Altered chord|Seventh minor ninth]]
| dominant seventh || minor ninth || C<sup>7−9</sup>, C<sup>7{{music|b}}9</sup> ||C E G B{{music|flat}} D{{music|flat}}
|{{Audio|Seventh flat nine chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Dominant seventh sharp ninth chord|Seventh sharp ninth]]
| dominant seventh || augmented ninth || C<sup>7+9</sup>, C<sup>7{{music|#}}9</sup> ||C E G B{{music|flat}} D{{music|sharp}}
|{{Audio|Seventh sharp nine chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| Seventh augmented eleventh
| dominant seventh || augmented eleventh || C<sup>7+11</sup>, C<sup>7{{music|#}}11</sup> ||C E G B{{music|flat}} D F{{music|sharp}}
|{{Audio|Seventh augmented eleventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| Seventh diminished thirteenth
| dominant seventh || minor thirteenth || C<sup>7−13</sup>, C<sup>7{{music|b}}13</sup> ||C E G B{{music|flat}} D F A{{music|flat}}
|{{Audio|Seventh flat thirteenth chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| Half-diminished seventh
| minor seventh || diminished fifth || C{{music|halfdim}}, C{{music|halfdim}}<sup>7</sup>, Cm<sup>7{{music|b}}5</sup> ||C E{{music|flat}} G{{music|flat}} B{{music|flat}}
|{{Audio|Half-diminished seventh chord on C.mid|Play}}
|}
===Added tone chords===
{{Main|Added tone chord}}{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1">
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
\textLengthOn
<c d g>1^\markup { \concat { "Cm" \raise #1 \small "sus2" } }
<c d es g>^\markup { \concat { "Cm" \raise #1 \small "add9" } }
} }
</score>|width=300|caption=A [[suspended chord]] (sus2) and added tone chord ([[ninth|add9]]) both with D ([[octave equivalency|ninth = second]]), distinguished by the absence or presence of the third (E{{music|b}}).{{sfn|Hawkins|1992|pp=325-335}}}}An added tone chord is a triad with an added, non-tertian note, such as an added sixth or a chord with an added second (ninth) or fourth (eleventh) or a combination of the three. These chords do not include "intervening" thirds as in an extended chord. Added chords can also have variations. Thus, m<sup>add9</sup>, m<sup>4</sup> and m<sup>6</sup> are minor triads with extended notes.
[[Sixth chord]]s can belong to either of two groups. One is [[first inversion]] chords and added sixth chords that contain a sixth from the root.{{sfn|Miller|2005|p=119}} The other group is inverted chords in which the interval of a sixth appears above a bass note that is not the root.{{sfn|Piston|1987|p=66}}
The major sixth chord (also called, sixth or added sixth with the chord notation 6, e.g., C<sup>6</sup>) is by far the most common type of sixth chord of the first group. It comprises a major triad with the added [[major sixth]] above the root, common in popular music.{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p=77}} For example, the chord C<sup>6</sup> contains the notes C–E–G–A. The minor sixth chord (min<sup>6</sup> or m<sup>6</sup>, e.g., Cm<sup>6</sup>) is a minor triad, still with a major 6. For example, the chord Cm<sup>6</sup> contains the notes C–E{{music|b}}–G–A.
The [[augmented sixth chord]] usually appears in chord notation as its enharmonic equivalent, the seventh chord. This chord contains two notes separated by the interval of an [[augmented sixth]] (or, by inversion, a [[diminished third]], though this inversion is rare). The augmented sixth is generally used as a dissonant interval most commonly used in motion towards a [[Dominant function|dominant]] chord in [[root position]] (with the root doubled to create the octave the augmented sixth chord resolves to) or to a tonic chord in [[second inversion]] (a tonic triad with the fifth doubled for the same purpose). In this case, the tonic note of the key is included in the chord, sometimes along with an optional fourth note, to create one of the following (illustrated here in the key of C major):
*[[Italian sixth chord]]: A{{music|b}}, C, F{{music|#}}
*[[French sixth chord]]: A{{music|b}}, C, D, F{{music|#}}
*[[German sixth chord]]: A{{music|b}}, C, E{{music|b}}, F{{music|#}}
The augmented sixth family of chords exhibits certain peculiarities. Since they are not based on triads, as are seventh chords and other sixth chords, they are not generally regarded as having roots (nor, therefore, inversions), although one [[chord voicing|re-voicing]] of the notes is common (with the namesake interval inverted to create a diminished third).{{sfn|Bartlette|Laitz|2010|p=}}
The second group of sixth chords includes [[Inverted chord|inverted]] major and minor chords, which may be called sixth chords in that the six-three ({{su|p=6|b=3}}) and six-four ({{su|p=6|b=4}}) chords contain intervals of a sixth with the [[bass note]], though this is not the root. Nowadays, this is mostly for academic study or analysis (see [[figured bass]]) but the [[Neapolitan sixth|Neapolitan sixth chord]] is an important example; a major triad with a flat [[supertonic]] scale degree as its root that is called a "sixth" because it is almost always found in first inversion. Though a technically accurate Roman numeral analysis would be {{flat}}II, it is generally labelled N<sup>6</sup>. In C major, the chord is notated (from root position) D{{music|b}}, F, A{{music|b}}. Because it uses chromatically [[altered tone]]s, this chord is often grouped with the [[borrowed chord]]s but the chord is not borrowed from the relative major or minor and it may appear in both major and minor keys.
:{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=3 | Components
! rowspan=2 | [[#Notation|Chord<br>symbol]]
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! colspan=1 | Chord
! colspan=2 | Interval(s)
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Added tone chord|Add nine]]
| major triad || major ninth || style="text-align: center;" | — || C<sup>2</sup>, C<sup>add9</sup> || C E G D || {{Audio|Add9 chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| Add fourth
| major triad || [[perfect fourth]] || style="text-align: center;" | — ||C<sup>4</sup>, C<sup>add11</sup> || C E G F || {{Audio|Add11 chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Sixth chord|Add sixth]]
| major triad || major sixth || style="text-align: center;" | — || C<sup>6</sup> || C E G A || {{Audio|Add6 chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Ninth chord#6/9 chord|Six-nine]]
| major triad || major sixth || major ninth || C<sup>6/9</sup> || C E G A D || style="text-align: center;" | —
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Seven six chord|Seven-six]]
| major triad || major sixth || minor seventh || C<sup>7/6</sup> || C E G A B{{music|b}} || style="text-align: center;" | —
|-
| Mixed-third
| major triad || minor third || style="text-align: center;" | — || — || C E{{music|b}} E G || {{Audio|Two added chords with mixed thirds, thirds separated by octave right.mid|Play}}
|}
===Suspended chords===
{{Main|Suspended chord}}{{Image frame|content=<score sound="1">
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
\textLengthOn
<c f g>1
} }
</score>|width=300|caption=A C<sup>sus4</sup> chord}}A suspended chord, or "sus chord", is a chord in which the third is replaced by either the second or the fourth. This produces two main chord types: the suspended second (sus2) and the suspended fourth (sus4). The chords, C<sup>sus2</sup> and C<sup>sus4</sup>, for example, consist of the notes C–D–G and C–F–G, respectively. There is also a third type of suspended chord, in which both the second and fourth are present, for example the chord with the notes C–D–F–G.
The name ''[[suspension (music)|suspended]]'' derives from an early [[polyphonic]] technique developed during the [[common practice period]], in which a [[Stepwise motion|stepwise]] melodic progress to a harmonically stable note in any particular part was often momentarily delayed, or [[Suspension (music)|suspended]], by extending the duration of the previous note. The resulting unexpected [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]] could then be all the more satisfyingly [[Resolution (music)|resolved]] by the eventual appearance of the displaced note. In traditional music theory, the inclusion of the third in either chord would negate the suspension, so such chords would be called added ninth and added eleventh chords instead.
In modern lay usage, the term is restricted to the displacement of the third only, and the dissonant second or fourth no longer must be held over (prepared) from the previous chord. Neither is it now obligatory for the displaced note to make an appearance at all, though in the majority of cases the conventional stepwise resolution to the third is still observed. In [[post-bop]] and [[modal jazz]] compositions and improvisations, suspended seventh chords are often used in nontraditional ways: these often do not function as V chords and do not resolve from the fourth to the third. The lack of resolution gives the chord an ambiguous, static quality. Indeed, the third is often played on top of a sus4 chord. A good example is the jazz standard, "[[Maiden Voyage (composition)|Maiden Voyage]]".
Extended versions are also possible, such as the seventh suspended fourth, which, with root C, contains the notes C–F–G–B{{music|b}} and is notated as C<sup>7sus4</sup>. C<sup>sus4</sup> is sometimes written C<sup>sus</sup> since the sus4 is more common than the sus2.
:{| class="wikitable" style="margin:left"
|-
! rowspan=2 |Type
! colspan=4 | Components
! rowspan=2 | [[#Notation|Chord<br>symbol]]
! rowspan=2 | Notes
! rowspan=2 | Audio
|-
! colspan=1 | Chord
! colspan=3 | Interval(s)
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Suspended chord|Suspended second]]
| open fifth || major second || style="text-align: center;" | — || style="text-align: center;" | — || C<sup>sus2</sup> || C D G || {{Audio|Sus2 chord on C.mid|Play}}
|-
| [[Suspended chord|Suspended fourth]]
| open fifth || perfect fourth || style="text-align: center;" | — || style="text-align: center;" | — || C<sup>sus4</sup> || C F G || {{Audio|Sus4 chord on C.mid|Play}}
|- bgcolor="White"
| [[Suspended chord#Jazz sus chord|Jazz sus]]
| open fifth || perfect fourth || minor seventh || major ninth || C<sup>9sus4</sup> || C F G B{{music|b}} D || {{Audio|Jazz sus chord.mid|Play}}
|}
===Borrowed chords===
{{Main|Borrowed chord}}{{Image frame|content=<score>
{
\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
\relative c' {
\clef treble
\time 4/4
<d f aes>1_\markup { \translate #'(-7.5 . 0) { \concat { \small "C Maj.:" \hspace #1 \normalsize "ii" \raise #1 \small "o" \hspace #6 "ii" \raise #1 \small "ø7" \hspace #4 "♭III" \hspace #5.8 "iv" \hspace #5.5 "♭VI" \hspace #5.5 "vii" \raise #1 \small "o7" } } }
<d f aes c> <es g bes> <f aes c> <aes c es> <b d f aes> \bar "||"
} }
</score>|width=400|caption=Borrowed chords from the [[parallel minor]] key are commonly found in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]], [[Classical period (music)|Classical]] and [[Romantic music|Romantic]] eras.}}A borrowed chord is one from a different key than the home key, the key of the piece it is used in. The most common occurrence of this is where a chord from the [[Parallel key|parallel major or minor]] key is used. Particularly good examples can be found throughout the works of composers such as [[Schubert]]. For instance, for a composer working in the C major key, a major {{music|b}}III chord (e.g., an E{{music|b}} major chord) would be borrowed, as this chord appears only in the key of C minor. Although borrowed chords could theoretically include chords taken from any key other than the home key, this is not how the term is used when a chord is described in formal [[musical analysis]].
When a chord is analysed as "borrowed" from another key it may be shown by the Roman numeral corresponding with that key after a slash. For example, V/V (pronounced "five of five") indicates the dominant chord of the dominant key of the present home-key. The dominant key of C major is G major so this [[secondary dominant]] is the chord of the fifth degree of the G major scale, which is D major (which can also be described as II relative to the key of C major, not to be confused with the [[supertonic]] ii namely D minor.). If used for a significant duration, the use of the D major chord may cause a [[Modulation (music)|modulation]] to a new key (in this case to G major).
Borrowed chords are widely used in Western popular music and rock music. For example, there are a number of songs in E major which use the {{music|b}}III chord (e.g., a G major chord used in an E major song), the {{music|b}}VII chord (e.g., a D major chord used in an E major song) and the {{music|b}}VI chord (e.g., a C major chord used in an E major song). All of these chords are "borrowed" from the key of E minor.
==Bell chord==
<!--[[Bell chord]] and [[pyramid chord]] redirect directly here.-->
{{redirect|Bell effect|the effect of the bell on instruments|brass instrument#Bore taper and diameter|and|bell (wind)|the chromatic chord|All-interval twelve-tone row#Mother chord}}
[[File:Bell chord.png|thumb|Barbershop bell chord[[File:Bell chord.mid]]]]
A '''bell chord''', also known colloquially as "bells", is a [[arrangement|musical arrangement]] technique in which a composition has separate instruments (or multiples of the same instrument) play single [[Musical note|note]]s of a chord in sequence, [[sustain]]ing individual notes to form the chord.<ref>Averill, Gage (2003). ''Four Parts, No Waiting:A Social History of American Barbershop Quartet'', p. 205. {{ISBN|9780195116724}}.</ref> It is, in effect, an arpeggio played by several instruments sequentially. This is also known as a ''pyramid'' or ''cascade''. It is common in [[barbershop music]].
The technique originated with [[jazz]] big bands and is a staple of [[trad jazz]]. A good example can be heard in the introduction to "[[Charleston (1923 song)|The Charleston]]" by [[The Temperance Seven]].{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} "[[Bohemian Rhapsody]]" by the [[Rock music|rock]] band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] contains two occurrences of this "bell effect" in the middle section,<ref>{{YouTube|Z85YsUAU6pA|Queen – The Making of "Bohemian Rhapsody" ''Greatest Video Hits 1''}}</ref> as does the solo in [[Killer Queen]] starting at 1:48.
==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist|refs=
{{efn|name=num_notes|{{harvnb|Benward|Saker|2003|p=67}}, represents the majority view that "A ''chord'' is a harmonic unit with at least three different tones sounding simultaneously." Contrast {{harvnb|Károlyi|1965|p=63}}: "Two or more notes sounding simultaneously are known as a ''chord''".}}
}}
===Citations===
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=MWDict>{{cite book|publisher=Merriam-Webster|date=1995|chapter=Chord|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chord |title=Merriam-Webster's dictionary of English usage|page=243|isbn=978-0-87779-132-4}}</ref>
<ref name=OxfordDict>{{cite web|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/chord?rskey=UjcqH7&result=1#m_en_gb0146870 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828151955/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/chord?rskey=UjcqH7&result=1#m_en_gb0146870 |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 28, 2011 |title=Chord|website= Oxford Dictionaries}}</ref>
}}
===Sources===
{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFDahlhaus2001}}
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book|first1=William G |last1=Andrews |first2=Molly |last2=Sclater |date=2000|title=Materials of Western Music Part 1|publisher=Alfred Publishing Company, Incorporated |isbn=1-55122-034-2}}
*{{cite book|last1=Bartlette|first1= Christopher|first2= Steven G. |last2=Laitz |date=2010|title= Graduate Review of Tonal Theory|___location= New York|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-537698-2}}
*{{cite book | last1=Benjamin | first1=T. | last2=Horvit | first2=M. | last3=Nelson | first3=R. | last4=Koozin | first4=T. | title=Techniques and Materials of Music: From the Common Practice Period Through the Twentieth Century | edition=Enhanced | publisher=Cengage Learning | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-285-96580-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFM8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA46 }}
* {{cite book|last1=Benward|first1=Bruce|last2=Saker|first2=Marilyn|date=2003|title=Music in Theory and Practice|volume=I|edition=' (7th|___location=New York|publisher=McGraw Hill|oclc=61691613|isbn=9780072942620|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IkYJAQAAMAAJ}}
*{{Cite Grove |last=Dahlhaus |first=Carl |title=Harmony}}
*{{cite book|last=Duarter|first= John |date=2008|title=Melody & Harmony for Guitarists|publisher= Mel Bay Publications |isbn=978-0-7866-7688-0}}
*{{cite book|first=Winston|last=Harrison|title=The Rockmaster System: Relating Ongoing Chords to the Keyboard – Rock, Book 1|publisher=Dellwin|date=2005|isbn=9780976526704|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0Vx5VB96FQC&pg=PA33}}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*{{cite book|last=Haerle|first= Dan |date=1982|title=The Jazz Language: A Theory Text for Jazz Composition and Improvisation|publisher= Studio 224 |isbn=978-0-7604-0014-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Hanson|first= Howard|date=1960|title=Harmonic Materials of Modern Music|___location= New York|publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts|id= LOC 58-8138}}
*{{cite journal|last=Hawkins|first= Stan|title=Prince- Harmonic Analysis of 'Anna Stesia'|pages= 329, 334n7|journal=Popular Music|volume= 11|issue= 3 |date=October 1992|doi= 10.1017/S0261143000005171|s2cid= 161354788}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=George T.|year=1994|publisher=HarperCollins|title=College Outline Music Theory|isbn=0-06-467168-2}}
*{{cite book |title=Introducing Music |last=Károlyi |first=Otto |year=1965 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9780140206593 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sd6nnQEACAAJ }}
*{{cite book|last=Malm|first= William P. |date=1996|title=Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia|publisher= Prentice Hall |isbn=0-13-182387-6|edition=3rd}}
*{{cite book|first=Connie E. |last=Mayfield |date=2012|title=Theory Essentials|publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-133-30818-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Miller|first= Michael |date=2005|title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Music Theory|publisher= Penguin |isbn=978-1-59257-437-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Monath|first=Norman|year=1984|title=How to Play Popular Piano in 10 Easy Lessons|publisher=Fireside Books|isbn=0-671-53067-4}}
*{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=96DcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|title=Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording|last=Moylan|first=William|date=2014|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781136117589}}
* {{cite book|last=Nattiez|first=Jean-Jacques|author-link=Jean-Jacques Nattiez|year=1990|title=Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music|publisher=Princeton University Press |orig-year=1987 as ''Musicologie générale et sémiologue''|translator=[[Carolyn Abbate]]|isbn=0-691-02714-5}}
*{{cite journal|last=Pachet|first=François|title=Surprising Harmonies|journal=International Journal on Computing Anticipatory Systems|date=1999|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03112196}}
*{{cite book|last=Piston|first= Walter |date=1987|title=Harmony|edition=5th|___location= New York|publisher=W.W. Norton & Company|isbn=0-393-95480-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Policastro|first= Michael A. |date=1999|title=Understanding How to Build Guitar Chords and Arpeggios|publisher= Mel Bay Publications |isbn=978-0-7866-4443-8}}
*{{Cite journal| last1 = Schellenberg | first1 = E. Glenn | last2 = Bigand | first2 = Emmanuel | last3 = Poulin-Charronnat | first3 = Benedicte | last4 = Garnier | first4 = Cecilia | last5 = Stevens | first5 = Catherine | title = Children's implicit knowledge of harmony in Western music |journal=[[Developmental Science]]| volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = 551–566 | date = Nov 2005 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00447.x | pmid = 16246247}}
*{{cite book|author-link=Arnold Schoenberg|first=Arnold |last=Schoenberg|title=Structural Functions of Harmony|publisher= Faber and Faber|date= 1983}}
*{{cite book | last=Schoenberg | first=Arnold | title=Theory of harmony | publisher=University of California | publication-place=Berkeley, Calif | year=2010 | isbn=978-0-520-26608-7 | oclc=669843249}}
* {{cite book|last=Surmani|first=Andrew|author-link=Andrew Surmani|year=2004|title=Essentials of Music Theory: A Complete Self-Study Course for All Musicians|publisher=Alfred Music |isbn=0-7390-3635-1}}
*{{Cite book|last=Tanguiane |first=Andranick |date=1993|title= Artificial Perception and Music Recognition|series= Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence|volume=746|publisher=Springer |___location=Berlin-Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-540-57394-4}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Tanguiane |first=Andranick |year=1994|title= A principle of correlativity of perception and its application to music recognition|journal= Music Perception|volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=465–502|doi= 10.2307/40285634 |jstor=40285634 }}
*{{cite book|author-link=Bert Weedon|first=Bert|last=Weedon|title=Play in a Day|publisher=Faber Music|isbn=978-0-571-52965-0|date=2007|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AriGPAAACAAJ}}
{{refend}}
===Further reading===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Carl Dahlhaus|Dahlhaus, Carl]]. Gjerdingen, Robert O. trans. (1990). ''Studies in the Origin of Harmonic Tonality'', p. 67. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-09135-8}}.
* [[Donald Jay Grout|Grout, Donald Jay]] (1960). ''A History Of Western Music''. Norton Publishing.
* {{Cite book |last=Persichetti |first=Vincent |author-link=Vincent Persichetti |title=Twentieth-century Harmony: Creative Aspects and Practice |year=1961 |publisher=W. W. Norton |___location=New York |isbn=0-393-09539-8 |oclc=398434 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780393095395|ref=none}}
* [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (musicologist)|John Tyrrell]], eds. (2001). ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]''. {{ISBN|1-56159-239-0}}.
* {{Cite book | title = Music Fundamentals | first = Rod | last = Schejtman | publisher = The Piano Encyclopedia | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-987-25216-2-2 | url = http://www.pianoencyclopedia.com | access-date = 2020-07-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180831041144/http://pianoencyclopedia.com/ | archive-date = 2018-08-31 | url-status = dead|ref=none}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Chords}}
{{Consonance and dissonance|state=autocollapse}}
{{Chords|state=expanded}}
{{harmony}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chord (Music)}}
[[Category:Chords|*]]
[[Category:Harmony]]
[[Category:Accompaniment]]
[[Category:Music theory]]
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