Occam (programming language): Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Concurrent programming language}}

{{distinguish|OCaml}}

{{Distinguish|OCaml}}
{{lowercase title|occam (programming language)}}

{{Infobox programming language

| name = occam

| logo = 1983 1988 Trademark occam and occam 2 INMOS Limited.jpg

|logo =

| paradigm = [[concurrentImperative programming|Imperative]], [[Procedural programming|procedural]], [[Concurrent languagecomputing|concurrent]]

| designer = [[David May (computer scientist)|David May]]

|year = 1983

| developer = [[INMOSInmos]]

|designer =

| released = {{Start date and age|1983}}

|developer = [[INMOS]]

| latest release version = 2.1 (official), 2.5 (unofficial), 3 (not fully implemented)

| latest release date = 1988+{{Start date and age|1994}}

| typing =

| implementations =

| dialects = [[occam-π]] (pi)

|influenced_by influenced by = [[Communicating Sequentialsequential Processesprocesses]]

| influenced = [[Ease (programming language)|Ease]], [[Go (programming language)|Go]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]]

}}

'''occam''' is a [[concurrentprogramming computing|concurrentlanguage]] which is [[programmingConcurrent languagecomputing|concurrent]] thatand builds on the [[Communicatingcommunicating Sequentialsequential Processesprocesses]] (CSP) process algebra,<ref name="oc21refman">{{cite book | lastauthor=INMOS<!--Must |be authorlink=INMOSperson--> |author-link=Inmos |url=http://www.wotug.org/occam/documentation/oc21refman.pdf |title=occam 2.1 Reference Manual |publisher=SGS-Thomson Microelectronics Ltd|format=PDF |date=1995-05-12}} INMOSInmos document 72 occ 45 03</ref> and shares many of its features. It is named after philosopher [[William of Ockham]] ofafter whom [[Occam's Razorrazor]] fame.is named.

occamOccam is an [[Imperative_programmingImperative programming|imperative]] [[Procedural_programmingProcedural programming|procedural]] language (such as [[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]]). It was developed by [[David May (computer scientist)|David May]] and others at [[INMOSInmos]] (trademark INMOS), advised by [[Tony Hoare]], as the native programming language for their [[transputer]] [[microprocessor]]s, but implementations for other platforms are available. The most widely known version is occam 2; its programming manual was written by Steven Ericsson-Zenith and others at [[INMOSInmos]].

==Overview==

In the following examples indentation and formatting are critical for parsing the code: expressions are terminated by the end of the line, lists of expressions need to be on the same level of indentation. This feature, named the [[off-side rule]], is also found in other languages such as [[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]] and [[Python (programming language)|Python]].

Communication between processes work through named ''[[Channel (programming)|channels]]''. One process outputs data to a channel via '''"<code>!"'''</code> while another one inputs data with '''"<code>?"'''</code>. Input and output can notcannot proceed until the other end is ready to accept or offer data. (In the "''not proceeding"'' case it is often said that the process "''[[Blocking_Blocking (computing)|blockblocks]]s"'' on the channel. However, the program will neither spin nor poll; thereforethus terms like "''wait"'', "''hang"'' or "''yield"'' may also convey the behaviour -; also in the light of the factcontext that it will not "''block"'' other independent processes from running.) Examples (c is a variable):

keyboard ? c

Line 30 ⟶ 31:

screen ! c

'''<code>SEQ'''</code> introduces a list of expressions that are evaluated sequentially. This is not implicit as it is in most other programming languages. Example:

SEQ

Line 36 ⟶ 37:

y := x * x

'''<code>PAR'''</code> begins a list of expressions that may be evaluated concurrently. Example:

PAR

Line 42 ⟶ 43:

q()

'''<code>ALT'''</code> specifies a list of ''[[Guard (computer science)|guarded]]'' commands. The ''guards'' are a combination of a booleanBoolean condition and an input expression, (both optional). Each guard for which the condition is true and the input channel is ready is successful. One of the successful alternatives is selected for execution. Example:

ALT

Line 58 ⟶ 59:

out ! count2

This will read data from channels c1 or c2 (whichever is ready) and pass it into a merged channel. If countN reaches 100, reads from the corresponding channel will be disabled. A request on the status channel is answered by outputting the counts to <code>out</code>.

==Language revisions==

[[File:1983 Programming manual occam by INMOS Limited.jpg|thumb|1983 "occam" by INMOS Limited]]

===occam 1===

'''occam 1'''<ref name="oc1refman">{{cite book | lastauthor=INMOS<!--Must |be authorlinkperson--> |author-link=INMOSInmos |title=occam Programming Manual |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1984 |isbn=0-13-629296-8}}</ref> (released 1983) was a preliminary version of the language which borrowed from [[David May (computer scientist)|David May]]'s work on EPL and Tony Hoare's CSP. This supported only the VAR [[data type]], which was an integral type corresponding to the native word length of the target architecture, and arrays of only one dimension.

'''occam 1'''<ref name="oc1refman">{{cite book | last=INMOS | authorlink=INMOS |title=occam Programming Manual|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1984|isbn=0-13-629296-8}}</ref> (released 1983) was a preliminary version of the language which borrowed from [[David May (computer scientist)|David May]]'s work on EPL and Tony Hoare's CSP. This supported only the VAR data type, which was an integral type corresponding to the native word length of the target architecture, and arrays of only one dimension.

===occam 2===

'''occam 2'''<ref name="oc2refman">{{cite book | last=Ericsson-Zenith |first=Steven |title=occam 2 Reference Manual |publisher=Prentice-Hall |year=1988 |isbn=0-13-629312-3}}</ref> is an extension produced by INMOSInmos Ltd in 1987 that adds [[floating-point]] support, functions, multi-dimensional arrays and more data types such as varying sizes of integers (INT16, INT32) and bytes.

With this revision, occam became a language able to express useful programs, whereas occam 1 was more suited to examining algorithms and exploring the new language (however, the occam 1 [[compiler]] was written in occam 1,<ref name="cook1">{{cite conference |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvnnZtJWAZkC&q=architectures+languages+and+techniques+barry+cook |title= Occam on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays |last1=Cook |first1=Barry M |last2=Peel |first2=RMA |date=1999-04-11 |conference=22nd World Occam and Transputer User Group Technical Meeting |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Barry M. |book-title=Architectures, Languages and Techniques for Concurrent Systems |publisher=IOS Press |___location=Keele, United Kingdom |isbn= 90-5199-480-X |page=219 |access-date=2016-11-28}}</ref> so there is an existence proof that reasonably sized, useful programs could be written in occam 1, despite its limits).

'''occam 2'''<ref name="oc2refman">{{cite book | last=Ericsson-Zenith |title=occam 2 Reference Manual|publisher=Prentice-Hall|year=1988|isbn=0-13-629312-3}}</ref> is an extension produced by INMOS Ltd in 1987 that adds [[floating-point]] support, functions, multi-dimensional arrays and more data types such as varying sizes of integers (INT16, INT32) and bytes.

With this revision, occam became a language capable of expressing useful programs, whereas occam 1 was more suited to examining algorithms and exploring the new language (however, the occam 1 compiler was written in occam 1,{{Fact|date=June 2007}} so there is an existence proof that reasonably sized, useful programs could be written in occam 1, despite its limitations).

===occam 2.1===

'''occam 2.1'''<ref name="oc21refman"/> was the last of the series of occam language developments contributed by INMOSInmos. Defined in 1994, it was influenced by an earlier proposal for an '''occam 3''' language (also referred to as "occam91" during its early development) created by [[Geoff Barrett]] at INMOSInmos in the early 1990s. A revised Reference Manual describing occam 3 was distributed for community comment,<ref name="occam3">{{cite paperjournal |authorlast1=[[Geoff Barrett]] and Steven|first1=Geoff |last2=Ericsson-Zenith |first2=Steven |title=occam 3 Reference Manual |url=http://www.wotug.org/occam/documentation/oc3refman.pdf |date=1992-03-31 |publisher=[[INMOSInmos]] |access-date=2008-03-24}}</ref> but the language was never fully implemented in a compiler.

'''occam 2.1'''<ref name="oc21refman"/> was the last of the series of occam language developments contributed by INMOS. Defined in 1994, it was influenced by an earlier proposal for an '''occam 3''' language (also referred to as "occam91" during its early development) created by [[Geoff Barrett]] at INMOS in the early 1990s. A revised Reference Manual describing occam 3 was distributed for community comment,<ref name="occam3">{{cite paper|author=[[Geoff Barrett]] and Steven Ericsson-Zenith|title=occam 3 Reference Manual|url=http://www.wotug.org/occam/documentation/oc3refman.pdf|date=1992-03-31|publisher=[[INMOS]]|

format=PDF|

accessdate=2008-03-24}}</ref> but the language was never fully implemented in a compiler.

occam 2.1 introduced several new features to occam 2, including:

* Named data types (DATA TYPE x IS y)

* Named Recordsrecords

* Packed Recordsrecords

* Relaxation of some of the [[type conversion]] rules

* New operators (e.g. BYTESIN)

* Channel retyping and channel arrays

* Ability to return fixed-length array from function.

For a full list of the changes see Appendix P of the [http://www.wotug.org/occam/documentation/oc21refman.pdf INMOSInmos occam 2.1 Reference Manual].

* Named data types (DATA TYPE x IS y)

* Named Records

* Packed Records

* Relaxation of some of the type conversion rules

* New operators (e.g. BYTESIN)

* Channel retyping and channel arrays

* Ability to return fixed-length array from function.

For a full list of the changes see Appendix P of the [http://www.wotug.org/occam/documentation/oc21refman.pdf INMOS occam 2.1 Reference Manual].

===occam-π===

'''[[occam-π]]'''<ref name="kroc">{{cite web |url=http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/projects/ofa/kroc/ |title=occam-pi: blendingBlending the best of CSP and the pi-calculus |authorlast1=Fred Barnes and|first1=Fred |last2=Welch |first2=Peter Welch|date=2006-01-14 |accessdateaccess-date=2006-11-24}}</ref> is the common name for the occam variant implemented by later versions of [[KRoC]], the Kent Retargetable occam Compiler ([[KRoC]]). The addition of the symbol "''[[Pi (letter)|π]]"'' (pi) to the occam name is an allusion to the fact that KRoC occam includesincluding several ideas inspired by the [[piπ-calculus]]. It contains aseveral significant number of extensions to the occam 2.1 compiler, for example:

*[[Nesting (computing)|Nested]] [[Protocol (object-oriented programming)|protocols]]

*Nested protocols

*Run-time process creation

*Mobile channels, data, and processes

*[[recursionRecursion (computer science)|Recursion]]

*Protocol [[Inheritance (object-oriented programming)|inheritance]]

*[[array data type|Array]] [[constructorConstructor (computerobject-oriented scienceprogramming)|constructors]]

*Extended [[synchronousBarrier rendezvous(computer science)|rendezvous]]

==See also==

* The [[XC Programmingprogramming Language]]language, which is based on occam but with C-style syntax.

* [[Communicating Sequential Processes]]

* The [[XC Programming Language]], which is based on occam but with C-style syntax.

* [[Concurrent computing#Languages supporting concurrent programming|Concurrent programming languages]]

* [[List of concurrent and parallel programming languages]]

== References ==

{{reflistReflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |title=Communicating Process Architectures 2007 - WoTUG-30 |year=2007 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-767-3|pages=513 pages}} [http://www.booksonline.iospress.com/Content/View.aspx?piid=5962]

* {{cite book |title=Communicating Process Architectures 2006 - WoTUG-29 |year=2006 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-671-3|pages=391 pages}} [http://www.booksonline.iospress.com/Content/View.aspx?piid=91]

* {{cite book |title=Communicating Process Architectures 2005 - WoTUG-28 |year=2005 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-561-7|pages=405 pages}} [http://www.booksonline.iospress.com/Content/View.aspx?piid=56]

* {{cite book |last= Kerridge |first=Jon |coauthors= (ed.) |title=Transputer and Occam Research: New Directions |year=1993 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=0-8247-0711-7|pages=253 pages}}

* {{cite book |authorlink=Bill Roscoe|last=Roscoe|first=A W |author2=[[C A R Hoare]] |title=The Laws of Occam Programming |year=1986 |publisher=Programming Research Group, Oxford University }}

* Egorov, A., Technical University - Sofia, (1983-2011)'''Записки по Компютърни архитектури'''

==External links==

== Further reading ==

===General information===

* {{cite book |title=Communicating Process Architectures 2007 -– WoTUG-30 |year=2007 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-767-3|pages=513 pages}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927235308/http://www.booksonline.iospress.com/Content/View.aspx?piid=5962]

* Information, compilers, editors and utilities at the [http://www.wotug.org/occam/ WoTUG occam pages].

* {{cite book |title=Communicating Process Architectures 2006 -– WoTUG-29 |year=2006 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-671-3 |pages=391 pages}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927235321/http://www.booksonline.iospress.com/Content/View.aspx?piid=91]

* Compilers, documentation, examples, projects and utilities at the [http://www.wotug.org/parallel/occam/ Internet Parallel Computing Archive] (no longer maintained).

* {{cite book |title=Communicating Process Architectures 2005 -– WoTUG-28 |year=2005 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=978-1-58603-561-7 |pages=405 pages}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927235351/http://www.booksonline.iospress.com/Content/View.aspx?piid=56]

* Occam books on [http://www.transputer.net/obooks/obooks.asp Transputer.net].

* {{cite book |editor-last= Kerridge |editor-first=Jon |coauthors= (ed.) |title=Transputer and Occam Research: New Directions |year=1993 |publisher=IOS Press |isbn=0-8247-0711-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/insulintherapy00will/page/253 253 pages] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/insulintherapy00will/page/253 }}

* David May's [http://www.cs.bris.ac.uk/~dave/occam.html Occam page].

* {{cite book |authorlinklast1=BillRoscoe Roscoe|lastfirst1=RoscoeAndrew William |firstauthor-link1=ABill WRoscoe |author2last2=[[CHoare A|first2=Charles RAntony Richard |author-link2=Tony Hoare]] |title=The Laws of Occam Programming |year=1986 |publisher=Programming Research Group, Oxford University }}

* Fred Barnes' [http://frmb.org/occtutor.html occam tutorial].

* Egorov, A., Technical University -– Sofia, (1983-20111983–2011) '''Записки по Компютърни архитектури'''

== External links ==

===Other implementations===

* [http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/projects/ofa/kroc/ KRoC: Kent Retargetable occam Compiler].

* [http://projects.cs.kent.ac.uk/projects/tock/trac/ Tock occam compiler] - (translator from occam to C from Kent) a Haskell-based compiler for occam and related languages.

* [http://www.wotug.org/occam/ Information, compilers, editors and utilities at the [http://www.wotug.org/occam/ WoTUG occam pages].

===Related projects===

* [http://www.wotug.org/parallel/occam/ Compilers, documentation, examples, projects and utilities at the [http://www.wotug.org/parallel/occam/ Internet Parallel Computing Archive] (no longer maintained).

* [http://www.occam-pi.org/ The occam-π programming language].

* Occam books on [http://www.transputer.net/obooks/obooks.asp Occam books on Transputer.net].

* [http://rmox.net/ RMoX] - an operating system written in occam-π.

* [http://www.cs.kent.ac.uk/projects/ofa/kroc/ KRoC: Kent RetargetableThe occam-pi Compilerlanguage].

* [https://github.com/loyso/LuaCSP LuaCSP] - a framework for Occam-like Lua-based programming.

* [http://projects.cs.kent.ac.uk/projects/tock/trac/ Tock occam compiler] -– (translator from occam to C from Kent) a Haskell-based compiler for occam and related languages.

* [http://www.transterpreter.org/ The Transterpreter] - a transputer virtual machine.

{{Authority control}}

{{FOLDOC}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Occam (Programming Language)}}

[[Category:Concurrent programming languages]]

[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]