Utente:Drow/Sandbox: differenze tra le versioni

Contenuto cancellato Contenuto aggiunto
+ en:Animal cognition, Cognizione animale , 13:21, 12 April 2014 , 603874678
Omega Bot (discussione | contributi)
m Bot: fix html
 
(73 versioni intermedie di 2 utenti non mostrate)
Riga 1:
[[File:Francesco Hayez 028.jpg|thumb|Odysseus Overcome by Demodocus' Song, by Francesco Hayez, 1813–15]]
'''Faccia di Boe''' (''Face of Boe'') è un essere antico e saggio che viene incontrato in alcuni episodi ambientati nel futuro (''La fine del mondo'', ''La vendetta di Cassandra'', ''L'ingorgo''). È formato dalla sola faccia di forma umanoide, contenuta in una teca di vetro. Si dice sia l'essere più antico dell'universo, e custodisce un segreto che rivela al Dottore solo alla sua morte. Nel tredicesimo episodio della terza stagione si allude che egli possa essere in realtà l'immortale [[Jack Harkness]], sopravvissuto per miliardi di anni ma con ora un corpo in decadimento. Il produttore esecutivo Russell T. Davies ha tuttavia dichiarato in un'intervista che il collegamento tra i due personaggi, se davvero esiste, non verrà esplicitato.<ref>{{cita web|lingua=en|url=http://www.nj.com/entertainment/tv/index.ssf/2009/06/russell_t_davies_talks_doctor.html|titolo=Russell T. Davies talks 'Doctor Who' & 'Torchwood'|autore=Alan Sepinwall|editore=nj.com|accesso=6 luglio 2012|data=26 giugno 2009}}</ref>
'''Mythology''' refers variously to the collected [[myths]] of a group of people<ref>''Oxford English Dictionary'', {{nowrap|3rd ed.}} "myth, ''n.'' Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2003.</ref> or to the study of such myths.{{sfn|Kirk|1973|p=8}} Myths are the [[Narrative|stories]] people tell to explain nature, [[history]] and [[Norm (social)|customs]].
 
Myth is a feature of every [[culture]]. Many sources for myths have been proposed, ranging from personification of nature or [[mythopoeic thought|personification of natural phenomena]], to [[history|truthful]] or [[Hyperbole|hyperbolic]] accounts of [[euhemerism|historical events]] to [[myth and ritual|explanations of existing ritual]]<nowiki/>s. Mythologizing continues, as shown in contemporary [[mythopoeia]] such as [[urban legend]]s and the expansive [[canon (fiction)|fictional mythoi]] created by [[fantasy (genre)|fantasy novels]] and [[comics]]. A culture's collective mythology helps convey [[in-group|belonging]], shared and religious experiences, behavioral models and [[pedagogy|moral and practical lessons]].
'''Mickey Smith''', interpretato da [[Noel Clarke]], è il fidanzato di Rose Tyler, è abbastanza geloso del Dottore per via del legame che c'è fra lui e Rose, infatti alla fine l'amore di Mickey non sarà più corrisposto per via del fatto che Rose si innamorerà del Dottore (sentimento da lui ricambiato). In seguito diventa un cacciatore di alieni, inoltre lui e Martha Jones, un'altra compagna di viaggio del Dottore, si sposano.
 
The study of myth began in [[ancient history]]. Rival classes of the [[Greek myths]] by [[Euhemerus]], [[Plato]] and [[Sallustius]] were developed by the [[Neoplatonists]] and later revived by [[Renaissance]] [[mythographers]]. The nineteenth-century [[comparative mythology]] reinterpreted myth as a primitive and failed counterpart of [[science]] ([[E. B. Tylor|Tylor]]), a "disease of language" ([[Max Müller|Müller]]), or a misinterpretation of [[magic and religion|magical]] [[ritual]] ([[James Frazer|Frazer]]).
'''Wilfred Mott''', interpretato da [[Bernard Cribbins]], è il nonno di Donna Noble. Vuole molto bene a sua nipote, inoltre ha sempre avuto un buon rapporto con il Dottore. Cercando di salvare Wilfred il Dottore ha dovuto sacrificarsi, rigenerandosi per la dodicesima volta.
 
Recent approaches often view myths as manifestations of psychological, cultural, or societal truths, rather than as inaccurate historical accounts.
'''Strax''' ([[Dan Starkey]]) è un soldato clone dell'esercito Sontaran, in diverse occasioni ha aiutato il Dottore. Viene ucciso nell'episodio ''[[Episodi di Doctor Who (nuova serie) (sesta stagione)#Un uomo buono va in guerra|Un uomo buono va in guerra]]'', ma viene riportato in vita da Madame Vastra e sua moglie Jenny nel periodo vittoriano, diventando loro compagno e maggiordomo.
 
'''Madame Vastra''' ([[Neve Mclntosh]]) è una siluriana che aiuta il Dottore in diverse avventure. Omosessuale, sposata con un'umana di nome Jenny, nel periodo vittoriano viene riconosciuta coma una grande investigatrice col nome di "Velata Detective". Secondo quanto detto dal Dottor Simeon in ''I pupazzi di neve'', [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] ha creato [[Sherlock Holmes]] basandosi sulle avventure sue e di Jenny.
 
<nowiki>=== La Chiesa ===</nowiki>
<br>Appare negli episodi ''[[Episodi_di_Doctor_Who_(nuova_serie)_(quinta_stagione)#Il_tempo_degli_Angeli|Il tempo degli Angeli]]'', ''[[Episodi_di_Doctor_Who_(nuova_serie)_(quinta_stagione)#Carne_e_pietra|Carne e pietra]]'', ''[[Episodi_di_Doctor_Who_(nuova_serie)_(sesta_stagione)#Un_uomo_buono_va_in_guerra|Un uomo buono va in guerra]]'' e ''[[Episodi_speciali_di_Doctor_Who#The_Time_of_the_Doctor|The Time of the Doctor]]''. Si tratta di un'organizzazione religiosa e militare del 51esimo e 52esimo secolo, che secondo l'[[Dottore (Doctor Who)|Undicesimo Dottore]] si è evoluta dalla [[Chiesa Cattolica]] terrestre (''Il tempo degli Angeli''). I suoi obiettivi sono la sicurezza interstellare e la protezione delle popolazioni umane, ed è dotata di tutte le più avanzate tecnologie del suo periodo (si tratta essenzialmente di un'organizzazione di ''[[intelligence]]''). Il suo comando e i suoi capi si trovano sul ''Mainframe Papale'', un enorme astronave-chiesa spaziale.
 
== Terminologia ==
Parte della Chiesa sono i [[#L'Ordine del Silenzio|Silenti]] che sono semplicemente suoi confessori (''The Time of the Doctor'').
Il termine "mitologia" può riferirsi sia alla ''studio'' dei miti che a una collezione degli stessi.<ref name="Kirk-p8">Kirk, p.8</ref> Ad esempio, la [[mitologia del territorio]] è lo studio delle caratteristiche di un territorio in termini di mitologia totemica, mentre la [[mitologia ittita]] è invece il complesso dei miti degli [[Ittiti]]. [[Alan Dundes]] definisce il mito come [[racconto]] [[sacro]], che spiega come il mondo e l'umanità si siano evoluti nella loro forma attuale. Il mito è per Dundes "una storia che serve a definire la visione fondamentale di una cultura spiegando gli aspetti del mondo naturale e delineando le pratiche psicologiche e sociali e gli ideali di una società".<ref name=grassie/>
Numerosi studiosi di altri settori usano però il termine "mito" in modi alquanto diversi;<ref name = "madness">Dundes, "Madness", p. 147</ref><ref>Doty, pp. 11–12</ref><ref>Segal, p. 5</ref> in un senso molto ampio, il vocabolo può riferirsi a qualunque [[racconto tradizionale]]<ref name="Kirk-p57,74" /> o, occasionalmente, a un [[preconcetto popolare]] o a un'entità immaginaria.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Merriam-Webster]]'s Collegiate Dictionary|chapter=myth|page=770|edition=10th|publisher=[[Merriam-Webster]], Inc|___location=[[Springfield, Massachusetts]]|year=1993}}</ref>
 
Il mito viene spesso nettamente distinto da concetti della letteratura didattica come ad esempio le favole, ma il suo rapporto con altri tipi di letteratura popolare, come ad esempio la [[leggenda]] e il [[folclore]], è più nebuloso.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 7}} I personaggi principali dei miti sono in genere [[divinità|dèi]], [[semidio|semidei]] o superuomini,{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}<ref name="mythfolk">"myths", ''A Dictionary of English Folklore''</ref><ref>O'Flaherty, p.78: "I think it can be well argued as a matter of principle that, just as 'biography is about chaps', so mythology is about gods."</ref> mentre i protagonisti delle leggende sono generalmente costituiti da persone normali.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}} Esistono però molte eccezioni a questi due caratteri; si possono riscontrare degli esempi di queste eccezioni nell'''[[Iliade]]'', nell<nowiki>'</nowiki>''[[Odissea]]'' e nell<nowiki>'</nowiki>''[[Eneide]]''.{{sfn|Kirk|1973|pp=22, 32}}{{sfn|Kirk|1984|p= 55}} I miti sono generalmente avallati da preti e capi politici e sono legati alla religione e alla spiritualità.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}} Molte società raggruppano insieme la loro storia e i loro miti e leggende, considerando i miti come racconti fattuali del loro passato remoto.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}<ref name="mythfolk"/>{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 23}}{{sfn|Pettazzoni|1984|p= 102}} I [[Creazione (teologia)|miti sulla creazione]], in particolare, si svolgono sempre in un'epoca primordiale in cui il mondo non ha ancora raggiunto la sua forma attuale.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}{{sfn|Dundes|1984|p= 1}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 6}} Other myths explain how a society's [[norm (social)|customs]], [[institution]]s and [[taboo]]s were established and sanctified.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 6}} A separate space is created for folktales,{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 17}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 10–11}}{{sfn|Pettazzoni|1984|pp= 99–101}} which are not considered true by anyone.{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 9}} As stories spread to other cultures or as faiths change, myths can come to be considered folktales.{{sfn|Doty|2004|p=114}}{{sfn|Bascom|1965|p= 13}} Its divine characters are recast as either as humans or demihumans such as [[Giant (mythology)|giant]]s, [[elf|elves]] and [[faerie]]s.<ref name="mythfolk"/>
Una parte della Chiesa, scissasi e ribellatasi al suo comando
 
==Origins==
[[File:Palmyrenian relief Louvre AO2398.jpg|thumb|[[Palmyrenian]] relief [[Louvre]]]]
 
===Euhemerism===
{{Voce principale|Euhemerism}}
{{vedi anche|Erodoto}}
One theory claims that myths are distorted accounts of historical events.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 194}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} According to this theory, storytellers repeatedly elaborate upon historical accounts until the figures in those accounts gain the status of gods.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 194}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} For example the myth of the wind-god [[Aeolus]] may have evolved from a historical account of a king who taught his people to use sails and interpret the winds.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 194}} [[Herodotus]] (fifth-century BC) and [[Prodicus]] made claims of this kind.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} This theory is named ''euhemerism'' after mythologist [[Euhemerus]] (c.320 BC), who suggested that Greek gods developed from legends about human beings.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}}<ref>"Euhemerism", ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions''</ref>
 
===Allegory===
Some theories propose that myths began as allegories for natural phenomena: [[Apollo]] represents the sun, [[Poseidon]] represents water, and so on.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} According to another theory, myths began as allegories for philosophical or spiritual concepts: [[Athena]] represents wise judgment, [[Aphrodite]] desire, and so on.{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 45}} [[Max Müller|Müller]] supported an allegorical theory of myth. He believed myths began as allegorical descriptions of nature and gradually came to be interpreted literally. For example, a poetic description of the sea as "raging" was eventually taken literally and the sea was then thought of as a raging god.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 20}}
 
===Personification===
{{See also|Mythopoeic thought}}
Some thinkers claimed that myths result from the [[Anthropomorphism|personification]] of inanimate objects and forces. According to these thinkers, the ancients worshiped natural phenomena, such as fire and air, gradually deifying them.{{sfn|Bulfinch|2004|p= 195}} For example, according to this theory, ancients tended to view things as gods, not as mere objects.{{sfn|Frankfort|Frankfort|Wilson|Jacobsen|2013|p= 4}} Thus, they described natural events as acts of personal gods, giving rise to myths.{{sfn|Frankfort|Frankfort|Wilson|Jacobsen|2013|p= 15}}
[[File:Mythology.png|thumb|Most cultures across the globe have some form of mythology]]
 
===Myth-ritual theory===
[[File:Washoe chimpanzee.jpg|thumb|right|300px|'''[[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]]''', a female [[common chimpanzee]] who was the first non-human to learn to communicate using [[American Sign Language]], as part of a [[animal research|research experiment]] on [[animal language acquisition]].]]
{{See also|Myth and ritual}}
According to the myth-ritual theory, myth is tied to ritual.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 61}} In its most extreme form, this theory claims myths arose to explain rituals.{{sfn|Graf|1996|p= 40}} This claim was first put forward by [[William Robertson Smith|Smith]],{{sfn|Meletinsky|2014| pp=19–20}} who claimed that people begin performing rituals for reasons not related to myth. Forgetting the original reason for a ritual, they account for it by inventing a myth and claiming the ritual commemorates the events described in that myth.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 63}} [[James Frazer|Frazer]] claimed that humans started out with a belief in magical laws. Later, they began to lose faith in magic and invented myths about gods, claiming that their rituals were religious rituals intended to appease the gods.{{sfn|Frazer|1913|p= 711}}
 
==Functions==
[[File:Holy Grail digital art.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Holy Grail]] digital art part of [[Christian mythology]].]]
[[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] argued that one of the foremost functions of myth is to establish models for behavior{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 8}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 51}} and that myths may provide a religious experience. By telling or reenacting myths, members of traditional societies detach themselves from the present, returning to the mythical age, thereby coming closer to the divine.{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 23}}{{sfn|Honko|1984|p= 51}}{{sfn|Eliade|1998|p= 19}}
 
[[Lauri Honko|Honko]] asserted that, in some cases, a society reenacts a myth in an attempt to reproduce the conditions of the mythical age. For example, it might reenact the healing performed by a god at the beginning of time in order to heal someone in the present.{{sfn|Honko|1984| p=49}} Similarly, [[Roland Barthes|Barthes]] argued that modern culture explores religious experience. Since it is not the job of science to define human morality, a religious experience is an attempt to connect with a perceived moral past, which is in contrast with the technological present.{{sfn|Barthes|1972}}
 
[[Joseph Campbell|Campbell]] writes:
 
:"In the long view of the history of mankind, four essential functions of mythology can be discerned. The first and most distinctive – vitalizing all – is that of eliciting and supporting a sense of awe before the mystery of being."{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=519}}
:"The second function of mythology is to render a cosmology, an image of the universe that will support and be supported by this sense of awe before the mystery of the presence and the presence of a mystery."{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=519}}
:"A third function of mythology is to support the current social order, to integrate the individual organically with his group;"{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=520}}
"The fourth function of mythology is to initiate the individual into the order of realities of his own psyche, guiding him toward his own spiritual enrichment and realization."{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=521}}
 
In a later work Campbell explained the relationship of myth to civilization:
 
:The rise and fall of civilisations in the long, broad course of history can be seen largely to be a function of the integrity and cogency of their supporting canons of myth; for not authority but aspiration is the motivator, builder, and transformer of civilisation. A mythological canon is an organisation of symbols, ineffable in import, by which the energies of aspiration are evoked and gathered toward a focus.{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=5}}
 
Yet the history of civilization is not one of harmony.
:There are two pathologies. One is interpreting myth as pseudo-science, as though it had to do with directing nature instead of putting oneself in accord with nature, and the other is the political interpretation of myths to the advantage of one group within a society, or one society within a group of nations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Boa|first=Fraser|title=The way of myth : talking with Joseph Campbell|year=1994|publisher=Shambhala|___location=Boston|isbn=1-57062-042-3|page=152|edition=1st Shambhala}}</ref>
 
Campbell answers the question, "''what is the function of myth today''?" in the second episode of [[Bill Moyers]]'s ''[[The Power of Myth]]'' series.
 
[[Devdutt Pattanaik|Pattanaik]] defines mythology as "a subjective truth of people that is communicated through stories, symbols and rituals". He adds, "unlike fantasy that is nobody’s truth, and history that seeks to be everybody’s truth, mythology is somebody’s truth."<ref name="PD2016">{{cite web | last=Pattanaik | first=Devdutt| title=Why I Insist On Calling Myself A Mythologist | website=Swarajya | date=14 September 2015 | url=http://swarajyamag.com/culture/why-i-insist-on-calling-myself-a-mythologist | accessdate=24 July 2016}}</ref>
 
==History of the academic discipline==
[[File:Myths and legends of Babylonia and Assyria (1916) (14801987593).jpg|thumb|Myths and legends of [[Babylonia]] and [[Assyria]] (1916).]]
Historically, the important approaches to the study of mythology have been those of [[Giambattista Vico|Vico]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]], [[Schiller]], [[Carl Jung|Jung]], [[Freud]], [[Lévy-Bruhl]], [[Lévi-Strauss]], [[Northrop Frye|Frye]], the Soviet school, and the [[Myth and Ritual School]].<ref>Guy Lanoue, Foreword to Meletinsky, p.viii</ref>
 
===Pre-modern===
The critical interpretation of myth began with the [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|Presocratics]].{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 1}} Euhemerus was one of the most important pre-modern mythologists. He interpreted myths as accounts of actual historical events - distorted over many retellings. Sallustius<ref>On the Gods and the World, ch. 5, See Collected Writings on the Gods and the World, The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1995</ref> divided myths into five categories – theological, physical (or concerning natural laws), animistic (or concerning soul), material, and mixed. Mixed concerns myths that show the interaction between two or more of the previous categories and are particularly used in initiations.
 
Plato famously condemned poetic myth when discussing education in the ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]].'' His critique was primarily on the grounds that the uneducated might take the stories of gods and heroes literally. Nevertheless, he constantly referred to myths throughout his writings. As [[Platonism]] developed in the phases commonly called Middle Platonism and [[neoplatonism]], writers such as [[Plutarch]], [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], [[Proclus]], [[Olympiodorus the younger|Olympiodorus,]] and [[Damascius]] wrote explicitly about the symbolic interpretation of traditional and Orphic myths.<ref>Perhaps the most extended passage of philosophic interpretation of myth is to be found in the fifth and sixth essays of Proclus’ ''Commentary on the Republic'' (to be found in ''The Works of Plato I'', trans. Thomas Taylor, The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1996); Porphyry’s analysis of the Homeric Cave of the Nymphs is another important work in this area (''Select Works of Porphyry'', Thomas Taylor The Prometheus Trust, Frome, 1994). See the external links below for a full English translation.</ref>
 
Interest in polytheistic mythology revived during the [[Renaissance]], with early works on mythography appearing in the sixteenth-century, such as the ''[[Theologia mythologica|Theologia Mythologica]]'' (1532). While myths are not the same as fables, legends, folktales, fairy tales, anecdotes, or fiction, the concepts may overlap. Notably, during the nineteenth century period of Romanticism, folktales and fairy tales were perceived as eroded fragments of earlier mythology (famously by the [[Brothers Grimm]] and [[Elias Lönnrot]]).
 
Mythological themes were consciously employed in literature, beginning with [[Homer]]. The resulting work may expressly refer to a mythological background without itself becoming part of a body of myths ([[Cupid and Psyche]]). Medieval romance in particular plays with this process of turning myth into literature. ''Euhemerism'', as stated earlier, refers to the rationalization of myths, putting themes formerly imbued with mythological qualities into pragmatic contexts. An example of this would be following a cultural or religious paradigm shift (notably the re-interpretation of [[Paganism|pagan]] mythology following [[Christianization]]).
 
Conversely, historical and literary material may acquire mythological qualities over time. For example, the [[Matter of Britain]] (the legendary history of Great Britain, especially those focused on [[King Arthur]] and [[Round Table|the knights of the Round Table]]) and the [[Matter of France]], based on historical events of the fifth and eighth-centuries respectively, were first made into [[epic poetry]] and became partly mythological over the following centuries. "Conscious generation" of mythology was termed ''mythopoeia'' by [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien]] and was notoriously also suggested, separately, by Nazi ideologist [[Alfred Rosenberg]].
 
===Nineteenth-century===
The first scholarly theories of myth appeared during the second half of the nineteenth-century.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 1}} In general, these nineteenth-century theories framed myth as a failed or obsolete mode of thought, often by interpreting myth as the primitive counterpart of modern science.{{sfn|Segal|2015|pp= 3–4}}
 
For example, [[Edward Burnett Tylor|Tylor]] interpreted myth as an attempt at a literal explanation for natural phenomena. Unable to conceive impersonal natural laws, early humans tried to explain natural phenomena by attributing souls to inanimate objects, giving rise to [[animism]].{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 4}} According to Tylor, human thought evolved through stages, starting with mythological ideas and gradually progressing to scientific ideas. Not all scholars, not even all nineteenth-century scholars, accepted this view. [[Lucien Lévy-Bruhl|Lévy-Bruhl]] claimed "the primitive mentality is a condition of the human mind, and not a stage in its historical development."<ref>{{cite book|last=Mâche|title=Music, Myth and Nature, or The Dolphins of Arion| year=1992| pages= 8}}</ref>
 
[[Max Müller|Müller]] called myth a "disease of language". He speculated that myths arose due to the lack of abstract nouns and neuter gender in ancient languages. Anthropomorphic figures of speech, necessary in such languages, were eventually taken literally, leading to the idea that natural phenomena were in actuality conscious beings or gods.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 20}}
 
[[James George Frazer|Frazer]] saw myths as a misinterpretation of magical rituals, which were themselves based on a mistaken idea of natural law.{{sfn|Segal|2015|pp= 67–68}} According to Frazer, humans begin with an unfounded belief in impersonal magical laws. When they realize applications of these laws do not work, they give up their belief in natural law in favor of a belief in personal gods controlling nature, thus giving rise to religious myths. Meanwhile, humans continue practicing formerly magical rituals through force of habit, reinterpreting them as reenactments of mythical events. Finally humans come to realize nature follows natural laws, and they discover their true nature through science. Here again, science makes myth obsolete as humans progress "from magic through religion to science."{{sfn|Frazer|1913|p= 711}}
 
Segal asserted that by pitting mythical thought against modern scientific thought, such theories imply modern humans must abandon myth.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 3}}
 
===Twentieth-century===
[[File:Gustave Moreau Prometheus.jpg|thumb|''[[Prometheus]]'' (1868) by [[Gustave Moreau]]. In the mythos of [[Hesiodus]] and possibly [[Aeschylus]] (the [[Greek mythos|Greek]] trilogy ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'', ''[[Prometheus Unbound (Aeschylus)|Prometheus Unbound]]'' and ''[[Prometheus Pyrphoros]]''), Prometheus is bound and tortured for giving fire to humanity.]]
Many twentieth-century theories rejected the nineteenth-century theories' opposition of myth and science. In general, "twentieth-century theories have tended to see myth as almost anything but an outdated counterpart to science […]. Consequently, modern individuals are not obliged to abandon myth for science."{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 3}}
 
[[Carl Jung|Jung]] tried to understand the psychology behind world myths. Jung asserted that all humans share certain innate unconscious psychological forces, which he called ''[[archetypes]]''. He believed similarities between the myths of different cultures reveals the existence of these universal archetypes.<ref>Boeree</ref>
 
Campbell described two orders of mythology: myths that "are metaphorical of spiritual potentiality in the human being," and myths "that have to do with specific societies."{{sfn|Campbell|1976|p=22}} His major work is ''The Masks of God I-IV''. In the first volume, ''Primitive Mythology'', he clearly outlines his intention:
{{quote|Without straining beyond the treasuries of evidence already on hand in these widely scattered departments of our subject, therefore, but simply gathering from them the membra disjuncta of a unitary mythological science, I attempt in the following pages the first sketch of a natural history of the gods and heroes, such as in its final form should include in its purview all divine beings—as zoology includes all animals and botany all plants—not regarding any as sacrosanct or beyond its scientific ___domain. For, as in the visible world of the vegetable and animal kingdoms, so also in the visionary world of the gods: there has been a history, an evolution, a series of mutations, governed by laws; and to show forth such laws is the proper aim of science.{{sfn|Campbell|1976|p=4}}}}
 
In his fourth volume Campbell coined the phrase, ''[[creative mythology]]'', which he explains as:
{{quote|In the context of traditional mythology, the symbols are presented in socially maintained rites, through which the individual is required to experience, or will pretend to have experienced, certain insights, sentiments and commitments. In what I'm calling creative mythology, on the other hand, this order is reversed: the individual has had an experience of his own – of order, horror, beauty, or even mere exhilaration-which he seeks to communicate through signs; and if his realization has been of a certain depth and import, his communication will have the force and value of living myth-for those, that is to say, who receive and respond to it of themselves, with recognition, uncoerced.{{sfn|Campbell|1991|p=4}}}}
 
[[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] believed myths reflect patterns in the mind and interpreted those patterns more as fixed mental structures, specifically pairs of opposites (good/evil, compassionate/callous), rather than unconscious feelings or urges.{{sfn|Segal|2015|p= 113}}
 
In his appendix to ''Myths, Dreams and Mysteries'', and in ''The Myth of the Eternal Return'', [[Mircea Eliade|Eliade]] attributed modern humans’ anxieties to their rejection of myths and the sense of the sacred.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}
 
In the 1950s, Barthes published a series of essays examining modern myths and the process of their creation in his book ''[[Mythologies (book)|Mythologies]]''.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}}
 
Following the Structuralist Era (roughly the 1960s to 1980s), the predominant anthropological and sociological approaches to myth increasingly treated myth as a form of narrative that can be studied, interpreted and analyzed like ideology, history and culture. In other words, myth is a form of understanding and telling stories that is connected to power, political structures, and political and economic interests. These approaches contrast with approaches such as those of Campbell and Eliade that hold that myth has some type of essential connection to ultimate sacred meanings that transcend cultural specifics. In particular, myth was studied in relation to history from diverse social sciences. Most of these studies share the assumption that history and myth are not distinct in the sense that history is factual, real, accurate, and truth, while myth is the opposite.
 
==Comparative mythology==
{{Main article|Comparative mythology}}
Comparative mythology is the systematic comparison of myths from different cultures. It seeks to discover underlying themes that are common to the myths of multiple cultures. In some cases, comparative mythologists use the similarities between separate mythologies to argue that those mythologies have a common source. This source may inspire myths or provide a common "protomythology" that diverged into the mythologies of each culture.{{sfn|Littleton|1973|p=32}}
 
Nineteenth-century interpretations of myth were often comparative, seeking a common origin for all myths.{{sfn|Leonard|2007}} Later scholars tend to avoid universal statements about mythology. One exception to this modern trend is Campbell's ''[[The Hero With a Thousand Faces|The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]'' (1949), which claims that all [[hero]] myths follow the same underlying pattern. This theory of a [[monomyth]] later fell out of favor.{{sfn|Northup|2006|p=8}}
 
==Modern mythology==
[[File:10,000 Belgian francs of 1929 edited.jpg|thumb|1929 [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[banknote]], depicting [[Ceres (Roman mythology)|Ceres]], [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]] and [[caduceus]].]]
In modern society, myth is often regarded as a collection of stories. Scholars in the field of [[cultural studies]] research how myth has worked itself into modern discourses. Mythological discourse can reach greater audiences than ever before via digital media. Various mythic elements appear in [[television]], [[Film|cinema]] and [[video game]]s.
 
Although myth was traditionally transmitted through the oral tradition on a small scale, the film industry has enabled filmmakers to transmit myths to large audiences via film.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Film|last=Singer|first=Irving|publisher=MIT Press|year=2008|isbn=|___location=|pages=3–6}}</ref> In [[Carl Jung|Jung]]<nowiki/>ian psychology myths are the expression of a culture or society’s goals, fears, ambitions and dreams.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Indick|first=William|date=November 18, 2004|title=Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero|url=|journal=Journal of Media Psychology|doi=|pmid=|access-date=}}</ref> Film is an expression of the society in which it was produced and reflects the culture of its era and ___location.
 
The basis of modern visual storytelling is rooted in the mythological tradition. Many contemporary movies rely on ancient myths to construct narratives. [[Disney Corporation]] is well-known among cultural study scholars for "reinventing" traditional childhood myths.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Folklore Studies and Popular Film and Television: A Necessary Critical Survey|last=Koven|first=Michael|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2003|isbn=|___location=|pages=176–195}}</ref> While many films are not as obvious as Disney fairy tales, the plots of many films are based on the rough structure of myths. Mythological archetypes, such as the cautionary tale regarding the abuse of technology, battles between gods and creation stories, are often the subject of major film productions. These films are often created under the guise of [[cyberpunk]] [[action movies]], [[fantasy]], [[drama]]s and [[Apocalyptic literature|apocalyptic]] tales.{{sfn|Corner|1999|pp=47–59}}
 
Recent films such as ''[[Clash of the Titans (2010 film)|Clash of the Titans]]'', ''[[Immortals (2011 film)|Immortals]]'' and ''[[Thor (film)|Thor]]'' continue the trend of mining traditional mythology to frame modern plots. Authors use mythology as a basis for their books, such as [[Rick Riordan]], whose [[Percy Jackson & the Olympians|Percy Jackson and the Olympians]] series is situated in a modern-day world where the [[Twelve Olympians|Greek deities]] are manifest, as well as his [[The Kane Chronicles|Kane Chronicles]] with the [[Ancient Egyptian deities|Egyptian pantheon.]]
 
Modern myths such as [[urban legends]] shows that myth-making continues. Myth-making is not a collection of stories fixed to a remote time and place, but an ongoing social practice within every society.
 
==See also==
[[File:Anonymous-Fuxi and Nüwa.jpg|thumb|[[Fu Xi]] and [[Nüwa]] represented as half-snake, half-human creatures]]
;General
*[[Archetypal literary criticism]]
*[[Artificial mythology]]
*[[Creation myth]]
*[[Flood myth]]
*[[Fairy]]
*[[Fable]]
*[[Geomythology]]
*[[Legendary creature]]
*[[LGBT themes in mythology]]
*[[Mytheme]]
*[[Mythical place]]
{{Portal|Mythology}}
*[[National myth]]
*[[Origin-of-death myth]]
;Mythological archetypes
*[[Culture hero]]
*[[Death deity]]
*[[Earth Mother]]
*[[First man or woman (disambiguation)]]
*[[Hero]]
*[[Life-death-rebirth deity]]
*[[Lunar deity]]
*[[Psychopomp]]
*[[Sky father]]
*[[Solar deity]]
*[[Trickster]]
*[[Underworld]]
 
;Myth and religion
*[[Bengali mythology]]
*[[Chinese mythology]]
*[[Christian mythology]]
*[[Greek mythology]]
*[[Hindu mythology]]
*[[Hittite mythology]]
*[[Islamic mythology]]
*[[Japanese mythology]]
*[[Jesus Christ in comparative mythology]]
*[[Jewish mythology]]
*[[Magic and mythology]]
*[[Maya mythology]]
*[[Religion and mythology]]
*[[Roman mythology]]
 
;Lists
*[[List of deities]]
*[[List of legendary creatures by type]]
*[[List of legendary creatures]]
*[[List of mythical objects]]
*[[List of mythologies]]
*[[List of women warriors in folklore]]
 
== Journals about mythology==
* [http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/AMAL Amaltea, Journal of Myth Criticism]
* [http://journals.sfu.ca/pgi/index.php/pacificamyth/index Mythological Studies Journal]
* [http://nouvellemythologiecomparee.hautetfort.com/ New Comparative Mythology / Nouvelle Mythologie Comparée]
* [http://www.sbec.be/index.php/publications/ollodagos Ollodagos]
* [http://sms.zrc-sazu.si/ Studia Mythologica Slavica]
* [http://www.jgmf.org/ The Journal of Germanic Mythology and Folklore]
 
==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}
 
== References==
*{{cite book|first=Karen |last=Armstrong|authorlink=Karen Armstrong|title=A Short History of Myth (Myths series)|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=QHbE9hRA10gC}}|date=29 October 2010|publisher=Knopf Canada|isbn=978-0-307-36729-7}}
*{{cite book|first=Roland |last=Barthes|authorlink=Roland Barthes|title=Mythologies|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=jP-DBAAAQBAJ}}|date=1 January 1972|publisher=Hill and Wang|isbn=978-0-8090-7193-7|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=William Russell |last=Bascom|authorlink=William Bascom|title=The Forms of Folklore: Prose Narratives|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=AU0hNAAACAAJ}}|year=1965|publisher=University of California|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|editor-first=Alan |editor-last=Dundes|title=Sacred Narrative: Readings in the Theory of Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC}}|year=1984|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05192-8|ref=harv}}
**{{cite book|last=Honko |first=Lauri |chapter=The Problem of Defining Myth |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC}}|year=1984|ref=harv}}
**{{cite book|last=Kirk |first=G.S |chapter=On Defining Myths |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC|page=53}}|pp=53–61|year=1984|ref=harv}}
**{{cite book|last=Pettazzoni |first=Raffaele |chapter=The Truth of Myth|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=l5Om2ALAFbEC}}|year=1984|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Thomas |last=Bulfinch|authorlink=Thomas Bulfinch|title=Bulfinch's Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OskAy9XOnIsC}}|date=June 2004|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4191-1109-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Joseph|title=Occidental Mythology|year=1991|publisher=Arkana|isbn=0-14-019441-X|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Masks of God: Primitive mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=kXUZAQAAMAAJ}}|date=1 June 1976|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-004304-4|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first1=Joseph |last1=Campbell|authorlink1=Joseph Campbell|first2=Bill |last2=Moyers|authorlink2=Bill Moyers|title=The Power of Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=2GOIGuh5GJ4C}}|date=18 May 2011|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-307-79472-7}}
*{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Masks of God: Creative Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XEUTF9fxYSQC}}|year=1991|publisher=Arkana|isbn=978-0-14-019440-1}}
*{{cite book|first=John |last=Corner|title=Critical Ideas in Television Studies|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Ta9kAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1999|publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-874221-0 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=William G. |last=Doty|title=Myth: A Handbook|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=qeI5UC1rmwwC}}|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32696-7|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Christine |last=Downing|title=The Goddess: Mythological Images of the Feminine|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=U7yNnQEACAAJ}}|year=1996|publisher=Continuum}}
*[[Alan Dundes|Dundes, Alan]]. "Binary Opposition in Myth: The Propp/Levi-Strauss Debate in Retrospect". ''Western Folklore'' 56 (Winter, 1997): 39–50.
*{{cite book|editor1-first=Laurie L. |editor1-last=Patton|editor2-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Doniger|title=Myth and Method|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=OgsTmeRHpeUC|page=147}}|year=1996|publisher=University of Virginia Press|isbn=978-0-8139-1657-6|pages=147–|last=Dundes |first=Alan |chapter=Madness in Method Plus a Plea for Projective Inversion in Myth}}
*{{cite book|first=Mircea |last=Eliade|authorlink=Mircea Eliade|title=Myth and Reality|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=CaIUAAAAQBAJ}}|date=22 June 1998|publisher=Waveland Press|isbn=978-1-4786-0861-5|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Mircea |last=Eliade|title=Myths, dreams, and mysteries: the encounter between contemporary faiths and archaic realities|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=XWZSvgAACAAJ}}|year=1960|publisher=Harvill Press|isbn=978-0-06-131320-2|translator-first=Philip |translator-last=Mairet|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=John |last=Bowker|title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=mhF1QgAACAAJ}}|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-861053-3|chapter=Euhemerism|chapter-url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t101.e2315}}
*[http://www.fupress.com/Archivio/pdf/3622.pdf Fabiani, Paolo "The Philosophy of the Imagination in Vico and Malebranche". F.U.P. (Florence UP), English edition 2009.] [[PDF]]
*{{cite book|first1=Henri |last1=Frankfort|authorlink1=Henri Frankfort|first2=H. A. |last2=Frankfort|first3=John A. |last3=Wilson|first4=Thorkild |last4=Jacobsen |first5=William A.|last5= Irwin|title=The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man: An Essay of Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=tSECAAAAQBAJ}}|date=28 June 2013|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-11256-5|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Sir James George |last=Frazer|authorlink=James George Frazer|title=The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=z3sIAQAAIAAJ&pg=PR10}}|year=1913|publisher=Macmillan and Company, limited|pages=10–|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Fritz |last=Graf|title=Greek Mythology: An Introduction|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=L2yMRI5xML8C}}|date=9 May 1996|publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]]|isbn=978-0-8018-5395-1 |translator-first=Thomas |translator-last=Marier|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Humphrey |first=Sheryl |title=The Haunted Garden: Death and Transfiguration in the Folklore of Plants|___location=New York |publisher=DCA Art Fund Grant from the Council on the Arts and Humanities for Staten Island and public funding from the [[New York City Department of Cultural Affairs]]|isbn= 978-1-300-55364-9 |year=2012}}
*{{cite book|first=Geoffrey Stephen |last=Kirk|title=Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=MXtfRwFwGzMC}}|year=1973|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02389-5|ref=harv}}
*{{cite web|last=Leonard|first= Scott |title=The History of Mythology: Part I|date=August 2007|url=http://www.as.ysu.edu/~saleonard/History%20of%20Mythology%201.html |publisher=Youngstown State University |accessdate=17 November 2009|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=C. Scott |last=Littleton|title=The New Comparative Mythology: An Anthropological Assessment of the Theories of Georges Dumézil|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=KuSy6xW99agC|page=1}}|date=1 January 1973|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-02404-5|pages=1–|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Eleazar M. |last=Meletinsky|title=The Poetics of Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=kzmlAgAAQBAJ}}|date=21 January 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-59913-3|ref=harv}}
*"Myth". ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2009. [http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9108748 Encyclopædia Britannica Online], 21 March 2009
*"Myths". ''[http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t71.e725 A Dictionary of English Folklore]''. [[Jacqueline Simpson]] and Steve Roud. Oxford University Press, 2000. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. UC – Berkeley Library. 20 March 2009
*{{Cite journal|date=2006-01-01|last=Northup|first=Lesley|title=Myth-Placed Priorities: Religion and the Study of Myth|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1748-0922.2006.00018.x/abstract|journal=Religious Studies Review|language=en|volume=32|issue=1|pages=5–10|doi=10.1111/j.1748-0922.2006.00018.x|issn=1748-0922|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Wendy |last=Doniger|title=Hindu Myths: A Sourcebook Translated from the Sanskrit|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=KzlCthJ4SLkC}}|date=24 June 2004|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-190375-0}}
*{{cite book|first=Robert |last=Segal|title=Myth: A Very Short Introduction|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=wJu9CQAAQBAJ|page=19}}|date=23 July 2015|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-103769-6|pages=19–|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last=Apollodorus|title=Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: The Library of Apollodorus|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3cmSa4H_C0oC}}|year=1976|publisher= [[University of Massachusetts Press]]|isbn=0-87023-206-1|translator-last=Simpson |translator-first=Michael|chapter= Introduction|___location= Amherst|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Irving |last=Singer|title=Cinematic Mythmaking: Philosophy in Film|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DhrTiQW16-gC|page=1}}|date=24 September 2010|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-26484-6|pages=1–}}
*{{cite book|last=Slattery |first=Dennis Patrick |title=Bridge Work: Essays on Mythology, Literature and Psychology |___location=Carpinteria |publisher=Mandorla Books |year=2015}}
*{{cite journal|last=Indick |first=William |title=Classical Heroes in Modern Movies: Mythological Patterns of the Superhero |journal=Journal of Media Psychology |volume=9 |issue=3 |year=2004 |p=93–95}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Koven|first=Mikel J.|date=2003-05-22|title=Folklore Studies and Popular Film and Television: A Necessary Critical Survey|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/42709|journal=Journal of American Folklore|volume=116|issue=460|pages=176–195|doi=10.1353/jaf.2003.0027|issn=1535-1882|ref=harv}}
*{{cite web |last=Olson |first=Eric L. |title=Great Expectations: the Role of Myth in 1980s Films with Child Heroes |work= Virginia Polytechnic Scholarly Library |publisher=Virginia Polytechnic Institute And State University |date=May 3, 2011 |accessdate=October 24, 2011 |url=http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-05172011-113805/unrestricted/OLSON_EL_T_2011.pdf|format=PDF }}
*{{cite journal|last=Matira |first=Lopamundra |title=Children's Oral Literature and Modern Mass Media |journal=Indian Folklore Research Journal |volume=5 |issue=8 |year=2008 |pp=55–57}}
 
==Further reading==
* {{cite book|first=Stefan |last=Arvidsson|title=Aryan Idols: Indo-European Mythology as Ideology and Science|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=idTPDI6l0mkC}}|date=15 September 2006|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-02860-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Kees W. |last=Bolle|title=The Freedom of Man in Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=BXRMAwAAQBAJ|page=92}}|date=1 August 2010|publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers|isbn=978-1-60899-265-2|pages=92–}}
*{{cite book|first=Eric |last=Csapo|title=Theories of Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=83P3qenuH9EC}}|date=24 January 2005|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-23248-3}}
*{{cite book|first=Edith |last=Hamilton|authorlink=Edith Hamilton |title=Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=qDi4RwAACAAJ}}|date=1 January 2011|publisher=Grand Central Publishing|isbn=978-0-446-57475-4}} [[Mythology (book)|WP article]] (1998)
*{{cite book|first=Robert |last=Graves|title=Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ofyHvgAACAAJ}}|year=1959 |chapter=Introduction |translator1-first=Richard |translator1-last=Aldington |translator2-first=Delano |translator2-last=Ames|pp=v–viii}}
*[[Joseph Campbell]]
**{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Hero with a Thousand Faces|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=I1uFuXlvFgMC}}|year=2008|publisher=New World Library|isbn=978-1-57731-593-3}} [[The Hero with a Thousand Faces|WP article]]
**{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=The Flight of the Wild Gander: Explorations in the Mythological Dimension : Selected Essays, 1944-1968|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=oq-xLPfgvJ4C}}|year=2002|publisher=New World Library|isbn=978-1-57731-210-9}}
**{{cite book|first=Joseph |last=Campbell|title=Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1Kw5OWibZ0oC}}|date=September 2010|publisher=ReadHowYouWant.com|isbn=978-1-4587-5773-9}} [[Thou Art That (book)|WP article]]
*{{cite book |first1=José Manuel |last1=Losada |author1link=José Manuel Losada |first2=Antonella |last2=Lipscomb |title=Myths in Crisis. The Crisis of Myth |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-443-87814-2}}
*[[Mircea Eliade]]
**{{cite book|first=Mircea |last=Eliade|title=The Myth of the Eternal Return: Cosmos and History|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zHjV4WICvSwC}}|year=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-12350-0|ref=harv}}
**{{cite book|title=The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zBzzv977CLgC}}|year=1959|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=0-15-679201-X |translator-first=Willard R. |translator-last=Trask}}
*[[Louis Herbert Gray]] [ed.], ''[[The Mythology of All Races]]'', in 13 vols., 1916-1932.
*[[Lucien Lévy-Bruhl]]
**''Mental Functions in Primitive Societies'' (1910)
**''Primitive Mentality'' (1922)
**''The Soul of the Primitive'' (1928)
**''The Supernatural and the Nature of the Primitive Mind'' (1931)
**''Primitive Mythology'' (1935)
**''The Mystic Experience and Primitive Symbolism'' (1938)
*{{cite book|first=Maria |last=Petringa|title=Brazzà, A Life for Africa|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=USwXz-prS3wC}}|date=13 January 2006|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4520-7605-8}}
*{{cite book|first=Barry B. |last=Powell|title=Classical Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=dqOSAgAAQBAJ}}|year=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-205-17607-6}}
*{{cite book|first1=Giorgio |last1=De Santillana|first2=Hertha|last2= von Dechend|title=Hamlet's Mill: An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=ql7ATHGee50C}}|date=January 1977|publisher=David R. Godine Publisher|isbn=978-0-87923-215-3}}
<!--not useful to the modern reader*[[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling]]
**''Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology'', 1856.
**''Philosophy of Mythology'', 1857.
**''Philosophy of Revelation'', 1858.-->
*{{cite book|first1=Isabelle Loring |last1=Wallace|first2=Jennie |last2=Hirsh|title=Contemporary Art and Classical Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=lmTBt5_9AJ0C}}|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6974-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Steven |last=Walker|title=Jung and the Jungians on Myth|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=VNhQAwAAQBAJ}}|date=8 April 2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-34767-3}}
*{{cite book|first1=Vanda |last1=Zajko|first2=Miriam |last2=Leonard|title=Laughing with Medusa: Classical Myth and Feminist Thought|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=1kFQNAAACAAJ}}|date=10 January 2008|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-923794-4|ref=harv}}
*Zong, In-Sob. ''Folk Tales from Korea''. 3rd ed. Elizabeth: Hollym, 1989.
 
==External links==
*[[:s:The New Student's Reference Work/Mythology|The New Student's Reference Work/Mythology]], ed. Beach (1914), at [[wikisource]].
*[http://www.as.ysu.edu/~saleonard/History%20of%20Mythology%201.html Leonard, Scott. "The History of Mythology: Part I"]. [[Youngstown State University]].
*[http://www.theoi.com/ Greek mythology]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/ Sacred texts]
*[http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/FisMyth.html Myths and Myth-Makers] Old Tales and Superstitions Interpreted by comparative mythology by John Fiske.
*[http://www.limc-france.fr/presentation LIMC] [[Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae]], a database of ancient objects linked with mythology
*[http://vimeo.com/62378811 Joseph Campbell on Bill Moyers's ''The Power of Myth'']
*[http://ljubincic.com/dreams-visions-myths-making-sense-world/ Dreams, Visions, and Myths: Making Sense of Our World]
 
== Poteri e abilità ==
L'abilità mutante di Kitty consiste nell'attraversare qualsiasi oggetto solido si trovi sul suo cammino, riuscendo a "slegare" i propri atomi ed a passare tra gli spazi atomici di qualsiasi oggetto o materiale decida. Può anche estendere questo status d'intangibilità ad una dozzina di persone o di oggetti (aventi la stessa massa) attorno a lei, purché mantengano un contatto fisico. L'uso delle sue abilità interferisce con i sistemi elettrici attraverso cui passa interrompendo il flusso di [[elettrone|elettroni]] da atomo ad atomo; allo stesso modo interferisce anche con i sistemi bio-elettrici degli organismi viventi, quando si concentra nel modo giusto a tal fine.<ref>''X-Men Black Sun'' #1</ref> Ciò fa sì che possa mandare fuori controllo qualsiasi meccanismo elettronico stia attraversando, e causare shock e perdita di conoscenza agli esseri viventi che attraversa.
 
Kitty è attualmente in grado di decidere quando diventare "intangibile", ma per un periodo (di oltre dieci anni nella storia reale, e di circa due anni nei fumetti) è esistita nello stato intangibile e per ridiventare solida aveva bisogno di deciderlo consapevolmente.<ref>''X-Men True Friends'' #1 (1999)</ref> Mentre intangibile, lei non cammina fisicamente sulle superfici, ma piuttosto interagisce con le molecole d'aria sopra di loro, cosa che le permette di salire e scendere, ovvero di levitare. Sempre nella forma intangibile è immune alla maggior parte degli attacchi fisici ed è particolarmente resistene alla [[telepatia]]. Tuttavia se colpita violentemente o costretta ad attraversare materiali tossici (come l'adamantio), il suo fisico ne risente pesantemente, arrivando a farla disorientare o a provare dolore.<ref>''Wolverine'' vol. 1 #125</ref> La sua capacità di attraversare le sostanze è inoltre influenzata dalla sua capacità di trattenere il respiro. Se non arriva ad ossigenare il suo organismo non riesce ad attraversare correttamente un materiale con il rischio che le sue molecole si fondano e la uccidano.
 
Se tutto ciò non bastasse a fare di lei un'ottima X-Woman, Kitty è anche dotata di un altissimo quoziente intellettivo, ed è un genio dei computer. Dopo la possessione di Ogun, ha sviluppato un notevole talento nelle arti marziali (nelle quali è stata addestrata dallo stesso Wolverine), e si è allenata a passare dalla forma tangibile a quella intangibile inconsciamente, per essere sempre pronta ad un eventuale pericolo. Come si vede in una delle scene su Astonishing X-Men, quando venne scoperta nei laboratori segreti della Benetech e le spararono contro, il suo organismo passò dalla forma corporea a quella intangibile istantaneamente. Kitty è anche una ballerina professionista.
 
 
 
 
 
 
<!-- [[File:Washoe chimpanzee.jpg|thumb|right|300px|'''[[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]]''', a female [[common chimpanzee]] who was the first non-human to learn to communicate using [[American Sign Language]], as part of a [[animal research|research experiment]] on [[animal language acquisition]].]]
 
'''Animal cognition''' is the study of the mental capacities of [[animal]]s. It has developed out of [[comparative psychology]], including the study of animal conditioning and learning, but has also been strongly influenced by research in [[ethology]], [[behavioral ecology]], and [[evolutionary psychology]]. The alternative name [[cognitive ethology]] is therefore sometimes used; much of what used to be considered under the title of ''animal intelligence'' is now thought of under this heading.<ref name ="Shettleworth">{{cite book|author=Shettleworth, S.J.|year=2010|title=Cognition, Evolution and Behavior|edition=2|publisher=Oxford Press, New York}}</ref>
Riga 26 ⟶ 296:
Research has examined animal cognition in [[mammals]] (especially [[primate intelligence|primates]], [[Cetacean intelligence|cetaceans]], [[elephant intelligence|elephants]], [[Dog intelligence|dogs]], [[Cat intelligence|cats]], [[horse]]s,<ref name=Krueger_heinze_2008>{{cite journal|author=Krueger, K. and Heinze, J.|year=2008|title=Horse sense: social status of horses (Equus caballus) affects their likelihood of copying other horses` behavior|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=11|issue=3|pages=431–439|DOI=10.1007/s10071-007-0133-0|url=http://epub.uni-regensburg.de/19384/3/Krueger_Heinze_2007_Horse_sense.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Krueger_farmer_heinze_2008>{{cite journal|author=Krueger, K., Farmer, K. and Heinze, J.|year=2013|title=The effects of age, rank and neophobia on social learning in horses|journal=Animal Cognition|volume=|pages=|url=http://epub.uni-regensburg.de/29424/1/Krueger_2013.pdf}}</ref> [[raccoons]] and [[rodents]]), [[bird intelligence|birds]] (including [[Parrots#Intelligence and learning|parrots]], [[Corvidae#Intelligence|corvids]] and [[Pigeon intelligence|pigeons]]), [[reptiles]] ([[Monitor lizard#Intelligence|lizards]] and [[snakes]]), [[fish]] and [[invertebrates]] (including [[cephalopod intelligence|cephalopods]], [[Pain in invertebrates#Cognitive abilities|spiders]] and [[Pain in invertebrates#Cognitive abilities|insects]]).<ref name ="Shettleworth" />
 
== HistoricalSfondo backgroundstorico ==
 
{{ethology}}
=== La cognizione animale dagli annedoti al laboratorio ===
Il comportamento degli animali non umani ha catturato l'immaginazione umana fin dall'antichità, e nel corso dei secoli, molti scrittori hanno speculato sulla mente degli animali o sulla sua assenza, come ha creduto [[Cartesio]].<ref>Descartes, R. (1649), ''Passions of the Soul''</ref> La speculazione sull'intelligenza animale ha gradualmente ceduto il passo allo studio scientifico dopo che [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] mise esseri umani ed animali in un continuum, anche se l'approccio in gran parte aneddotico di Darwin sull'argomento non sarebbe passato al vaglio scientifico successivo.<ref>Darwin, C. 1871, ''The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex''</ref> Insoddisfatto con il metodo aneddotico di Darwin e del suo protetto J.G. Romanes,<ref>Romanes, J. G. 1883, ''Animal Intelligence''</ref> [[Edward Lee Thorndike|E. L. Thorndike]] portò gli animali in laboratorio al fine di condurre un esame obiettivo del loro comportamento. Le attente osservazioni di Thorndike della fuga di gatti, cani e pulcini da scatole-puzzle lo hanno portato a concludere che il comportamento intelligente può essere composto da associazioni semplici e che le inferenze sulla ragione, o sull'intuizione o sulla coscienza degli animali sono inutili e fuorvianti.<ref>Thorndike, E. L. 1911, ''Animal intelligence''.</ref> All'incirca nello stesso periodo, [[Ivan Pavlov|I. P. Pavlov]] iniziò i suoi studi seminali sui riflessi condizionati nei cani. Pavlov presto abbandonò i tentativi di dedurre i processi mentali canini; tali tentativi, disse, hanno portato solo a disaccordo e confusione. Era, però, disposto a proporre processi fisiologici invisibili che avrebbero potuto spiegare le sue osservazioni.<ref>Pavlov, I.P. 1928, ''Lectures on conditioned reflexes''</ref>
 
=== AnimalIl cognitionmezzo fromsecolo anecdote to laboratorycomportamentista ===
Il lavoro di Thorndike, Pavlov e poco più tardi dello schietto comportamentista [[John B. Watson]]<ref>Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it. ''Psychological Review, 20'', 158-177</ref> impostò la direzione di molte ricerche sul comportamento degli animali per più di mezzo secolo. Durante questo periodo ci fu un notevole progresso nella comprensione delle associazioni semplici; in particolare, intorno al 1930 furono chiarite le differenze tra il [[condizionamento operante]] di Thorndike e il [[condizionamento classico]] di Pavlov, prima da Miller e Kanorski e poi da [[B. F. Skinner]].<ref>Miller, S. & Konorski, J. (1928) Sur une forme particulière des reflexes conditionels. ''Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Societe de Biologie et de ses Filiales'', 99, 1155-1157</ref><ref>Skinner, B. F. (1932) ''The Behavior of Organisms''</ref> Seguirono molti esperimenti sul condizionamento, che generarono alcune teorie complesse,<ref>Hull, C. L. (1943) ''The Principles of Behavior''</ref> ma che fecero poco o nessun riferimento all'intervento di processi mentali. Probabilmente il licenziamento più esplicito dell'idea che il comportamento sia controllato da processi mentali è il [[comportamentismo radicale]] di Skinner. Questo punto di vista cerca di spiegare il comportamento, comprendente "eventi privati" come le immagini mentali, esclusivamente con riferimento alle contingenze ambientali che influiscono sull'essere umano o animale.<ref>Skinner, B. F. ''About Behaviorism'' 1976</ref>
The behavior of non-human animals has captivated human imagination from antiquity, and over the centuries many writers have speculated about the animal mind, or its absence, as [[Descartes]] would have it.<ref>Descartes, R. (1649), ''Passions of the Soul''</ref> Speculation about animal intelligence gradually yielded to scientific study after [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] placed humans and animals on a continuum, although Darwin’s largely anecdotal approach to the topic would not pass scientific muster later on.<ref>Darwin, C. 1871, ''The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex''</ref> Unsatisfied with the anecdotal method of Darwin and his protégé J. G. Romanes,<ref>Romanes, J. G. 1883, ''Animal Intelligence''</ref> [[E. L. Thorndike]] brought animal behavior into the laboratory for objective scrutiny. Thorndike’s careful observations of the escape of cats, dogs, and chicks from puzzle boxes led him to conclude that intelligent behavior may be compounded of simple associations and that inference to animal reason, insight, or consciousness is unnecessary and misleading.<ref>Thorndike, E. L. 1911, ''Animal intelligence''.</ref> At about the same time, [[I. P. Pavlov]] began his seminal studies of conditioned reflexes in dogs. Pavlov quickly abandoned attempts to infer canine mental processes; such attempts, he said, led only to disagreement and confusion. He was, however, willing to propose unseen physiological processes that might explain his observations.<ref>Pavlov, I.P. 1928, ''Lectures on conditioned reflexes''</ref>
 
Nonostante l'orientamento prevalentemente comportamentista della ricerca avvenuta prima del 1960, il rifiuto dell'idea che gli animali presentino processi mentali in quegli anni non fu comunque universale. Influenti eccezioni includono, per esempio, [[Wolfgang Köhler]]<ref>Köhler, W. (1917) ''The Mentality of Apes''</ref> e [[Edward Tolman]]. Le [[mappa cognitiva|mappe cognitive]] di quest'ultimo diedero un contributo significativo alla successiva ricerca sulla [[cognizione]] in esseri umani e animali.<ref>Tolman, E. C. (1948) ''Cognitive maps in rats and men'' Psychological Review, 55, 189-208</ref>
=== The behavioristic half-century ===
The work of Thorndike, Pavlov and a little later of the outspoken behaviorist [[John B. Watson]]<ref>Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it. ''Psychological Review, 20'', 158-177</ref> set the direction of much research on animal behavior for more than half a century. During this time there was considerable progress in understanding simple associations; notably, around 1930 the differences between Thorndike's [[Operant conditioning|instrumental (or operant) conditioning]] and Pavlov's [[Classical conditioning|classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning]] were clarified, first by Miller and Kanorski, and then by [[B. F. Skinner]].<ref>Miller, S. & Konorski, J. (1928) Sur une forme particulière des reflexes conditionels. ''Comptes Rendus des Seances de la Societe de Biologie et de ses Filiales'', 99, 1155-1157</ref><ref>Skinner, B. F. (1932) ''The Behavior of Organisms''</ref> Many experiments on conditioning followed; they generated some complex theories,<ref>Hull, C. L. (1943) ''The Principles of Behavior''</ref> but they made little or no reference to intervening mental processes. Probably the most explicit dismissal of the idea that mental processes control behavior was the [[radical behaviorism]] of Skinner. This view seeks to explain behavior, including "private events" like mental images, solely by reference to the environmental contingencies impinging on the human or animal.<ref>Skinner, B. F. ''About Behaviorism'' 1976</ref>
 
=== La rivoluzione cognitiva ===
Despite the predominantly behaviorist orientation of research before 1960, the rejection of mental processes in animals was not universal during those years. Influential exceptions included, for example, [[Wolfgang Köhler]] and his insightful chimpanzees<ref>Köhler, W. (1917) ''The Mentality of Apes''</ref> and [[Edward Tolman]] whose proposed [[cognitive map]] was a significant contribution to subsequent cognitive research in both humans and animals.<ref>Tolman, E. C. (1948) ''Cognitive maps in rats and men'' Psychological Review, 55, 189-208</ref>
A partire dal periodo intorno al 1960, la "[[psicologia cognitiva|rivoluzione cognitiva]]" della ricerca sugli esseri umani<ref>Niesser, U. (1967) ‘’Cognitive Psychology’’</ref> a poco a poco ha stimolato una simile trasformazione della ricerca con gli animali. Le inferenze su processi non direttamente osservabili diventarono prima accettabili e poi all'ordine del giorno. Un importante fautore di questo cambiamento nel modo di pensare fu [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald O. Hebb]], il quale sostenne che "mente" è semplicemente un nome per i processi nella testa che controllano il comportamento complesso, e che è necessario e possibile dedurre tali processi dal comportamento.<ref>p. 3, Hebb, D. O. 1958 ‘’ A Textbook of Psychology’’</ref> Gli animali cominciarono ad essere visti come "agenti che cercano di raggiungere degli obiettivi e che acquisiscono, archiviano, recuperano, e processano internamente informazioni a vari livelli di complessità cognitiva".<ref name="Menzel">p. 2 , Menzel, R. & Fischer, J. (2010) ‘’Animal Thinking: Contemporary Issues in Comparative Cognition’’: "''goal seeking agents that acquire, store, retrieve, and internally process information at many levels of cognitive complexity''".</ref> Tuttavia è interessante notare che molti esperimenti cognitivi con gli animali hanno usato, e usano tuttora in modo ingegnoso i metodi di condizionamento iniziati da Thorndike e Pavlov.<ref name="Wass">Wasserman & Zentall (eds) (2006) ‘’Comparative Cognition’’</ref>
 
Lo statuto scientifico della "coscienza" negli animali continua ad essere dibattuto. Una seria considerazione del pensiero cosciente negli animali è stata difesa da alcuni ([[Donald Griffin]], ad esempio<ref>Griffin, D.(1985) ‘’Animal Thinking’’</ref>), ma la maggioranza della [[comunità scientifica]] è stata notevolmente fredda a riguardo di tali suggerimenti.<ref>p.8 ff, Wasserman & Zentall (eds) (2006) ‘’Comparative Cognition’’</ref>
=== The cognitive revolution ===
Beginning around 1960, a "[[Cognitive psychology|cognitive revolution]]" in research on humans<ref>Niesser, U. (1967) ‘’Cognitive Psychology’’</ref> gradually spurred a similar transformation of research with animals. Inference to processes not directly observable became acceptable and then commonplace. An important proponent of this shift in thinking was [[Donald O. Hebb]], who argued that "mind" is simply a name for processes in the head that control complex behavior, and that it is both necessary and possible to infer those processes from behavior.<ref>p. 3, Hebb, D. O. 1958 ‘’ A Textbook of Psychology’’</ref> Animals came to be seen as "goal seeking agents that acquire, store, retrieve, and internally process information at many levels of cognitive complexity.".<ref name="Menzel">p. 2 , Menzel, R. & Fischer, J. (2010) ‘’Animal Thinking: Contemporary Issues in Comparative Cognition’’</ref> However, it is interesting to note that many cognitive experiments with animals made, and still make, ingenious use of conditioning methods pioneered by Thorndike and Pavlov.<ref name="Wass">Wasserman & Zentall (eds) (2006) ‘’Comparative Cognition’’</ref>
 
== Metodi ==
The scientific status of "consciousness" in animals continues to be hotly debated. Serious consideration of conscious thought in animals has been advocated by some (e.g., [[Donald Griffin]]),<ref>Griffin, D.(1985) ‘’Animal Thinking’’</ref> but the larger research community has been notably cool to such suggestions.<ref>p.8 ff, Wasserman & Zentall (eds) (2006) ‘’Comparative Cognition’’</ref>
L'accelerazione della ricerca sulla cognizione animale degli ultimi 50 anni ha portato ad una rapida espansione nella varietà delle specie studiate e dei metodi impiegati. Il comportamento notevole degli animali con cervello di grandi dimensioni come [[primati]] e [[cetacei]] ha rivendicato una particolare attenzione, ma tutte le specie di mammiferi grandi e piccoli, di uccelli, pesci, formiche, api e altri sono state portate in laboratorio o osservate in studi sul campo attentamente controllati. In laboratorio gli animali spingono leve, tirano stringhe, scavano per il cibo, nuotano in labirinti d'acqua, o rispondono a immagini su schermi di computer negli esperimenti sulla discriminazione, l'[[attenzione]], la [[memoria]] e la [[classificazione]].<ref name="Wass"/> Accurati studi sul campo esplorano la memoria dei nascondigli per il cibo, l'orientamento tramite le stelle<ref>[http://www.lescienze.it/news/2013/01/25/news/orientamento_scarabeo_via_lattea_cielo_stellato-1475604/ ''La danza dello scarabeo astronomo''], [[Le Scienze]].</ref>, la comunicazione, l'utilizzo di strumenti, l'identificazione di conspecifici e molte altre questioni. Gli studi spesso si concentrano sul comportamento degli animali nel loro ambiente naturale e servono alla discussione sulla funzione putativa del comportamento per la propagazione e la sopravvivenza delle specie. Questi sviluppi riflettono un aumento della "fertilizzazione incrociata" tra diversi campi di studio come l'[[etologia]] e la biologia comportamentale. Inoltre, i contributi delle [[psicobiologia|neuroscienze comportamentali]] stanno cominciando a chiarire il substrato fisiologico di qualcuno dei processi mentali derivati.
 
Diversi progetti di ricerca a lungo termine hanno catturato una buona dose di attenzione. Questi includono esperimenti sul [[linguaggio]] nelle scimmie, come quelli condotti su [[Washoe (scimpanzé)|Washoe]] e quelli su [[Nim Chimpsky]]. Altri progetti di ricerca comprendono la lunga serie di studi effettuata da [[Irene Pepperberg]] con il [[Pappagallo africano grigio]] [[Alex (pappagallo)|Alex]], il lavoro di [[Louis Herman]] sui [[tursiops|tursiopi]], e gli studi sulla memoria a lungo termine nei piccioni, in cui gli uccelli ricordavano delle foto dopo periodi di diversi anni.
== Methods ==
The acceleration of research on animal cognition in the last 50 years has led to a rapid expansion in the variety of species studied and methods employed. The remarkable behavior of large-brained animals such as [[primates]] and [[cetacea]] has claimed special attention, but all sorts of mammals large and small, birds, fish, ants, bees, and others have been brought into the laboratory or observed in carefully controlled field studies. In the laboratory, animals push levers, pull strings, dig for food, swim in water mazes, or respond to images on computer screens in discrimination, [[attention]], [[memory]], and [[categorization]] experiments.<ref name="Wass"/> Careful field studies explore memory for food caches, navigation by stars,{{citation needed|date=July 2012}} communication, tool use, identification of [[Conspecificity|conspecifics]], and many other matters. Studies often focus on the behavior of animals in their natural environments and discuss the putative function of the behavior for the propagation and survival of the species. These developments reflect an increased cross-fertilization from related fields such as [[ethology]] and behavioral biology. Also, contributions from [[behavioral neuroscience]] are beginning to clarify the physiological substrate of some inferred mental process.
 
Alcuni ricercatori hanno fatto un uso efficace di una metodologia [[Jean Piaget|Piagetiana]]: hanno preso alcuni compiti che i bambini riescono a risolvere a differenti stadi di sviluppo, e hanno indagato quali specie erano in grado di svolgere i diversi compiti. Altri sono stati ispirati da preoccupazioni [[animalismo|animalistiche]] e sulla gestione delle specie domestiche: ad esempio [[Temple Grandin]] ha sfruttato la sua esperienza unica nel campo del benessere animale e del trattamento etico degli animali da fattoria per evidenziare le similitudini sottostanti tra gli esseri umani e gli altri animali.<ref>Grandin, Temple (2009) ''Animals Make Us Human: Creating the Best life for Animals'' (con Catherine Johnson)</ref> Da un punto di vista metodologico, uno dei principali rischi di questo tipo di lavoro è però l'[[antropomorfismo]], la tendenza ad interpretare il comportamento di un animale in termini di [[sensazione|sensazioni]], pensieri e motivazioni umane.<ref name="Shettleworth"/>
Several long term research projects have captured a good deal of attention. These include ape-language experiments such as the [[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]] project and [[Nim Chimpsky|project Nim]]. Other animal projects include [[Irene Pepperberg]]'s extended series of studies with the [[African Gray Parrot]] [[Alex (parrot)|Alex]], [[Louis Herman|Louis Herman's]] work with [[bottlenosed dolphin]]s, and studies of long-term memory in pigeons in which birds were shown to remember pictures for periods of several years.
 
== Questioni di ricerca ==
Some researchers have made effective use of a [[Jean Piaget|Piagetian]] methodology, taking tasks which human children are known to master at different stages of development, and investigating which of them can be performed by particular species. Others have been inspired by concerns for [[animal welfare]] and the management of domestic species: for example [[Temple Grandin]] has harnessed her unique expertise in animal welfare and the ethical treatment of farm livestock to highlight underlying similarities between humans and other animals.<ref>Grandin, Temple (2009) ''Animals Make Us Human: Creating the Best life for Animals'' (with Catherine Johnson)</ref> From a methodological point of view, one of the main risks in this sort of work is [[anthropomorphism]], the tendency to interpret an animal's behavior in terms of human [[feeling]]s, thoughts, and motivations.<ref name="Shettleworth"/>
[[Image:Chimpanzee and stick.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Lo scimpanzé comune è in grado di usare degli strumenti. Quest'individuo sta usando un bastone per procurarsi del cibo.]]
La [[cognizione]] umana e quella animale hanno molto in comune, e questo si riflette nei temi di ricerca di seguito riassunti: la maggior parte delle voci che si trovano qui appaiono anche negli articoli sulla cognizione umana. Naturalmente, la ricerca nei due settori differisce sotto aspetti importanti. In particolare, gran parte della ricerca con gli esseri umani studia o coinvolge il linguaggio, e gran parte della ricerca con gli animali è invece legata direttamente o indirettamente ai comportamenti importanti per la sopravvivenza di quei particolari animali negli ambienti naturali. Di seguito sono riassunte alcune delle principali aree di ricerca nella cognizione animale.
 
=== Research questionsPercezione ===
Come gli esseri umani, gli animali non umani elaborano le informazioni provenienti da occhi, orecchie e altri organi sensoriali per la percezione dell'ambiente. I processi percettivi sono stati studiati in molte specie, con risultati che sono spesso simili a quelli per gli umani. Altrettanto interessanti sono quei processi percettivi che differiscono da, o vanno oltre quelli che si trovano negli esseri umani, come ad esempio l'[[ecolocalizzazione]] di pipistrelli e delfini, il rilevamento di movimenti attuata dai [[Linea laterale|recettori della pelle]] dei pesci, e la straordinaria acuità visiva, sensibilità al movimento, e capacità di vedere la luce ultravioletta di alcuni [[visione negli uccelli|uccelli]].<ref>Stebbins, W. C. & M. A. Berkley (1990) ''Comparative Perception,Vol. I, Basic Mechanisms; Vol. II, Complex Signals'' New York: Wiley.</ref>
[[Image:Chimpanzee and stick.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The common chimpanzee can use tools. This individual is using a stick to get food.]]
Human and animal cognition have much in common, and this is reflected in the research summarized below; most of the headings found here might also appear in an article on human cognition. Of course, research in the two also differs in important respects. Notably, much research with humans either studies or involves language, and much research with animals is related directly or indirectly to behaviors important to survival in natural settings. Following are summaries of some of the major areas of research in animal cognition.
 
=== PerceptionAttenzione ===
In qualsiasi momento, molto di ciò che sta accadendo nel mondo è irrilevante per il proprio comportamento attuale. L'[[attenzione]] è quell'insieme di processi mentali che selezionano le informazioni pertinenti, inibiscono le informazioni irrilevanti, e passano tra le informazioni in base a quanto la situazione richiede.<ref>Smith, E. E., and Kosslyn, S. M. (2007) "Cognitive Psychology: Mind and Brain" Pearson Prentice Hall.</ref> Spesso il processo selettivo è sintonizzato da prima che appaiano informazioni pertinenti; tale aspettativa rende rapida la selezione degli stimoli fondamentali quando questi diventano disponibili. Un ampio corpo di ricerca ha esplorato il modo in cui l'attenzione e le aspettative influenzano il comportamento degli animali non umani, e molto di questo lavoro suggerisce che l'attenzione opera negli uccelli, nei mammiferi e nei rettili più o meno allo stesso modo in cui lo fa negli esseri umani.<ref>Blough, D. S. (2006) Reaction-time explorations of visual attention, perception, and decision in pigeons. In E. A. Wasserman & T. R. Zentall (Eds) ''Comparative Cognition: Experimental Explorations of Animal Intelligence’’ pp. 89-105. New York: Oxford.</ref>
Like humans, non-human animals process information from eyes, ears, and other sensory organs to perceive the environment. Perceptual processes have been studied in many species, with results that are often similar to those in humans. Equally interesting are those perceptual processes that differ from, or go beyond those found in humans, such as [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]] in bats and dolphins, motion detection by [[Lateral line|skin receptors]] in fish, and extraordinary visual acuity, motion sensitivity and ability to see ultraviolet light in some [[Bird vision|birds]].<ref>Stebbins, W. C. & M. A. Berkley (1990) ''Comparative Perception,Vol. I, Basic Mechanisms; Vol. II, Complex Signals'' New York: Wiley.</ref>
 
I paragrafi seguenti contengono brevi descrizioni di diversi esperimenti. Queste hanno lo scopo di dare un po' l'idea della ricerca sull'attenzione, sebbene in realtà ne graffino appena la superficie; il lettore può consultare i riferimenti (in [[lingua inglese|inglese]]) per le descrizioni di molti altri esperimenti. Inoltre, si deve interpretare effetti putativi "di attenzione" con cautela, perché possono spesso essere contabilizzati in diversi modi. Ad esempio, la mancanza di risposta ad uno stimolo attuale potrebbe riflettere disattenzione, ma potrebbe anche riflettere la mancanza di motivazione, o il risultato di apprendimento passato che sopprime la risposta a tale stimolo o promuova una risposta alternativa. La maggior parte degli esperimenti includono condizioni di controllo destinati a escludere quante interpretazioni alternative possibili.
=== Attention ===
Much of what is happening in the world at any moment is irrelevant to current behavior. [[Attention]] refers to mental processes that select relevant information, inhibit irrelevant information, and switch among these as the situation demands.<ref>Smith, E. E., and Kosslyn, S. M. (2007) "Cognitive Psychology: Mind and Brain" Pearson Prentice Hall.</ref> Often the selective process is tuned before relevant information appears; such expectation makes for rapid selection of key stimuli when they become available. A large body of research has explored the way attention and expectation affect the behavior of non-human animals, and much of this work suggests that attention operates in birds, mammals and reptiles in much the same way that it does in humans.<ref>Blough, D. S. (2006) Reaction-time explorations of visual attention, perception, and decision in pigeons. In E. A. Wasserman & T. R. Zentall (Eds) ''Comparative Cognition: Experimental Explorations of Animal Intelligence’’ pp. 89-105. New York: Oxford.</ref>
 
The following paragraphs contain brief accounts of several experiments. These are intended to give the reader a bit of the flavor of research on attention, but they barely scratch the surface, and readers should consult the references for descriptions of many other experiments. Also, one must interpret putative "attentional" effects with caution, because they can often be accounted for in several different ways. For example, lack of response to a current stimulus might reflect inattention, but it might also reflect lack of motivation, or result from past learning that suppresses response to that stimulus or promotes an alternative response. Most experiments include control conditions intended to exclude as many alternative interpretations as possible.
Riga 267 ⟶ 538:
{{Great ape language}}
 
{{DEFAULTSORT:Animal Cognition}} -->
[[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Animal intelligence]]
[[Category:Animal rights]]
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
'''Gastric acid''' is a digestive fluid, formed in the [[stomach]]. It has a [[pH]] of 1-2 and is composed of [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) (around 0.5%, or 5000 [[parts per million]]) as high as 0.1 M,<ref>http://www.acidbase.org/index.php?show=sb&action=explode&id=31&sid=42</ref> [[potassium chloride]] (KCl) and [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of [[proteins]], by activating [[digestive enzymes]], and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of [[amino acids]].
 
Gastric acid is produced by cells lining the stomach, which are coupled to systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce [[bicarbonate]], a base, to [[Buffering agent|buffer]] the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce [[mucus]], which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. Cells in the beginning of the small intestine, or [[duodenum]], further produce large amounts of bicarbonate to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.
 
Gastric acid is produced by [[parietal cell]]s (also called oxyntic cells) in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive secretory network (called [[Canaliculus (parietal cell)|canaliculi]]) from which the gastric acid is secreted into the [[Lumen (anatomy)|lumen]] of the stomach. These cells are part of [[epithelium|epithelial]] [[fundic glands]] in the [[gastric mucosa]]. The [[pH]] of gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5 <ref>{{cite book |author=Marieb EN, Hoehn K |title=Human anatomy & physiology |publisher=Benjamin Cummings |___location=San Francisco |year=2010 |pages= |isbn=0-8053-9591-1}}</ref> in the human stomach lumen, the acidity being maintained by the [[proton pump]] [[Hydrogen potassium ATPase|H<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> ATPase]]. The parietal cell releases [[bicarbonate]] into the blood stream in the process, which causes a temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as [[alkaline tide]].
 
The resulting highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes [[protein]]s from food to lose their characteristic folded structure (or [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denature]]). This exposes the protein's [[peptide bond]]s. The [[chief cell]]s of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive [[pepsinogen]] and [[rennin]]). [[Hydrochloric acid]] activates pepsinogen into the [[enzyme]] [[pepsin]], which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking [[amino acid]]s, a process known as [[proteolysis]]. In addition, many [[microorganism]]s have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent [[infection]].
 
==Secretion==
 
Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen. The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer.
 
Chloride and sodium ions are secreted actively from the [[cytoplasm]] of the parietal cell into the lumen of the canaliculus. This creates a [[Transmembrane potential difference|negative potential]] of -40 m[[volt|V]] to -70 mV across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions to [[diffusion|diffuse]] from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi.
 
The enzyme [[carbonic anhydrase]] catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form [[carbonic acid]]. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through [[Hydrogen potassium ATPase|H<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> ATPase]] [[antiporter]] pumps.
 
At the same time sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of secreted K<sup>+</sup> and Na<sup>+</sup> ions return to the cytoplasm. In the canaliculus, secreted hydrogen and chloride ions mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland.
 
The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 [[Molarity|mM]] in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of [[artery|arterial]] [[blood]], but almost exactly [[Isotonicity|isotonic]] with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8,<ref>{{Cite book| edition = 11| publisher = Elsevier Saunders| isbn = 0-7216-0240-1| page = 797| last = Guyton| first = Arthur C.| coauthors = John E. Hall| title = Textbook of Medical Physiology| ___location = Philadelphia| year = 2006}}</ref> but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.
 
There is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour.<ref name=agabegi2nd192>Page 192 in: {{cite book |author=Elizabeth D Agabegi; Agabegi, Steven S. |title=Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series) |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |___location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2008 |pages= |isbn=0-7817-7153-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>
 
There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:
 
# The cephalic phase: Thirty percent of the total gastric acid secretions to be produced is stimulated by anticipation of eating and the smell or taste of food. This signalling occurs from higher centres in the brain through the [[Vagus Nerve]]. It activates [[parietal cells]] to release acid and [[ECL cells]] to release [[histamine]]. The Vagus nerve also releases [[Gastrin Releasing Peptide]] onto [[G cells]]. Finally, it also inhibits [[somatostatin]] release from [[D cells]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Lecture, "Function of the Stomach and Small Intestine" Deakin University School of Medicine - October 15, 2012</ref>
# The gastric phase: About fifty percent of the total acid for a meal is secreted in this phase. Acid secretion is stimulated by distension of the stomach and by [[amino acids]] present in the food.
# The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when [[chyme]] enters the small intestine, and is stimulated by small intestine distension and by [[amino acids]]. The duodenal cells release [[entero-oxyntin]] which acts on parietal cells without affecting gastrin.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
 
==Regulation of secretion==
 
[[Image:Determinants of Gastric Acid Secretion.svg|thumb|760px|center|Diagram depicting the major determinants of gastric acid secretion, with inclusion of drug targets for peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).]]{{-}}
Gastric acid production is regulated by both the [[autonomic nervous system]] and several [[hormone]]s. The [[parasympathetic nervous system]], via the [[vagus nerve]], and the hormone [[gastrin]] stimulate the parietal cell to produce gastric acid, both directly acting on parietal cells and indirectly, through the stimulation of the secretion of the hormone [[histamine]] from [[enterochromaffine-like cell]]s (ECL). [[Vasoactive intestinal peptide]], [[cholecystokinin]], and [[secretin]] all inhibit production.
 
The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and [[negative feedback]] mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, [[G cell]]s, [[D cell (biology)|D cell]]s and enterochromaffine-like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly.
 
Nerve endings in the stomach secrete two stimulatory [[neurotransmitter]]s: [[acetylcholine]] and [[gastrin-releasing peptide]]. Their action is both direct on parietal cells and mediated through the secretion of gastrin from G cells and histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells. Gastrin acts on parietal cells directly and indirectly too, by stimulating the release of histamine.
 
The release of histamine is the most important positive regulation mechanism of the secretion of gastric acid in the stomach. Its release is stimulated by gastrin and acetylcholine and inhibited by [[somatostatin]].
 
==Neutralization==
 
In the [[duodenum]], gastric acid is [[Neutralization (chemistry)|neutralized]] by [[sodium bicarbonate]]. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid range of [[pH]]. The secretion of sodium bicarbonate from the [[pancreas]] is stimulated by [[secretin]]. This [[polypeptide]] hormone gets activated and secreted from so-called [[S cell]]s in the mucosa of the duodenum and [[jejunum]] when the pH in duodenum falls below 4.5 to 5.0. The neutralization is described by the equation:
 
:: HCl + NaHCO<sub>3</sub> → NaCl + H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>
 
The [[carbonic acid]] rapidly equilibrates with [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water (molecule)|water]] through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining,<ref>{{cite pmid|2506730}}</ref> leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.
 
== Role in disease ==
In [[hypochlorhydria]] and [[achlorhydria]], there is low or no gastric acid in the stomach, potentially leading to problems as the [[disinfectant]] properties of the gastric lumen are decreased. In such conditions, there is greater risk of infections of the [[digestive tract]] (such as infection with ''[[Vibrio]]'' or ''[[Helicobacter]]'' bacteria).
 
In [[Zollinger–Ellison syndrome]] and [[hypercalcemia]], there are increased [[gastrin]] levels, leading to excess gastric acid production, which can cause [[gastric ulcer]]s.
 
In diseases featuring excess vomiting, patients develop [[chlorine|hypochloremic]] [[metabolic alkalosis]] (decreased blood acidity by [[hydrogen|H]]<sup>+</sup> and [[chlorine]] depletion).
 
== Pharmacology ==
 
The proton pump enzyme is the target of [[proton pump inhibitor]]s, used to increase gastric pH (and hence decrease stomach acidity) in diseases that feature excess acid. [[H2 antagonist|H<sub>2</sub> antagonists]] indirectly decrease gastric acid production. [[Antacid]]s neutralize existing acid.
 
== History ==
The role of gastric acid in [[digestion]] was established in the 1820s and 1830s by [[William Beaumont]] on [[Alexis St. Martin]], who, as a result of an accident, had a [[fistula]] (hole) in his stomach, which allowed Beaumont to observe the process of digestion and to extract gastric acid, verifying that acid played a crucial role in digestion.<ref>{{cite book | last = Harré | first = R. | title = Great Scientific Experiments | publisher = Phaidon (Oxford) | year = 1981 | pages = 39&ndash;47 | isbn = 0-7148-2096-2 | authorlink = Rom Harré }}</ref>
 
== See also ==
* [[Stomach]]
* [[Digestion]]
* [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease]]
* [[Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors]]
* [[Acidic Mouth]]
 
== Notes ==
{{reflist}}
 
== External links ==
* [http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/stomach/parietal.html The Parietal Cell: Mechanism of Acid Secretion at vivo.colostate.edu]
* [http://www.gastroresource.com/GITextbook/en/chapter6/6-3.htm First Principles of Gastroenterology. Chapter 6. ''Salena B. J., Hunt R. H.'' The Stomach and Duodenum]
 
 
 
 
=Comparazioni con la neurobiologia=
Riga 370 ⟶ 554:
 
 
Viene detta intelligenza la capacità [[cognizione|cognitiva]] che permette ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di comprendere l'ambiente e la propria interiorità, di adattarsi e di fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni. In altre parole l'intelligenza è la capacità [[psiche|psichica]] e [[mente|mentale]] che permette - sulla base di informazioni e di [[memoria (psicologia)|ricordi]] già posseduti - di formulare autonomamente le informazioni e le idee necessarie per raggiungere i propri obiettivi (i quali non dovranno essere necessariamente consci o esplicitati) oe prevenire/evitare il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, quando le informazioni e le idee in questione sono ''nuove'' per il soggetto.
 
 
Riga 381 ⟶ 565:
 
 
L'intelligenza è l'insieme di tutte le [[funzioni psichiche]]/ e [[mente|mentali]] che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza [[concetto|concettuale]] e razionale (ovvero non [[sensazione|percettiva]] o [[intuizione|intuitiva]]).
Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni e può dunque essere concepita come una capacità di [[adattamento]] all'ambiente.
 
In particolare, l'intelligenza permette di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche, contrasti e di risolvere autonomamente i problemi nuovi (effettivi, potenziali); comporta inoltre la capacità di prevedere e scongiurare il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, o di evitarlo (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, [[memoria (psicologia)|ricordi]] e/o [[sensazione|dati percettivi]], invece che unicamente per merito di un richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi.
 
L'[[Homo sapiens|Uomo]] è dotato di intelligenza concettuale: la [[comprensione]] per ''[[Homo Sapiens]]'' passa attraverso l'uso dei [[concetto|concetti]], ovvero di [[parola|parole]] a cui associare dei significati. La capacità di [[linguaggio]] è dunque un aspetto fondamentale dell'intelligenza umana, che permette, tra l'altro, il ragionamento complesso e astratto.<ref>Sorgenti: ↑ : Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Alpha, dictionnaires Larousse et Robert. Pour le raisonnement, dictionnaire en ligne TLFI ↑ Prolégomènes, tome II, page 323 http://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/Ibn_Khaldoun/Prolegomenes_t2/ibn_pro_II.pdf [archive] ↑ Jean Piaget, La Construction du Réel, 1936 ↑ A formal definition of intelligence based on an intensional variant of Kolmogorov complexity, Jose Hernandez-orallo, Proceedings of the International Symposium of Engineering of Intelligent Systems (EIS'98). ↑ Marcus Hutter, « A Theory of Universal Artificial Intelligence based on Algorithmic Complexity », dans cs/0004001, 2000-04-03 [texte intégral [archive] (page consultée le 2010-03-11)] ↑ (en) Marcus Hutter, Universal Artificial Intelligence: Sequential Decisions Based On Algorithmic Probability, Berlin, SpringerVerlag, 2005 (ISBN 978-3-540-22139-5) (LCCN 2004112980) [lire en ligne [archive] (page consultée le 2010-04-30)] ↑ R. J Solomonoff, « A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference. Part I », dans Information and Control, vol. 7, no 1, 1964, p. 1-22 ↑ J. Veness, « A Monte Carlo AIXI Approximation », dans Arxiv preprint arXiv:0909.0801, 2009 ↑ a et b Aljoscha Neubauer, Les mille facettes de l'intelligence, Pour la Science, Cerveau & psycho, n°1, page 49.</ref>
 
Comportamenti assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale sono riscontrabili anche nelle [[Plantæ|piante]], mentre i settori di [[ricerca scientifica|ricerca]] legati al campo dell'[[intelligenza artificiale]] tentano di creare delle [[macchina|macchine]] che siano in grado di riprodurre tali comportamenti.
 
 
Riga 403 ⟶ 587:
 
 
<del>Una definizione di intelligenza dotata delle qualità di sintesi, completezza e condivisione universale da parte della [[comunità scientifica]] è in verità ancora lontana dall'essere raggiungibile: la varietà delle manifestazioni comportamentali umane e animali associabili all'intelligenza è infatti estremamente ampia, dando adito, piuttosto, ad una pluralità di definizioni anche in seno [[Università|accademico]].</del>
 
<del>Tra i molti enunciati forniti, si segnala per importanza quello pubblicato su ''Mainstream Science on Intelligence'', una dichiarazione editoriale del 1994 firmata da cinquantadue ricercatori:</del>
 
 
Riga 443 ⟶ 627:
{{nota disambigua|altri significati|[[Intelligenza (disambigua)]]}}
L''''intelligenza''' è l'insieme di tutte le [[funzioni psichiche]]/[[mente|mentali]] che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di capire cose ed eventi, scoprendo le relazioni che intercorrono tra di essi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza [[concetto|concettuale]] e razionale (ovvero non [[sensazione|percettiva]] o [[intuizione|intuitiva]]).
Essa si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni, e può dunque essere concepita anche come una capacità di [[adattamento]] all'ambiente. In particolare, l'intelligenza permette di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di identificare i problemi nuovi, di risolverli autonomamente e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi; da essa consegue inoltre la capacità di un soggetto di prevedere e scongiurare, o evitare (non necessariamente in maniera conscia), il verificarsi di situazioni future negative, per merito delle proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, [[memoria (psicologia)|ricordi]] e/o [[sensazione|dati percettivi]] (ovvero, non unicamente per merito di un/una richiamo/riapplicazione automatico/a di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi).
 
Le [[Plantæ|piante]] presentano comportamenti che sono assimilabili a quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale; i settori di [[ricerca scientifica|ricerca]] legati al campo dell'[[intelligenza artificiale]] tentano di creare delle [[macchina|macchine]] in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.
Riga 450 ⟶ 634:
 
 
<del>L''intelligenza'' è l'insieme di tutte le funzioni e facoltà [[funzioni psichiche|psichiche]]/ e [[mente|mentali]] che permettono ad un soggetto (individuo o animale) di avere un rapporto ottimale con l'ambiente, ovvero di essere o di divenire adattato ad esso. </del>
 
<del>L'intelligenza si percepisce nella capacità di capire, scoprendo le relazioni intercorrenti tra elementi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza [[concetto|concettuale]] e razionale (ovvero non [[sensazione|percettiva]] o [[intuizione|intuitiva]]), consente di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di risolvere autonomamente i problemi nuovi e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi, e in base al suo grado di evoluzione può esprimersi anche nelle capacità di ragionare, di pensare in maniera astratta, di pianificare, di generare la previsione e prevenzione, o evitamento (non necessariamente conscio), del verificarsi di situazioni future negative sulla base di proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, [[memoria (psicologia)|ricordi]] e/o [[sensazione|dati percettivi]], piuttosto che unicamente tramite richiami/riapplicazioni automatici/automatiche di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi.</del>
 
<del>Si è riscontrato che anche le [[Plantæ|piante]] presentano comportamenti che sono assimilabili ad alcuni di quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale, mentre i settori di [[ricerca scientifica|ricerca]] legati al campo dell'[[intelligenza artificiale]] tentano di creare delle [[macchina|macchine]] che siano in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.</del>
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
{{nota disambigua}}
L''''intelligenza''' attualmente non è [[#Definizioni scientifiche|ufficialmente]] definita; attenendosi al [[#Etimologia|significato etimologico del termine]] è però possibile identificarla come:
* Quel complesso di funzionalità e abilità [[psiche|psichiche]] e [[mente|mentali]] che consente ad un soggetto in primo luogo di ''capire'', ovvero di giungere autonomamente a delle [[conoscenza|conoscenze]] reali (che possono riguardare anche il modo di raggiungere degli obiettivi) grazie a propri trattamenti delle informazioni;
O come:
* La capacità generale di capire in sé.
Si tratta, in ogni caso, di quella proprietà [[cognizione|cognitiva]] che sottende alla ''buona'' esecuzione di tutte quelle attività del [[pensiero]] che implichino un "lavorare sulle informazioni che si possiede per ''andare oltre''"<ref name=generale>''[http://books.google.it/books?id=GpW9Le42bysC&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&dq=%22di+pensare+bene%22+%26+%22intelligenza%22&source=bl&ots=nxn_INV_eh&sig=am-nOxlKN-dgQAa0tDNxt8yfYAo&hl=it&sa=X&ei=gzeXUt2UCcPDyQO_ooCwBQ&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22di%20pensare%20bene%22%20%26%20%22intelligenza%22&f=false Manuale di psicologia generale]'', p. 215.</ref> (attività del pensiero di cui degli esempi comprendono trarre delle conclusioni a partire da ciò che è noto, fare previsioni riguardo al futuro, elaborare giudizi, risolvere problemi in precedenza mai incontrati, scoprire nelle situazioni vissute aspetti prima non considerati, inventare prodotti nuovi<ref name=generale></ref> che risultino soddisfacenti). Funzione che si percepisce nella capacità di comprendere, adattarsi e fronteggiare con successo nuove situazioni, l'intelligenza può inoltre essere concepita anche come una capacità di adattamento attivo all'ambiente.
 
L'intelligenza è, inoltre, caratteristica propria in primo luogo dell'[[homo sapiens|uomo]] e delle specie animali; studi recenti testimoniano, tuttavia, che le [[Plantæ|piante]] presentano anch'esse dei comportamenti che sembrano rinviabili a forme di "capacità di capire"; e il termine "intelligenza" è oggi usato anche in riferimento alle [[macchina|macchine]], [[#L.27intelligenza_artificiale|il campo di ricerca dell'"intelligenza artificiale"]] tentante, infatti, di creare delle macchine che siano in grado di riprodurre l'intelligenza biologica almeno in alcuni aspetti.
 
L'intelligenza si percepisce nella capacità di capire, scoprendo le relazioni intercorrenti tra elementi ed arrivando ad una conoscenza [[concetto|concettuale]] e razionale (ovvero non [[sensazione|percettiva]] o [[intuizione|intuitiva]]), consente di rilevare o cogliere relazioni problematiche e contrasti, di risolvere autonomamente i problemi nuovi e di risolverli nel modo più appropriato alle situazioni in cui sono immersi, e in base al suo grado di evoluzione può esprimersi anche nelle capacità di ragionare, di pensare in maniera astratta, di pianificare, di generare la previsione e prevenzione, o evitamento (non necessariamente conscio), del verificarsi di situazioni future negative sulla base di proprie elaborazioni di informazioni, [[memoria (psicologia)|ricordi]] e/o [[sensazione|dati percettivi]], piuttosto che unicamente tramite richiami/riapplicazioni automatici/automatiche di informazioni o comportamenti pregressi.
 
Si è riscontrato che anche le [[Plantæ|piante]] presentano comportamenti che sono assimilabili ad alcuni di quelli indotti dall'intelligenza animale, mentre i settori di [[ricerca scientifica|ricerca]] legati al campo dell'[[intelligenza artificiale]] tentano di creare delle [[macchina|macchine]] in grado di produrre anch'esse comportamenti intelligenti.