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{{Short description|Political movement in the United States}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Hawaiian sovereignty movement}}
The '''Hawaiian sovereignty movement''' ({{langx|haw|ke ea Hawaiʻi}}) is a [[grassroots]] political and cultural campaign to reestablish an [[autonomy|autonomous]] or independent nation or kingdom of [[Hawaii]] out of a desire for [[sovereignty]], [[self-determination]], and [[self-governance]].<ref name="DudleyAgard1993">{{cite book|author1=Michael Kioni Dudley|author2=Keoni Kealoha Agard|title=A call for Hawaiian sovereignty|url=https://archive.org/details/callforhawaiians00mich|url-access=registration|date=January 1993|publisher=Nā Kāne O Ka Malo Press|page= [https://archive.org/details/callforhawaiians00mich/page/167 167]|isbn=978-1-878751-09-6}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hawaii-nation.org/bumpy-pushes.html|title=Kanahele group pushes plan for sovereign nation|website=hawaii-nation.org|access-date=November 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309014409/http://hawaii-nation.org/bumpy-pushes.html|archive-date=March 9, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
Some groups also advocate some form of redress from the [[United States]] for its [[Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom|1893 overthrow]] of [[Liliʻuokalani|Queen Liliʻuokalani]], and for what is described as a prolonged [[military occupation]] beginning with the [[Newlands Resolution|1898 annexation]]. The movement generally views both the overthrow and annexation as illegal.<ref name="HI1">[http://hawaii-nation.org/rape.html "The Rape of Paradise: The Second Century Hawai'ians Grope Toward Sovereignty As The U.S. President Apologizes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191212/http://hawaii-nation.org/rape.html |date=March 3, 2016 }}, Perceptions Magazine, March/April 1996, p. 18–25</ref><ref name="Hawaiisov">{{cite news|last1=Grass|first1=Michael|title=As Feds Hold Hearings, Native Hawaiians Press Sovereignty Claims|url=http://www.govexec.com/state-local/2014/08/hawaii-sovereignty-department-interior-hearings/91247/|access-date=October 29, 2015|agency=Government Executive|publisher=Government Executive|date=August 12, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007091037/http://www.govexec.com/state-local/2014/08/hawaii-sovereignty-department-interior-hearings/91247/|archive-date=October 7, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Palmyra Atoll]] and [[Sikaiana]] were annexed by the [[Hawaiian Kingdom|Kingdom]] in the 1860s, and the movement regards them as under illegal occupation along with the [[Hawaiian Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pireport.org/articles/2000/02/11/us-purchase-palmyra-hits-impasse|title=U.S. Purchase of Palmyra Hits Impasse|date=February 10, 2000|access-date=January 30, 2018|website=Pacific Islands Report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131143907/http://www.pireport.org/articles/2000/02/11/us-purchase-palmyra-hits-impasse|archive-date=January 31, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/struggle-hawaiian-sovereignty-introduction|title=The Struggle For Hawaiian Sovereignty – Introduction|last=Trask|first=Haunani-Kay|author-link=Haunani-Kay Trask|website=Cultural Survival|date=April 2, 2010 |access-date=January 30, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131081142/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/struggle-hawaiian-sovereignty-introduction|archive-date=January 31, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Apology Resolution]] the [[United States Congress]] passed in 1993 acknowledged that the overthrow of the [[Hawaiian Kingdom]] was an illegal act.<ref name="HIgpo">{{cite web|url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-107/pdf/STATUTE-107-Pg1510.pdf|title=Public Law 103-150|date=November 23, 1993|website=gpo.gov|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407014005/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-107/pdf/STATUTE-107-Pg1510.pdf|archive-date=April 7, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
Sovereignty advocates have attributed problems plaguing native communities, including [[Homelessness in the United States by state#Hawaii|homelessness]], [[Poverty in the United States|poverty]], [[Economic discrimination|economic marginalization]], and the erosion of native traditions to lack of native governance and political self-determination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/10/30/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html|title=Historic election could return sovereignty to Native Hawaiians|access-date=November 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007023307/http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/10/30/historic-election-could-return-sovereignty-to-native-hawaiians.html|archive-date=October 7, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/the-struggle-for-hawaiian-sovereignty-introduction|title=The Struggle For Hawaiian Sovereignty – Introduction|last=Trask|first=Haunani-Kay|author-link=Haunani-Kay Trask|date=April 2, 2010|newspaper=Cultural Survival|access-date=November 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019190044/https://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/the-struggle-for-hawaiian-sovereignty-introduction|archive-date=October 19, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The forced depopulation of [[Kahoolawe|Kaho'olawe]] and its subsequent bombing, the construction of the [[Mauna Kea Observatories]], and the [[Red Hill water crisis]] caused by the [[United States Navy|US Navy]]'s mismanagement are some of the contemporary matters relevant to the sovereignty movement. It has pursued its agenda through educational initiatives and legislative actions. Along with protests throughout the islands, at the capital ([[Honolulu]]) itself and other locations sacred to [[Hawaiian culture]], sovereignty activists have challenged U.S. forces and law.<ref name="Association1997">{{cite magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aQxiCwBF-SkC&pg=PA76|magazine=ABA Journal|date=June 1997|publisher=American Bar Association|pages=75–76|issn=0747-0088|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702212830/https://books.google.com/books?id=aQxiCwBF-SkC&pg=PA76|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live|last1=Podgers|first1=James|title=Greetings from independent Hawaii}}</ref>
== History ==
Coinciding with other 1960s and 1970s indigenous activist movements, the Hawaiian sovereignty movement was spearheaded by [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] activist organizations and individuals who were critical of issues affecting modern Hawaii, including the islands' urbanization and commercial development, corruption in the Hawaiian Homelands program, and appropriation of native burial grounds and other sacred spaces.<ref name=":1">Parker, Linda S. "Alaska, Hawaii, and Agreements." ''Treaties with American Indians: An Encyclopedia of Rights, Conflicts, and Sovereignty'', edited by Donald L. Fixico, vol. 1, ABC-CLIO, 2008, pp. 195–208. ''Gale Virtual Reference Library''</ref> In the 1980s, the movement gained cultural and political traction and native resistance grew in response to urbanization and native disenfranchisement. Local and federal legislation provided some protection for native communities but did little to quell expanding commercial development.<ref name=":0" />
In 1993, a joint congressional resolution [[Apology Resolution|apologized]] for the [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|1893 overthrow]] of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Hawaiian monarchy]], and said that the overthrow was illegal.<ref name=":1" /><ref name="HIgpo" /> In 2000, the [[Akaka Bill]] was proposed, which provided a process for federal recognition of Native Hawaiians, and gave ethnic Hawaiians some control over land and natural resource negotiations. But sovereignty groups opposed the bill because of its provisions that legitimized illegal land transfers, and it was criticized by a 2006 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights report (which was later reversed in 2018)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.civilbeat.org/2018/12/civil-rights-panel-backs-federal-recognition-for-native-hawaiians/|title=Civil Rights Panel Backs Federal Recognition For Native Hawaiians|date=December 20, 2018|website=Honolulu Civil Beat|language=en|access-date=December 20, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220140037/https://www.civilbeat.org/2018/12/civil-rights-panel-backs-federal-recognition-for-native-hawaiians/|archive-date=December 20, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> for the effect it would have on non-ethnic Hawaiian populations.<ref>Beary, Brian. "Hawaiians (United States)." ''Separatist Movements'': ''A Global Reference'', CQ Press, 2011, pp. 96–99.</ref> A 2005 Grassroot Institute poll found that most Hawaiian residents opposed the [[Akaka Bill]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://new.grassrootinstitute.org/2005/07/recent-survey-of-hawaii-residents-shows-two-out-of-three-oppose-akaka-bill/ |title=Recent Survey of Hawaii residents shows two out of three oppose Akaka bill |date=July 5, 2015 |publisher=[[Grassroot Institute]] |___location=Honolulu, HI |work=new.grassrootinstitute.org |access-date=August 29, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160917101611/http://new.grassrootinstitute.org/2005/07/recent-survey-of-hawaii-residents-shows-two-out-of-three-oppose-akaka-bill/ |archive-date=September 17, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
== Background ==
{{Main|Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|Blount Report|Opposition to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii}}
Native Hawaiians' ancestors may have arrived in the Hawaiian Islands around 350{{nbsp}}CE, from other areas of [[Polynesia]].<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> By the time [[Captain Cook]] arrived, Hawaii had a well-established culture, with a population estimated between 400,000 and 900,000.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> Starting in 1795 and completed by 1810, [[Kamehameha I]] conquered the entire archipelago and formed the unified [[Kingdom of Hawaii]]. In the first 100 years of contact with Western civilization, due to disease and war, the Hawaiian population dropped by 90%, to only 53,900 in 1876.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> American missionaries arrived in 1820 and assumed great power and influence.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> Despite formal recognition of the Kingdom of Hawaii by the United States<ref>{{cite web|url=https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/345/2/JL17048.pdf|archive-date=September 18, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090918220529/https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/345/2/JL17048.pdf|title=The Hawai'i-United States Treaty of 1826}}</ref> and other world powers, the kingdom was [[Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii|overthrown]] beginning January 17, 1893, with a coup d'état orchestrated mostly by Americans within the kingdom's legislature, supported by armed sailors landed by the [[USS Boston (1884)|USS Boston]].<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /><ref name="Tucker2009">{{cite book |first=Spencer C. |last=Tucker |title=Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars, The: A Political, Social, and Military History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yYfSbFGFWlUC&pg=PA275 |date=May 20, 2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-952-8 |page=275 |access-date=January 12, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603150047/https://books.google.com/books?id=yYfSbFGFWlUC&pg=PA275 |archive-date=June 3, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The ''[[Blount Report]]'' is the popular name given to the part of the 1893 [[United States House of Representatives]] Foreign Relations Committee Report about the [[overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom|overthrow]] of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]]. U.S. Commissioner [[James H. Blount]], appointed by President [[Grover Cleveland]] to investigate the events surrounding the January 1893 coup, conducted the report. It provides the first evidence that officially identifies U.S. complicity in the overthrow of the government of the Kingdom of Hawaii.<ref>Ball, Milner S. "Symposium: Native American Law," ''Georgia Law Review'' 28 (1979): 303</ref> Blount concluded that U.S. Minister to Hawaii [[John L. Stevens]] had carried out unauthorized partisan activities, including the landing of U.S. Marines under a false or exaggerated pretext to support anti-royalist conspirators; the report also found that these actions were instrumental to the revolution's success and that the revolution was carried out against the wishes of a majority of the population of the Hawaiian Kingdom and/or its royalty.<ref>Tate, Merze. (1965). The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Political History. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 235.</ref>
[[File:Queen Liliuokalani Kingdom Restoration Spiritual Walk poster.jpg|thumb|left|[[Native Hawaiians]], activists and supporters commemorate January 17 annually.]] On December 14, 1893, [[Albert S. Willis|Albert Willis]] arrived unannounced in Honolulu aboard the [[USRC Thomas Corwin (1876)|USRC ''Corwin'']], bringing with him an anticipation of an American invasion in order to restore the monarchy, which became known as the ''Black Week''. Willis was Blount's successor as [[United States Minister to Hawaii]]. With the hysteria of a military assault, he staged a mock invasion with the [[USS Adams (1874)|USS ''Adams'']] and [[USS Philadelphia (C-4)|USS ''Philadelphia'']], directing their guns toward the capital. He also ordered Rear Admiral John Irwin to organize a [[landing operation]] using troops on the two American ships, which were joined by the Japanese [[Japanese cruiser Naniwa|''Naniwa'']] and the British [[HMS Champion (1878)|HMS ''Champion'']]. On January 11, 1894, Willis revealed the invasion to be a hoax.<ref>Report Committee Foreign Relations, United States Senate, Accompanying Testimony, Executive Documents transmitted Congress January 1, 1893, March 10, 1891, p 2144</ref><ref>History of later years of the Hawaiian Monarchy and the revolution of 1893 By William De Witt Alexander, p 103</ref> After the arrival of the ''Corwin'', the provisional government and citizens of Hawaii were ready to rush to arms if necessary, but it was widely believed that Willis's threat of force was a bluff.<ref name="Manufacturers and Farmers Journal" /><ref name="Morning Herald">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=whRCAAAAIBAJ&pg=3548,1112197&dq=hawaiian+overthrow&hl=en|title=Willis Has Acted|date=January 12, 1894|work=[[Baltimore Morning Herald|The Morning Herald]]|publisher=[[United Press]]|access-date=January 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123054859/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=whRCAAAAIBAJ&sjid=9LgMAAAAIBAJ&pg=3548,1112197&dq=hawaiian+overthrow&hl=en|archive-date=November 23, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
On December 16, the British Minister to Hawaii was given permission to land marines from HMS ''Champion'' for the protection of British interests; the ship's captain predicted that the U.S. military would restore the Queen and Sovereign ruler (Lili'uokalani).<ref name="Manufacturers and Farmers Journal" /><ref name="Morning Herald" /> In a November 1893 meeting with Willis, Lili'uokalani said she wanted the revolutionaries punished and their property confiscated, despite Willis's desire for her to grant them amnesty.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1894/01/14/106093340.pdf|title=Minister Willis's Mission|date=January 14, 1894|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> In a December 19, 1893, meeting with the leaders of the provisional government, Willis presented a letter by Liliuokalani in which she agreed to grant the revolutionaries amnesty if she were restored as queen. During the conference, Willis told the provisional government to surrender to Liliuokalani and allow Hawaii to return to its previous condition, but the leader of the provisional government, [[Sanford B. Dole|President Sanford Dole]], refused, claiming that he was not subject to the authority of the United States.<ref name="Morning Herald" /><ref name="Clinton Morning Age">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=3OQmAAAAIBAJ&pg=3766,233994&dq=hawaiian+overthrow&hl=en|title=Defied By Dole|date=January 10, 1894|work=[[Clinton Morning Age]]|volume=11|issue=66|page=1|access-date=January 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123065827/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=3OQmAAAAIBAJ&sjid=wgIGAAAAIBAJ&pg=3766,233994&dq=hawaiian+overthrow&hl=en|archive-date=November 23, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Manufacturers and Farmers Journal 2">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Vl9iAAAAIBAJ&dq=hawaiian%20overthrow&pg=6911%2C233676|title=Quiet at Honolulu|date=January 11, 1894|work=[[Manufacturers and Farmers Journal]]|volume=75|issue=4|page=2|access-date=January 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123052341/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Vl9iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bnYNAAAAIBAJ&dq=hawaiian%20overthrow&pg=6911%2C233676|archive-date=November 23, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Blount Report was followed in 1894 by the [[Morgan Report]], which contradicted Blount's report by concluding that all participants except for Queen [[Liliuokalani|Lili'uokalani]] were "not guilty".<ref name="kingdom3">{{citation |title=Hawaiian Kingdom |first=Ralph Simpson |last=Kuykendall |author-link=Ralph Simpson Kuykendall |url=http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?c=kingdom3&l=en |chapter=Chap. 21 Revolution |chapter-url=http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?e=d-0kingdom3-000Sec--11en-50-20-frameset-book--1-010escapewin&a=d&d=D0.23&toc=0 |volume=3, 1874–1893, The Kalakaua dynasty |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |___location=Honolulu, HI |year=1967 |orig-year=1938 |isbn=978-0-87022-433-1 |id={{OCLC|47011614|53979611|186322026}} |access-date=September 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150120003313/http://www.ulukau.org/elib/cgi-bin/library?c=kingdom3&l=en |archive-date=January 20, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{rp|648}} On January 10, 1894, U.S. Secretary of State [[Walter Q. Gresham]] announced that the settlement of the situation in Hawaii would be up to Congress, following Willis's unsatisfactory progress. Cleveland said that Willis had carried out the letter of his directions rather than their spirit.<ref name="Manufacturers and Farmers Journal">{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Vl9iAAAAIBAJ&pg=6857,224519&dq=hawaiian+overthrow&hl=en|title=Hawaiian Papers|date=January 11, 1894|work=[[Manufacturers and Farmers Journal]]|volume=75|issue=4|page=1|access-date=January 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151123055741/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=Vl9iAAAAIBAJ&sjid=bnYNAAAAIBAJ&pg=6857,224519&dq=hawaiian+overthrow&hl=en|archive-date=November 23, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Domestic response to Willis's and Cleveland's efforts was largely negative. The ''[[New York Herald]]'' wrote, "If Minister Willis has not already been ordered to quit meddling in Hawaiian affairs and mind his own business, no time should be lost in giving him emphatic instructions to that effect." The ''[[New York World]]'' wrote: "Is it not high time to stop the business of interference with the domestic affairs of foreign nations? Hawaii is 2000 miles from our nearest coast. Let it alone." The ''[[New York Sun]]'' said: "Mr. Cleveland lacks ... the first essential qualification of a referee or arbitrator." The ''[[New York Tribune]]'' called Willis's trip a "forlorn and humiliating failure to carry out Mr. Cleveland's outrageous project." The ''New York Recorder'' wrote, "The idea of sending out a minister accredited to the President of a new republic, having him present his credentials to that President and address him as 'Great and Good Friend,' and then deliberately set to work to organize a conspiracy to overthrow his Government and re-establish the authority of the deposed Queen, is repugnant to every man who holds American honor and justice in any sort of respect." The ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' was one of the few [[New York (state)|New York]] newspapers to defend Cleveland's decisions, writing, "Mr. Willis discharged his duty as he understood it."<ref name="Manufacturers and Farmers Journal" />
After the overthrow, the [[Provisional Government of Hawaii]] became the [[Republic of Hawaii]] in 1894, and in 1898 the U.S. annexed the Republic of Hawaii in the [[Newlands Resolution]], making it the [[Territory of Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sanford-Ballard-Dole|title=Sanford Ballard Dole|website=Britannica.com|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615005813/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sanford-Ballard-Dole|archive-date=June 15, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/topn/newlands_resolution_annexation_of_hawaii|title=Newlands Resolution – Annexation of Hawaii|website=law.cornell.edu|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703120416/https://www.law.cornell.edu/topn/newlands_resolution_annexation_of_hawaii|archive-date=July 3, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The territory was then given a territorial government in [[Hawaiian Organic Act|an Organic Act in 1900]]. While there was much [[opposition to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii]] and many attempts to restore it, Hawaii became a U.S. territory in 1898 without any input from Native Hawaiians.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> It became a [[U.S. state]] on March 18, 1959, following a referendum in which at least 93% of voters approved of statehood. By then, most voters were not [[Native Hawaiian]]. The 1959 referendum did not have an option for independence from the United States. After Hawaii's admission as a state, the [[United Nations]] removed Hawaii from its [[United Nations list of non-self-governing territories|list of non-self-governing territories]] (a list of territories subject to the [[decolonization]] process).<ref name="HI-nation2">{{cite web|url=https://www.hawaii-nation.org/statehood.html|title=Is Hawaii Really a State of the Union?|website=Hawaii-nation.org|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824222156/http://www.hawaii-nation.org/statehood.html|archive-date=August 24, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
The U.S. constitution recognizes Native American tribes as domestic, dependent nations with inherent rights of self-determination through the U.S. government as a trust responsibility, which was extended to include [[Eskimos]], [[Aleuts]] and [[Native Alaskans]] with the passing of the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]]. Through enactment of 183 federal laws over 90 years, the U.S. has entered into an implicit—rather than explicit—trust relationship that does not formally recognize a sovereign people with the right of self-determination. Without an explicit law, Native Hawaiians may not be eligible for entitlements, funds and benefits afforded to other U.S. indigenous peoples.<ref name="McGregor2007">{{cite book|author=Davianna McGregor|title=Na Kua'ina: Living Hawaiian Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=brPxqIxh3JYC&pg=PA279|year=2007|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2946-9|page=279|access-date=January 12, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520134744/https://books.google.com/books?id=brPxqIxh3JYC&pg=PA279|archive-date=May 20, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Native Hawaiians are recognized by the U.S. government through legislation with a unique status.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> Proposals have been made to treat Native Hawaiians as a [[tribal sovereignty|tribe]] similar to [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]; opponents to the tribal approach argue that it is not a legitimate path to nationhood.<ref name="Altemus-Williams">{{cite web|url=https://intercontinentalcry.org/towards-hawaiian-independence|title=Towards Hawaiian Independence: Native Americans warn Native Hawaiians of the dangers of Federal Recognition|website=Intercontinentalcry.org|first=Imani|last=Altemus-Williams|date=December 7, 2015|access-date=July 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703190909/https://intercontinentalcry.org/towards-hawaiian-independence|archive-date=July 3, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
===
{{Expand section|date=January 2016}}
====Royal Order of Kamehameha I====
[[File:2012 King Kamehameha Parade (7435727046).jpg|300px|thumb|Members of the [[Royal Order of Kamehameha I]] in 2012]]
The [[Royal Order of Kamehameha I]] is a [[Military order (monastic society)|Knightly Order]] established by His Majesty, [[Kamehameha V]] (''Lot Kapuaiwa Kalanikapuapaikalaninui Ali'iolani Kalanimakua'') in 1865, to promote and defend the [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom of Hawaiʻi]]'s sovereignty. Established by the [[1864 Constitution of the Kingdom of Hawaii|1864 Constitution]], the Order of Kamehameha I is the first order of its kind in [[Hawaii]]. After Lot Kapuāiwa took the throne as King [[Kamehameha V]], he established, by special decree,<ref name="Islands 1865">{{cite book|author=Kamehameha V (King of the Hawaiian Islands)|title=Decree to Establish the Royal Order of Kamehameha I.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mwSdHAAACAAJ|year=1865|publisher=by Authority|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701203157/https://books.google.com/books?id=mwSdHAAACAAJ|archive-date=July 1, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> the Order of Kamehameha I on April 11, 1865, named to honor his grandfather [[Kamehameha I]], founder of the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]] and the [[House of Kamehameha]]. Its purpose is to promote and defend the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Until the reign of [[Kalakaua]], this was the only Order instituted.<ref name="Kuykendall1967">{{cite book|author=Ralph S. Kuykendall|title=The Hawaiian Kingdom: 1874–1893, the Kalakaua dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41gjgT5C0K8C&pg=PA221|date=January 1, 1967|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-87022-433-1|page=221|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702085216/https://books.google.com/books?id=41gjgT5C0K8C&pg=PA221|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Royal Order of Kamehameha I continues its work in observance and preservation of some native Hawaiian rituals and customs established by the leaders of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi. It is often consulted by the U.S. government, the [[Hawaii|state of Hawaiʻi]], and Hawaiʻi's county governments in native Hawaiian-sensitive rites performed at state functions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Way of the Warrior: Native Hawaiian lecture series reveals ancient secrets |url=https://www.army.mil/article/27035/way-of-the-warrior-native-hawaiian-lecture-series-reveals-ancient-secrets/ |author=Bill Mossman |date=September 6, 2009 |publisher=U.S. Army Garrison-Hawaii |access-date=September 28, 2009 }}</ref>
====Hui Kālai'āina====
{{Main|Hui Kālaiʻāina}}
This organization existed before the overthrow to support a new constitution and was based in [[Honolulu]].<ref name="Proto2009">{{cite book|author=Neil Thomas Proto|title=The Rights of My People: Liliuokalani's Enduring Battle with the United States, 1893–1917|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W8J3lZImwXUC&pg=PA44|year=2009|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-721-2|page=44|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702035549/https://books.google.com/books?id=W8J3lZImwXUC&pg=PA44|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
====Hui Aloha 'Āina====
{{Main|Hui Aloha ʻĀina}}
[[File:Hui Aloha ʻĀina o Na Kane.jpg|thumb|300px|Opposition to the overthrow and annexation included ''Hui Aloha 'Āina''.]]
A highly organized group formed in 1883 from the various islands with a name that reflected Hawaiian cultural beliefs.<ref name="Proto2009" />
====Liberal Patriotic Association====
The Liberal Patriotic Association was a rebel group formed by [[Robert William Wilcox]] to overturn the Bayonet Constitution. The faction was financed by Chinese businessmen who lost rights under the 1887 Constitution. The movement initiated what became known as the [[Wilcox Rebellion of 1889]], ending in failure with seven dead and 70 captured.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
====Home Rule Party of Hawaii====
{{Main|Home Rule Party of Hawaii}}
After Hawaii's annexation, Wilcox formed the [[Home Rule Party of Hawaii]] on June 6, 1900. The party was generally more radical than the Democratic Party of Hawaii. It dominated the [[Hawaii State Legislature|Territorial Legislature]] between 1900 and 1902. But due to its radical and extreme philosophy of Hawaiian nationalism, infighting was prominent. This, in addition to its refusal to work with other parties, meant that it was unable to pass any legislation. After the 1902 election it steadily declined until disbanding in 1912.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
===
{{Main|Democratic Party of Hawaii}}
On April 30, 1900, [[John H. Wilson (Hawaii)|John H. Wilson]], [[John S. McGrew]], [[Charles J. McCarthy]], [[David Kawānanakoa]], and [[Delbert Metzger]] established the Democratic Party of Hawaii. The party was generally more pragmatic than the Home Rule Party, and gained sponsorship from the American [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. It attempted to bring representation to [[Native Hawaiians]] in the [[Territory of Hawaii|territorial government]] and effectively lobbied to set aside {{convert|200000|acre|km2}} under the [[Hawaiian Homelands|Hawaiian Homes Commission Act of 1920]] for Hawaiians.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}
== Sovereignty and cultural rights organizations ==
=== ALOHA ===
The Aboriginal Lands of Hawaiian Ancestry (ALOHA) and the Principality of Aloha<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.principalityofaloha.com/ |title=The Principality of Aloha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512122058/http://www.principalityofaloha.com/ |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |url-status= dead |access-date=March 27, 2017}}</ref> were organized sometime in the late 1960s or 1970s when Native Alaskan and American Indian activism was beginning. [[Native Hawaiians]] began organizing groups based on their own national interests such as ceded lands, free education, reparations payments, free housing, reform of the Hawaiian Homelands Act and development within the islands.<ref name="Fixico2007">{{cite book |first=Donald L. |last=Fixico |title=Treaties with American Indians: An Encyclopedia of Rights, Conflicts, and Sovereignty [3 volumes] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALfK7Ag4SXIC&pg=PA207 |date=December 12, 2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-881-5 |page=207 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427041222/https://books.google.com/books?id=ALfK7Ag4SXIC&pg=PA207 |archive-date=April 27, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Budnick,<ref name="Budnick2005">{{cite book| first=Rich |last=Budnick |title=Hawaii's Forgotten History: 1900–1999: The Good...The Bad...The Embarrassing |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Q2nxAAAAMAAJ}} |date=January 1, 2005 |publisher=Aloha Press |page=154 |isbn=978-0-944081-04-4}}</ref> Louisa Rice established the group in 1969. Charles Kauluwehi Maxwell claims that it was organized in 1972.<ref name=moolelo>{{cite web |url =http://www.moolelo.com/hawaiis-story.html |title =Spiritual connection of Queen Liliuokalani's book "Hawaii's Story" to the forming of the Aboriginal Lands of Hawaiian Ancestry (ALOHA) to get reparations from the United States Of America for the Illegal Overthrow of 1893 | author =Kahu Charles Kauluwehi Maxwell Sr. |access-date =April 30, 2010 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20101017023034/http://www.moolelo.com/hawaiis-story.html |archive-date =October 17, 2010 |url-status =live }}</ref>
ALOHA sought reparations for Native Hawaiians by hiring a former U.S. representative to write a bill that, while not ratified, did spawn a congressional study. The study was allowed only six months and was accused of relying on biased information from a historian hired by the territorial government that overthrew the kingdom as well as from U.S. Navy historians. The commission assigned to the study recommended against reparations.<ref name="Smith2007" />{{rp|61}}
=== Ka Lāhui ===
Ka Lāhui Hawaiʻi was formed in 1987 as a local grassroots initiative for Hawaiian sovereignty. [[Mililani Trask]] was its first leader.<ref name="Trask1999">{{cite book|last=Trask|first=Haunani-Kay|author-link=Haunani-Kay Trask|title=From a Native Daughter: Colonialism and Sovereignty in Hawai{{okina|url=https://archive.org/details/fromnativedaught00trasrich|url-access=registration}}i|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJX0oxsu174C&pg=PA74|date=January 1, 1999|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2059-6|page=74|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505093051/https://books.google.com/books?id=YJX0oxsu174C&pg=PA74|archive-date=May 5, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Trask was elected the first kia'aina (governor) of Ka Lahui.<ref>{{cite web|title=Women of Hawaii; Hawaiian women chart their own path to power|publisher=Honolulu Star Bulletin|author=Apgar, Sally|date=September 25, 2005|url=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/09/25/news/story2.html|access-date=April 30, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808205810/http://archives.starbulletin.com/2005/09/25/news/story2.html|archive-date=August 8, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> The organization has a constitution, elected offices and representatives for each island.<ref name="Ng2014">{{cite book|author=Franklin Ng|title=Asian American Family Life and Community|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-t7gAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA260|date=June 23, 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-80123-5|page=260|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504152312/https://books.google.com/books?id=-t7gAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA260|archive-date=May 4, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The group supports federal recognition, independence from the [[United States]],<ref name="GoodyearKaopuaHussey2014" />{{rp|38}} and inclusion of Native Hawaiians in federal Indian policy.<ref name="Smith2007" />{{rp|62}} It is considered the largest sovereignty movement group, reporting a membership of 21,000 in 1997. One of its goals is to reclaim ceded lands. In 1993, the group led 10,000 people on a march to the [[Iolani Palace]] on the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of Queen [[Liliuokalani]].<ref name="JuvikJuvik1998">{{cite book|author1=Sonia P. Juvik|author2=James O. Juvik|author3=Thomas R. Paradise|title=Atlas of Hawai_i|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f0efIh9CV94C&pg=PA182|date=January 1, 1998|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2125-8|page=182|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521230418/https://books.google.com/books?id=f0efIh9CV94C&pg=PA182|archive-date=May 21, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
Ka Lāhui and many sovereignty groups oppose the Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 (known as the "[[Akaka Bill]]") proposed by Senator [[Daniel K. Akaka|Daniel Akaka]], which begins the process of federal recognition of a Native Hawaiian government, with which the [[US State Department|U.S. State Department]] would have government-to-government relations.<ref name="Pulitano2012">{{cite book|author=Elvira Pulitano|title=Indigenous Rights in the Age of the UN Declaration|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_mq7k7uNzUsC&pg=PA323|date=May 24, 2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-02244-7|page=323|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514004213/https://books.google.com/books?id=_mq7k7uNzUsC&pg=PA323|archive-date=May 14, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The group believes that there are problems with the process and version of the bill.<ref>{{cite web|title=Akaka bill and Ka Lahui Hawaii position explained|url=https://kalahuihawaii.wordpress.com/category/position-statement/|website=Ka Lahui Hawaii|access-date=January 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103095949/https://kalahuihawaii.wordpress.com/category/position-statement/|archive-date=January 3, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Still, Trask supported the original Akaka Bill and was a member of a group that crafted it.<ref>{{cite web|title=Akaka bill proponents prepare to wait for passage amid weightier concerns; But others say the bill is flawed and should be fixed before a full congressional vote|publisher=Honolulu Star Bulletin|date=October 1, 2001|author=Donnelly, Christine|url=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2001/10/01/news/story2.html|access-date=April 30, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111224183003/http://archives.starbulletin.com/2001/10/01/news/story2.html|archive-date=December 24, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Trask has been critical of the bill's 20-year limitation on all claims against the U.S., saying: "We would not be able to address the illegal overthrow, address the breach of trust issues" and "We're looking at a terrible history.... That history needs to be remedied."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Bernardo|first1=Rosemarie|title=Hawaiians find fault|url=http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/05/05/news/story7.html|access-date=January 3, 2015|agency=Honolulu Star Bulletin|publisher=2004 Honolulu Star-Bulletin|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228054119/http://archives.starbulletin.com/2004/05/05/news/story7.html|archive-date=December 28, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The organization was a part of [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization|UNPO]] from 1993 through 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UNPO: Kalahui Hawaii|url=https://unpo.org/members/20877|access-date=2021-06-08|website=unpo.org}}</ref>
=== Ka Pākaukau ===
{{Redirect|People's International Tribunal||People's Tribunal (disambiguation){{!}}People's Tribunal}}
Ka Pākaukau leader [[Kekuni Blaisdell]]<ref name="Pulitano2012" /> is a medical doctor and founding chair of the Department of Medicine at the University of Hawai'i John Burns School of Medicine who advocates for Hawaiian independence.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen MS |title=Richard Kekuni Blaisdell, M.D., Founding Chair, Department of Medicine, University of Hawai'i John Burns School of Medicine and Premier Native Hawaiian (Kanaka Maoli) health scholar |journal=Asian Am Pac Isl J Health |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=171–180 |year=1994 |pmid=11567270}}</ref> The group began in the late 1980s as the Pā Kaukau coalition with the aim to supply information that could support the sovereignty and independence movement.<ref name="Aoudé1999">{{cite book|author=Ibrahim G. Aoudé|title=The Ethnic Studies Story: Politics and Social Movements in Hawai'i : Essays in Honor of Marion Kelly|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nn7Ij3xfXo0C&pg=PA57|date=January 1999|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0-8248-2244-6|page=57|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708202234/https://books.google.com/books?id=nn7Ij3xfXo0C&pg=PA57|archive-date=July 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Blaisdell and the 12 groups that comprise the Ka Pākaukau believe in a "nation-within-a-nation" concept as a start to independence and are willing to negotiate with the President of the United States as "representatives of our nation as co-equals".<ref name="New York Times">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/08/us/a-century-after-queen-s-overthrow-talk-of-sovereignty-shakes-hawaii.html?pagewanted=all |title=A Century After Queen's Overthrow, Talk of Sovereignty Shakes Hawaii – NYTimes.com |access-date=January 8, 2015 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=November 8, 1992 |last1=Reinhold |first1=Robert |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160126210629/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/11/08/us/a-century-after-queen-s-overthrow-talk-of-sovereignty-shakes-hawaii.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=January 26, 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1993, Blaisdell convened Ka Ho'okolokolonui Kanaka Maoli, the "People's International Tribunal", which brought indigenous leaders from around the world to Hawaii to put the U.S. government on trial for the theft of Hawaii's sovereignty and other related violations of international law. The tribunal found the U.S. guilty, and published its findings in a lengthy document filed with the U.N. Committees on Human Rights and Indigenous Affairs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hawaiianvoice.com/products-page/history-and-sovereignty/the-tribunal/ |title=The Tribunal |website=Na Maka o ka 'Aina |access-date=January 8, 2015 |date=August 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026044006/http://www.hawaiianvoice.com/products-page/history-and-sovereignty/the-tribunal/ |archive-date=October 26, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Nation of Hawaiʻi ===
{{Main|Nation of Hawaiʻi (organization)}}
The Nation of Hawaiʻi is the oldest Hawaiian independence organization.<ref name="Chambers2009">{{cite book|author=John H. Chambers|title=Hawaii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HZpfH2LJoJoC&pg=PA286|year=2009|publisher=Interlink Books|isbn=978-1-56656-615-5|page=286|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509185504/https://books.google.com/books?id=HZpfH2LJoJoC&pg=PA286|archive-date=May 9, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Bumpy Kanahele|Dennis Puʻuhonua "Bumpy" Kanahele]]<ref name="Reid 2013">{{cite book|author=Phillip B. J. Reid|title=Three Sisters Ponds: My Journey from Street Cop to FBI Special Agent- from Baltimore to Lockerbie and Beyond|url=https://archive.org/details/threesisterspond0000reid/page/178/mode/2up |date=June 2013 |publisher=AuthorHouse |isbn=978-1-4817-5460-6 |pages=178–179 |oclc=1151416533 |url-access=registration |via=Internet Archive}}{{self-published source|date=January 2022}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}} is the group's spokesperson and head of state.<ref>{{cite web|title=United States' Compliance with the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights|url=http://cdn7.iitc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/IITC-FINAL-Rev-ICCPR-USA-2012-4.pdf|publisher=International Indian Treaty Council and the United Confederation of Taino People|page=4 (note 6)|access-date=January 1, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102184157/http://cdn7.iitc.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/IITC-FINAL-Rev-ICCPR-USA-2012-4.pdf|archive-date=January 2, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast to other independence organizations that lean to the restoration of the monarchy, it advocates a republican government.
In 1989, the group occupied the area surrounding the [[Makapuu Point Light|Makapuʻu lighthouse]] on [[Oahu|Oʻahu]]. In 1993, its members occupied Kaupo Beach, near [[Makapuʻu]]. Kanahele was a primary leader of the occupation. He is a descendant of [[Kamehameha I]], 7 generations removed.<ref name="LA">{{cite news|title=Rebuilding a Hawaiian Kingdom|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2005-jul-21-na-kingdom21-story.html|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|access-date=January 1, 2015|date=July 21, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102021450/http://articles.latimes.com/2005/jul/21/nation/na-kingdom21|archive-date=January 2, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The group ceased its occupation in exchange for the return of [[ceded lands]] in the adjacent community of [[Waimanalo, Hawaii|Waimānalo]], where it established a village, cultural center, and puʻuhonua (place of refuge).<ref name="LA" />
Kanahele made headlines again in 1995 when his group gave sanctuary to Nathan Brown, a Native Hawaiian activist who had refused to pay federal taxes in protest against the U.S. presence in Hawaii. Kanahele was arrested, convicted, and sentenced to eight months in federal prison, along with a probation period in which he was barred from the puʻuhonua and participation in his sovereignty efforts.<ref name="Reid 2013" />
In 2015, Kanahele portrayed himself in the movie ''[[Aloha (2015 film)|Aloha]]'' filmed on ___location in Hawaii at Puʻuhonua o Waimanalo.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2015/06/bumpy_kanahele_hawaiian_sovereignty_and_cameron_crowe_s_aloha.html |title=Waimanalo Blues: The political and cultural pitfalls into which Cameron Crowe's ''Aloha'' tumbles go far beyond poor Allison Ng |website=Slate.com |access-date=January 8, 2015 |first=Nate |last=Chinen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601171941/http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2015/06/bumpy_kanahele_hawaiian_sovereignty_and_cameron_crowe_s_aloha.html |archive-date=June 1, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> This was followed by a 2017 episode of ''[[Hawaii Five-0 (2010 TV series)|Hawaii Five-0]]'' titled "Ka Laina Ma Ke One (Line in the Sand)".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt6235812/ |title=''Hawaii Five-0'': Ka Laina Ma Ke One |website=IMDb |access-date=January 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170123072300/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt6235812/ |archive-date=January 23, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Mauna Kea Anaina Hou ===
Kealoha Pisciotta is a former systems specialist for the joint [[James Clerk Maxwell Telescope|British-Dutch-Canadian telescope]]<ref name=Castro>{{cite web|last1=Castro|first1=Joseph|title=Bridging science and culture with the Thirty Meter Telescope|url=http://scienceline.org/2011/01/bridging-science-and-culture-with-the-thirty-meter-telescope/|website=Science Line|publisher=NYU Journalism|access-date=December 20, 2015|date=January 18, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222074730/http://scienceline.org/2011/01/bridging-science-and-culture-with-the-thirty-meter-telescope/|archive-date=December 22, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=tsai /> who became concerned that a stone family shrine she had built for her grandmother and family was removed and found at a dump.<ref name=tsai>{{cite news|last1=Tsai|first1=Michael|title=Cultures clash atop Mauna Kea|url=http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2006/Jul/09/il/FP607090319.html|access-date=December 20, 2015|agency=The Honolulu Advertiser.com|publisher=The Honolulu Advertiser|date=July 9, 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208064316/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2006/Jul/09/il/FP607090319.html|archive-date=December 8, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> She is one of several people who sued to stop the construction of the [[Thirty Meter Telescope]]<ref name=Worth>{{cite news|last1=Worth|first1=Katie|title=World's Largest Telescope Faces Opposition from Native Hawaiian Protesters|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-largest-telescope-faces-opposition-from-native-hawaiian-protesters/|access-date=April 22, 2015|agency=Scientific American|date=February 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150421090607/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-largest-telescope-faces-opposition-from-native-hawaiian-protesters/|archive-date=April 21, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and is the director of [[Mauna Kea Anaina Hou]].<ref name="Huliau">{{cite book|title=Huliau: Time of Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_torGEMuDyYC|date=January 1, 2004|publisher=Kuleana ʻOiwi Press|isbn=978-0-9668220-3-8|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708050243/https://books.google.com/books?id=_torGEMuDyYC|archive-date=July 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Mauna Kea Anaina Hou ("People who pray for the mountain",<ref name="Takahashi2008">{{cite book|author=Patrick Kenji Takahashi|title=Simple Solutions for Humanity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNBF9eqXUzYC&pg=PA163|date=February 29, 2008|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4678-3517-6|pages=163–164|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702141136/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNBF9eqXUzYC&pg=PA163|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live}}{{self-published source|date=January 2022}}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=February 2020}}) and its sister group, Mauna Kea Hui, are indigenous [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] cultural groups with environmental concerns in Hawaii. The group is described as a "Native Hawaiian organization {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} cultural and lineal descendants, and traditional, spiritual and religious practitioners of the sacred traditions of Mauna Kea."
The issue of cultural rights on the mountain was the focus of the documentary ''Mauna Kea—Temple Under Siege'', which aired on PBS in 2006 and featured Pisciotta.<ref name="tsai" /> The Hawaii State Constitution guarantees Native Hawaiians' religious and cultural rights.<ref name="Tauber2015">{{cite book|author=Steven C. Tauber|title=Navigating the Jungle: Law, Politics, and the Animal Advocacy Movement|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idZzCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|date=August 27, 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-38171-6|page=138|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702022525/https://books.google.com/books?id=idZzCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Many of Hawaii's laws can be traced to Kingdom of Hawaii law. Hawaiʻi Revised Statute § 1-1 codifies Hawaiian custom and gives deference to native traditions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sproat|first1=D. Kapuaʻala|title=Avoiding Trouble in Paradise|journal=Business Law Today|date=December 2008|volume=18|issue=2|page=29|url=https://apps.americanbar.org/buslaw/blt/2008-11-12/sproat.shtml|access-date=December 20, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223110313/https://apps.americanbar.org/buslaw/blt/2008-11-12/sproat.shtml|archive-date=December 23, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the early 1970s, managers of Mauna Kea did not seem to pay much attention to Native Hawaiians' complaints about the mountain's sacredness. Mauna Kea Anaina Hou, the [[Royal Order of Kamehameha I]], and the Sierra Club united in opposition to the Keck's proposal to add six outrigger telescopes.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors= Miller, Steve|date= 2010|title= Mauna Kea and the work of the Imiloa Center|url= http://meetings.copernicus.org/epsc2010/abstracts/EPSC2010-193.pdf|journal= EPSC Abstracts|publisher= European Planetary Science Congress 2010|volume= 5|issue= EPSC2010|pages= 193|bibcode= 2010epsc.conf..193M|access-date= January 9, 2016|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151222103314/http://meetings.copernicus.org/epsc2010/abstracts/EPSC2010-193.pdf|archive-date= December 22, 2015|url-status= live}}</ref>
=== Poka Laenui ===
Hayden Burgess, an attorney who goes by the Hawaiian name Poka Laenui, heads the Institute for the Advancement of Hawaiian Affairs.<ref name="Essary2008">{{cite book|author=Elizabeth Helen Essary|title=Latent Destinies: Separatism and the State in Hawaiʻi, Alaska, and Puerto Rico|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6VLeFX-yjP0C&pg=PA70|year=2008|isbn=978-0-549-96012-6|page=70|publisher=Duke University }}</ref> Laenui argues that because of the four international treaties with the U.S. government (1826, 1849, 1875, and 1883), the "U.S. armed invasion and overthrow" of the Hawaiian monarchy, a "friendly government", was illegal in both American and international jurisprudence.<ref name="Poka Laenui">{{cite web |url=http://www.multiworld.org/m_versity/articles/poka.htm |title=Processes of Decolonization |first=Poka |last=Laenui|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060323085702/http://www.multiworld.org/m_versity/articles/poka.htm |archive-date=March 23, 2006 |access-date=December 31, 2012}}</ref>
=== Protect Kahoolawe Ohana (PKO) ===
[[File:Aerial-Makena-Molokini-Kahoolawe.jpg|thumb|300px|Aerial view of Kahoolawe, [[Molokini]], and the [[Makena State Park|Makena]] side of [[Maui]]]]
In 1976, [[Walter Ritte]] and the group ''Protect Kahoolawe Ohana'' (PKO) filed suit in U.S. federal court to stop the Navy's use of Kahoolawe for bombardment training, to require compliance with a number of new environmental laws, and to ensure protection of cultural resources on the island. In 1977, the [[U.S. District Court for the District of Hawaii]] allowed the Navy's use of this island to continue, but directed the Navy to prepare an [[environmental impact statement]] and complete an inventory of historic sites on the island.
The effort to regain Kahoʻolawe from the U.S. Navy inspired new political awareness and activism in the Hawaiian community.<ref name="Yamamoto2006">{{cite book|author=Luci Yamamoto|title=Kauaʻi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQxEU54QCt4C&pg=PA35|year=2006|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74059-096-9|page=35|access-date=March 19, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708001757/https://books.google.com/books?id=sQxEU54QCt4C&pg=PA35|archive-date=July 8, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Charles Maxwell and other community leaders began to plan a coordinated effort to land on the island, which was still under Navy control. The effort for the "first landing" began in Waikapu (Maui) on January 5, 1976. Over 50 people from across the Hawaiian islands, including a range of cultural leaders, gathered on Maui with the goal of "invading" Kahoolawe on January 6, 1976. The date was selected because of its association with the U.S. bicentennial.
As the larger group headed toward the island, it was intercepted by military crafts. "The Kahoʻolawe Nine" continued and landed on the island. They were Ritte, Emmett Aluli, George Helm, Gail Kawaipuna Prejean, Stephen K. Morse, Kimo Aluli, Aunty Ellen Miles, Ian Lind, and Karla Villalba of the Puyallup/Muckleshoot tribe (Washington State).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://firstlandingmovie.com/kahoolawe-9/|title=Kahoolawe 9|access-date=June 15, 2014|publisher=firstlandingmovie.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606211839/http://firstlandingmovie.com/kahoolawe-9/|archive-date=June 6, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> The effort to retake Kahoʻolawe eventually claimed the lives of Helm and Kimo Mitchell. Helm and Mitchell (who were accompanied by Billy Mitchell, no relation) ran into severe weather and were unable to reach Kahoʻolawe. Despite extensive rescue and recovery efforts, they were never recovered. Ritte became a leader in the Hawaiian community, coordinating community efforts including for water rights, opposition to land development, and the protection of marine animals<ref name="nyt">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/12/magazine/who-would-kill-a-monk-seal.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=Who Would Kill a Monk Seal?|access-date=June 15, 2014|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Jon|last=Mooallem|date=May 8, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606224629/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/12/magazine/who-would-kill-a-monk-seal.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|archive-date=June 6, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and ocean resources.<ref name="nyt" /> He now leads the effort to create state legislation requiring the labeling of [[Genetically modified organism|genetically modified organisms]] in Hawaiʻi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thegardenisland.com/news/local/walter-ritte-andrew-kimbrell-address-hawai-i-seed-event/article_125276c8-62cf-11e2-ada1-001a4bcf887a.html|title=Walter Ritte, Andrew Kimbrell address Hawaiʻi SEED event|access-date=June 15, 2014|date=January 20, 2013|first=Laurie|last=Cicotello|work=The Garden Island|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111084148/http://thegardenisland.com/news/local/walter-ritte-andrew-kimbrell-address-hawai-i-seed-event/article_125276c8-62cf-11e2-ada1-001a4bcf887a.html|archive-date=January 11, 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Hawaiian Kingdom ===
David Keanu Sai and Kamana Beamer are two Hawaiian scholars whose works use international law to argue for the rights of a Hawaiian Kingdom existing today and call for an end to U.S. occupation of the islands.<ref name="GoodyearKaopuaHussey2014" />{{rp|394}} Trained as a U.S. military officer, Sai uses the title of chairman of the Acting Council of Regency of the ''Hawaiian Kingdom'' organization.<ref name="Hawaiian Kingdom">{{cite web |url=http://hawaiiankingdom.org/ |website=Hawaiian Kingdom Government|title=Welcome – E Komo Mai |last=Sai |first=David Keanu |___location=Honolulu, H.I. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125083742/http://hawaiiankingdom.org/ |archive-date=November 25, 2012 |url-status=live |access-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref> He has done extensive historical research, especially on the treaties between Hawaii and other nations, and on [[military occupation]] and the laws of war. Sai teaches [[Hawaiian studies]] at [[Windward Community College]].<ref name="Tanigawa 2014-08-29">{{cite web |url=http://hpr2.org/post/hawai-i-independent-nation-or-fiftieth-state |title=Hawaiʻi: Independent Nation or Fiftieth State? |first=Noe |last=Tanigawa |website=hpr2.org |date=August 29, 2014 |publisher=[[Hawaii Public Radio]] |___location=Honolulu, HI |access-date=January 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150113050224/http://hpr2.org/post/hawai-i-independent-nation-or-fiftieth-state |archive-date=January 13, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Sai claimed to represent the Hawaiian Kingdom in ''Larsen v. Hawaiian Kingdom'', a case brought before the World Court's [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] at [[The Hague]] in 2000.<ref name="AlohaQuest">{{cite web|url=http://www.alohaquest.com/arbitration/index.htm|title=International Arbitration – Larsen vs. Hawaiian Kingdom|date=July 18, 2011|publisher=Aloha First|___location=Waimanalo, HI|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108130049/http://www.alohaquest.com/arbitration/index.htm|archive-date=November 8, 2012|url-status=live|access-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref><ref name="Most provocative notion">{{cite journal |url=http://www.hawaiiankingdom.org/honoluluweekly_010815.shtml |title=Most provocative notion in Hawaiian affairs |date=August 15–21, 2001 |journal=[[Honolulu Weekly]] |___location=Honolulu, HI|issn=1057-414X |oclc=24032407 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120418105221/http://hawaiiankingdom.org/honoluluweekly_010815.shtml |archive-date=April 18, 2012 |url-status=live |access-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref> Although Sai and Lance Paul Larsen agreed to the arbitration, with Larsen suing Sai for not protecting his rights as a Hawaiian Kingdom subject, his actual goal was to have U.S. rule in Hawaii declared a breach of mutual treaty obligations and international law. The case's arbiters affirmed that there was no dispute they could decide, because the U.S. was not a party to the arbitration. As stated in the award from the arbitration panel, "in the absence of the United States of America, the Tribunal can neither decide that Hawaii is not part of the USA, nor proceed on the assumption that it is not. To take either course would be to disregard a principle which goes to heart of the arbitral function in international law."<ref name="arbpanel">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5VE6AlpPAHkC&pg=PA597|title=International Law Reports|isbn=0-521-66122-6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2002|access-date=November 22, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222053800/https://books.google.com/books?id=5VE6AlpPAHkC&pg=PA597|archive-date=December 22, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
In a 2000 arbitration hearing before the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], the Hawaiian flag was raised at the same height at and alongside other countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~anu/|author=Sai, David Keanu|title=Dr. David Keanu Sai (Hawaiian flag raised with others)|access-date=April 30, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602000728/http://www2.hawaii.edu/~anu/|archive-date=June 2, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> But the court accepts arbitration from private entities, and a hearing before it does not mean international recognition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pca-cpa.org/showpage.asp?pag_id=1027|title=Permanent Court of Arbitration: About Us|publisher=[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]|access-date=April 30, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329032938/http://www.pca-cpa.org/showpage.asp?pag_id=1027|archive-date=March 29, 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Hawaiian Kingdom Government ===
About 70 members of one separatist group, the "Hawaiian Kingdom Government", which claimed about 1,000 members in 2008, [[2008 occupation of Iolani Palace|chained the gates and blocked the entrance to {{okina}}Iolani Palace]] for about two hours, disrupting tours on April 30, 2008.<ref>{{citation |title= Native Hawaiians seek to restore monarchy |date= June 19, 2008 |agency= AP |work= Denver Post |url= https://www.denverpost.com/2008/06/19/native-hawaiians-seek-to-restore-monarchy/ |access-date= 2020-06-22}}</ref> The incident ended without violence or arrests.<ref>{{citation |title= Group of Hawaiians occupies Iolani Palace, vows to return |first= Gene |last= Park |date= May 1, 2008 |work= Honolulu Star-Bulletin |url= http://archives.starbulletin.com/2008/05/01/news/story04.html |access-date= 2020-06-22}}</ref> Led by [[Mahealani Kahau]], who has taken the title of queen, and Jessica Wright, who has taken the title of princess, it has been meeting daily to conduct "government business" and demand sovereignty for Hawaii and restoration of the monarchy. It negotiated rights to be on the lawn of the grounds during regular hours normally open to the public by applying for a public-assembly permit. Kahau said that "protest" and "sovereignty group" mischaracterize the group, but that it is a seat of government.<ref>{{cite news |title= Native Hawaiian group: We're staying |newspaper= [[USA Today]] |first= Dan |last= Nakaso |date= May 15, 2008 |url= https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-05-15-hawaii_N.htm |access-date= December 23, 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111225145635/http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2008-05-15-hawaii_N.htm |archive-date= December 25, 2011 |url-status= live }}</ref>
== Hawaiian sovereignty activists and advocates ==
[[File:Thirty Meter Telescope protest, October 7, 2014 C.jpg|thumb|300px|Cultural practitioner Joshua Lanakila Mangauil, along with Kahoʻokahi Kanuha and Hawaiian sovereignty supporters block the access road to Mauna Kea in October 2014, demonstrating against the building of the [[Thirty Meter Telescope]].]]
<!-- /// please maintain alphabetical order by last name, only include if article or citation /// -->
*[[Owana Salazar]], [[pretender|claimant]] to the throne of Hawaiʻi and member of the [[House of Laanui|House of Laʻanui]]
*[[Abigail Kinoiki Kekaulike Kawānanakoa]] was a member of the [[House of Kawānanakoa]].
*[[Francis Boyle]], professor of international law, [[University of Illinois College of Law]] and Consultant on Independence, Hawaiian Sovereignty Advisory Commission, State of Hawaii (1993)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.illinois.edu/faculty/profile/francisboyle|title=Francis A. Boyle – Faculty|publisher=[[University of Illinois College of Law]]|___location=Champaign, IL|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722072854/http://www.law.illinois.edu/faculty/profile/FrancisBoyle|archive-date=July 22, 2012|url-status=live|access-date=January 12, 2013}}</ref>
* [[George Helm]], musician, and Kimo Mitchell, both d. 1977
* [[
* [[Bumpy Kanahele]], Hawaiian nationalist leader, militant activist, and head of the [[Nation of Hawaiʻi (organization)|Nation of Hawaiʻi]]
* [[Thirty Meter Telescope protests|Kahoʻokahi Kanuha]], activist and "protector" of [[Mauna Kea]] in opposition to the construction of the [[Thirty Meter Telescope]]. Kanuha defended himself after arrests in the [[native Hawaiian language]] or ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi. He chanted his genealogy going back to [[Umi-a-Liloa]] and his protection of the mountain and was found not guilty on January 16, 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2016/01/08/kanuha-found-not-guilty-of-obstruction-on-mauna-kea/|title=Kanuha Found Not Guilty Of Obstruction on Mauna Kea|date=January 8, 2016|publisher=Big Island Video News|agency=Big Island video News|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110104237/http://www.bigislandvideonews.com/2016/01/08/kanuha-found-not-guilty-of-obstruction-on-mauna-kea/|archive-date=January 10, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Thirty Meter Telescope protests|Joshua Lanakila Mangauil]], Hawaiian cultural practitioner and leader of the international movement to protect [[Mauna Kea]].<ref>{{cite news|title=How Lanakila Mangauil came to Mauna Kea|url=http://hawaiiindependent.net/story/how-lanakila-mangauil-came-to-mauna-kea|access-date=January 9, 2016|agency=The Hawaiian independent|publisher=The Hawaii Independent Corporation/Archipelago|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107082534/http://hawaiiindependent.net/story/how-lanakila-mangauil-came-to-mauna-kea|archive-date=January 7, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Kawaipuna Prejean]] (d. 1992), Hawaiian nationalist, activist, advocate for the Hawaiian sovereignty movement, and founder of the Hawaiian Coalition of Native Claims, now known as the [[Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation]]<ref>[http://www.nhlchi.org/about-us/27-our-history Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125163859/http://www.nhlchi.org/about-us/27-our-history |date=January 25, 2016 }} "Originally named the 'Hawaiian Coalition of Native Claims,' the organization fought against a then-new wave of dispossession from the land to make way for a boom in urban development. Since then, NHLC has worked steadily to establish Native Hawaiian rights jurisprudence."</ref>
* [[Noenoe Silva|Noenoe K. Silva]], [[political scientist]], [[University of Hawaii at Manoa]]<ref name="Noenoe Silva faculty page">{{cite web |url=http://www.politicalscience.hawaii.edu/4-faculty/silva.html |title=Professor Noenoe Silva |date=November 3, 2011 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]] |___location=Honolulu, HI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022004238/http://www.politicalscience.hawaii.edu/4-faculty/silva.html |archive-date=October 22, 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=January 12, 2013 }}</ref>
* [[Haunani-Kay Trask]], founder of [[Hawaiian studies]], department chair at University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, sovereignty activist, and poet<ref name="Southern Poverty Law Center 2009">{{cite web |title=Hawaii Suffering From Racial Prejudice |website=Southern Poverty Law Center |date=2009-08-30 |url=https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2009/hawaii-suffering-racial-prejudice |access-date=2022-04-14}}</ref>
* [[Mililani Trask]]
* [[Robert Kajiwara]]
* [[Sudden Rush]], Hawaiian rap/hip hop ([[na mele paleoleo]]) musical group<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Webb |first1=Michael |last2=Webb-Gannon |first2=Camellia |title=Musical Melanesianism: Imagining and Expressing Regional Identity and Solidarity in Popular Song and Video |journal=The Contemporary Pacific |volume=28 |number=1 |pages=59–95 |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |year=2016 |doi=10.1353/cp.2016.0015 |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/43713/1/v28n1-59-95.pdf |access-date=February 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006222814/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/43713/1/v28n1-59-95.pdf |archive-date=October 6, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Nikolai Sudzilovsky|Kauka Lukini]], Russian revolutionary who became the president of the [[Hawaii Senate|Senate of Hawaii]]
== Reaction ==
In 1993, the State of Hawaiʻi adopted Act 359 "to acknowledge and recognize the unique status the native Hawaiian people bear to the State of Hawaii and to the United States and to facilitate the efforts of native Hawaiians to be governed by an indigenous sovereign nation of their own choosing." The act created the Hawaiian Sovereignty Advisory Committee to provide guidance with "(1) Conducting special elections related to this Act; (2) Apportioning voting districts; (3) Establishing the eligibility of convention delegates; (4) Conducting educational activities for Hawaiian voters, a voter registration drive, and research activities in preparation for the convention; (5) Establishing the size and composition of the convention delegation; and (6) Establishing the dates for the special election. Act 200 amended Act 359 establishing the Hawaiʻi Sovereignty Elections Council".<ref name="Civil Rights" />
Those involved with the Advisory Committee forums believed that the question of the political status for Native Hawaiians has become difficult. But in 2000, a panel of the committee stated that Native Hawaiians have maintained a unique community. Federal and state programs have been designated to improve Native Hawaiians' conditions, including health, education, employment and training, children's services, conservation programs, fish and wildlife protection, agricultural programs, and native language immersion programs.<ref name="Civil Rights">{{cite web|title=Reconciliation at a Crossroads: The Implications of the Apology Resolution and Rice v. Cayetano for Federal and State Programs Benefiting Native Hawaiians|url=http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/sac/hi0601/report.htm|website=US Commission on Civil Rights|publisher=usccr.gov|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210171737/http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/sac/hi0601/report.htm|archive-date=December 10, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> Congress created the Hawaiian Homes Commission (HHC) in 1921. The Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA) was the result of a 1978 amendment to the Hawaiʻi State Constitution and controls over $1 billion from the Ceded Lands Trust, spending millions to address Native Hawaiians' needs. Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation Executive Director Mahealani Kamauʻu has said that only in the last 25 years have Native Hawaiians "had a modicum of political empowerment and been able to exercise direct responsibility for their own affairs, that progress has been made in so many areas". These programs have opposition and critics who believe they are ineffective and badly managed.<ref name="Civil Rights" />
=== The Apology Bill and the Akaka Bill ===
{{Main|Akaka Bill}}
Native Hawaiians' growing frustration over Hawaiian homelands and the 100th anniversary of the overthrow pushed the Hawaiian sovereignty movement to the forefront of politics in Hawaii. In 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] signed [[Apology Resolution|United States Public Law 103-150]], known as the "Apology Bill", for U.S. involvement in the 1893 overthrow. The bill makes a commitment to reconciliation.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009">{{cite book|last=Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, Alexander|first=Joseph G., J. Manuel, Lisa A., Charlene M.|title=Handbook of Multicultural Counseling|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wz8XBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA270|date=August 24, 2009|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-1-4833-1713-7|pages=269–271|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521160654/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wz8XBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA270|archive-date=May 21, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BendureFriary2003">{{cite book|author1=Glenda Bendure|author2=Ned Friary|title=Oahu|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qse26r9j2ZwC&pg=PA24|year=2003|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74059-201-7|page=24|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603175528/https://books.google.com/books?id=qse26r9j2ZwC&pg=PA24|archive-date=June 3, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
U.S. census information shows approximately 401,162 Native Hawaiians living in the U.S. in 2000. Sixty percent live in the continental U.S. and forty percent in Hawaii.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" /> Between 1990 and 2000, people identifying as Native Hawaiian had grown by 90,000, while those identifying as pure Hawaiian had declined to under 10,000.<ref name="PonterottoCasas2009" />
In 2009, Senator [[Daniel Akaka]] sponsored [[Akaka Bill|The Native Hawaiian Government Reorganization Act of 2009 (S1011/HR2314)]], a bill to create the legal framework to establish a Hawaiian government. President [[Barack Obama]] supported the bill.<ref name="Campbell2010">{{cite book|author=Jeff Campbell|title=Hawaii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRXR69wo-rYC&pg=PA47|date=September 15, 2010|publisher=Lonely Planet|isbn=978-1-74220-344-7|page=47|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160517085946/https://books.google.com/books?id=TRXR69wo-rYC&pg=PA47|archive-date=May 17, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The bill is considered a reconciliation process, but it has not had that effect, instead being the subject of much controversy and political fighting in many arenas. American opponents argue that Congress is disregarding U.S. citizens for special interests and sovereignty activists believe this will further erode their rights, as the 1921 blood quantum rule of the Hawaiian Homes Commission Act did.<ref name="BischoffEngel2013">{{cite book|author1=Eva Bischoff|author2=Elisabeth Engel|title=Colonialism and Beyond: Race and Migration from a Postcolonial Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fc1nekzLBSkC&pg=PA61|year=2013|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-90261-0|page=61|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428113209/https://books.google.com/books?id=fc1nekzLBSkC&pg=PA61|archive-date=April 28, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2011, a governor-appointed committee began to gather and verify Native Hawaiians' names for the purpose of voting on a Native Hawaiian nation.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Lyte|first1=Brittany|title=Native Hawaiian election set|url=http://thegardenisland.com/news/local/native-hawaiian-election-set/article_ec9d650e-69e6-53e1-9f37-097a3d629d79.html|access-date=October 6, 2015|agency=[[The Garden Island]]|publisher=The Garden island|date=September 16, 2015}}{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
In June 2014, the [[US Department of the Interior]] announced plans to hold hearings to establish the possibility of federal recognition of Native Hawaiians as an Indian tribe.<ref name=Grass>{{cite news|last1=Grass|first1=Michael|title=As Feds Hold Hearings, Native Hawaiians Press Sovereignty Claims|url=http://www.govexec.com/state-local/2014/08/hawaii-sovereignty-department-interior-hearings/91247/|access-date=October 6, 2015|agency=Government Executive|publisher=Government Executive|date=August 12, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007091037/http://www.govexec.com/state-local/2014/08/hawaii-sovereignty-department-interior-hearings/91247/|archive-date=October 7, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=DOI>{{cite web|last1=Office of the Secretary of the interior|title=Interior Considers Procedures to Reestablish a Government-to-Government Relationship with the Native Hawaiian Community|url=https://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/interior-considers-procedures-to-reestablish-a-government-to-government-relationship-with-the-native-hawaiian-community|website=US Department of the interior|publisher=US Government, Department of the Interior|access-date=October 6, 2015|date=June 18, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007112028/https://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/interior-considers-procedures-to-reestablish-a-government-to-government-relationship-with-the-native-hawaiian-community|archive-date=October 7, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Opposition ===
There has also been opposition to the concept of ancestry-based sovereignty, which critics maintain is tantamount to racial exclusion.<ref name=Hill>{{cite web |url=http://grassrootinstitute.org/native-issues/office-of-hawaiian-affairs-rant-vs-reason-on-race |title=Office of Hawaiian Affairs: Rant vs. Reason on Race |first=Malia Blom |last=Hill |date=January 2011 |___location=Honolulu, HI |publisher=Grassroot Institute of Hawaii |access-date=April 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330151739/http://www.grassrootinstitute.org/native-issues/office-of-hawaiian-affairs-rant-vs-reason-on-race |archive-date=March 30, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1996, in ''[[Rice v. Cayetano]]'', one [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] rancher sued to win the right to vote in [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs|OHA]] elections, asserting that every Hawaiian citizen regardless of racial background should be able to vote for state offices, and that limiting the vote to Native Hawaiians is racist. In 2000, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in his favor, and OHA elections are now open to all registered voters. In its decision, the court wrote: "the ancestral inquiry mandated by the State is forbidden by the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]] for the further reason that the use of racial classifications is corruptive of the whole legal order democratic elections seek to preserve....Distinctions between citizens solely because of their ancestry are by their very nature odious to a free people whose institutions are founded upon the doctrine of equality".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/pdf/98-818P.ZO|title=Supreme Court of the United States: Opinion of the Court|access-date=April 30, 2010|year=2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107124412/http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/pdf/98-818P.ZO|archive-date=January 7, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Proposed United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians ===
{{Main|United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians}}
The year of hearings found most speakers with strong opposition to the U.S. government's involvement in Hawaiian sovereignty,<ref name=Lauer /> with opponents arguing that [[tribal sovereignty|tribal recognition]] of Native Hawaiians is not a legitimate path to Hawaiian nationhood and that the U.S. government should not be involved in reestablishing Hawaiian sovereignty.<ref name="Altemus-Williams" />
On September 29, 2015, the [[United States Department of the Interior]] announced a procedure to recognize a Native Hawaiian government.<ref name=Lauer>{{cite news|last1=Lauer|first1=Nancy Cook|title=Interior Department announces procedure for Native Hawaiian recognition|url=http://westhawaiitoday.com/news/local-news/interior-department-announces-procedure-native-hawaiian-recognition|access-date=October 7, 2015|agency=West Hawaii Today|publisher=Oahu Publications|date=September 30, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003234600/http://westhawaiitoday.com/news/local-news/interior-department-announces-procedure-native-hawaiian-recognition|archive-date=October 3, 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Interior Proposes Path for Re-Establishing Government-to-Government Relationship with Native Hawaiian Community|url=https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-proposes-pathway-re-establishing-government-government|website=Department of the Interior|publisher=Office of the Secretary of the Department of the interior|access-date=October 7, 2015|date=September 29, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026052210/https://www.doi.gov/pressreleases/interior-department-proposes-pathway-re-establishing-government-government|archive-date=October 26, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The Native Hawaiian Roll Commission was created to find and register Native Hawaiians.<ref name="Sisson2014">{{cite book|author=Edward Hawkins Sisson|title=America the Great|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2BL2AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1490|date=June 22, 2014|publisher=Edward Sisson|page=1490|id=GGKEY:0T5QX14Q22E|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518075549/https://books.google.com/books?id=2BL2AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1490|archive-date=May 18, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The nine-member commission has prepared a roll of registered individuals of Hawaiian heritage.<ref name="Gross2009">{{cite book|author=Ariela Julie Gross|title=What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=olNMkg1_FeIC&pg=PA207|date=June 30, 2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-03797-7|page=207|access-date=January 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603212026/https://books.google.com/books?id=olNMkg1_FeIC&pg=PA207|archive-date=June 3, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
The nonprofit organization ''Naʻi Aupuni'' will organize the constitutional convention and election of delegates using the roll, which began collecting names in 2011. [[Grassroot Institute of Hawaii]] CEO Kelii Akina filed suit to see the names on the roll, won, and found serious flaws. The Native Hawaiian Roll Commission has since purged the list of names of deceased persons as well as those whose mailing or email addresses could not be verified.
Akina again filed suit to stop the election because funding of the project comes from a grant from the [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs]] and because of a Supreme Court decision prohibiting states from conducting race-based elections.<ref name=Daysog /> In October 2015, a federal judge declined to stop the process. The case was appealed with a formal emergency request to stop the voting until the appeal was heard; the request was denied.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fed Appeals Court Won't Stop Hawaiian Election Vote Count|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/11/19/us/ap-us-native-hawaiian-election-lawsuit.html|access-date=November 28, 2015|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 19, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201014223/http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/11/19/us/ap-us-native-hawaiian-election-lawsuit.html|archive-date=December 1, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> On November 24, the emergency request was made again to [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court Justice]] [[Anthony Kennedy]].<ref name="opponentsask">{{cite news|title=Opponents Ask High Court to Block Native Hawaiian Vote Count|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/11/24/us/politics/ap-us-supreme-court-native-hawaiian-election.html|access-date=November 28, 2015|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 24, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151201014227/http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2015/11/24/us/politics/ap-us-supreme-court-native-hawaiian-election.html|archive-date=December 1, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> On November 27, Kennedy stopped the election tallying and naming of delegates. The decision did not stop the voting itself, and a spokesman for the Naʻi Aupuni continued to encourage those eligible to vote before the November 30, 2015, deadline.<ref>{{cite news|title=Supreme Court Justice Intervenes in Native Hawaiian Election|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/28/us/politics/supreme-court-justice-intervenes-in-native-hawaiian-election.html?_r=1|access-date=November 28, 2015|agency=Associated Press|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 27, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702104236/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/28/us/politics/supreme-court-justice-intervenes-in-native-hawaiian-election.html?_r=1|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
The election was expected to cost about $150,000, and voting was carried out by Elections America, a firm based in Washington, D.C. The constitutional convention has an estimated cost of $2.6 million.<ref name="Daysog">{{cite news|last1=Rick|first1=Daysog|title=Critics: Hawaiian constitutional convention election process is flawed|url=http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/30194206/hawaiian-con-con-controversy|access-date=October 7, 2015|agency=Hawaii News Now|publisher=Hawaii News Now|date=October 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007234708/http://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/story/30194206/hawaiian-con-con-controversy|archive-date=October 7, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Aloha ʻĀina]]
* [[Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples]]
* [[Hawaiian home land]]
* [[Hawaiian Kingdom–United States relations|Hawaiian Kingdom-United States relations]]
* [[History of Hawaii]]
* [[KKCR]]
* [[Legal status of Hawaii]]
* [[Nation-building]]
* [[Opposition to the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom]]
* [[Puerto Rican independence movement]]
* [[Republic of Texas (group)]]
* [[Right to exist]]
* [[Self-determination]]
* [[State formation]]
* [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]]
* [[Tribal sovereignty]]
* [[United States involvement in regime change]]
* [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="Smith2007">{{cite book
|author=Keri E. Iyall Smith
|title=The State and Indigenous Movements
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRSRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62
|date=May 7, 2007
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-1-135-86179-7
|access-date=November 22, 2015
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429065304/https://books.google.com/books?id=aRSRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62
|archive-date=April 29, 2016
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
<ref name="GoodyearKaopuaHussey2014">{{cite book
|author1=Noelani Goodyear-Kaʻopua
|author2=Ikaika Hussey
|author3=Erin Kahunawaikaʻala Kahunawaikaʻala Wright
|title=A Nation Rising: Hawaiian Movements for Life, Land, and Sovereignty
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m9LZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38
|date=August 27, 2014
|publisher=Duke University Press
|isbn=978-0-8223-7655-2
|access-date=November 22, 2015
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502093110/https://books.google.com/books?id=m9LZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38
|archive-date=May 2, 2016
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
}}
== Further reading ==
<!-- /// please maintain alphabetical order by last name why? no such Wikipedia convention-->
* Andrade Jr., Ernest (1996). ''Unconquerable Rebel: Robert W. Wilcox and Hawaiian Politics, 1880–1903''. University Press of Colorado. {{ISBN|0-87081-417-6}}
* Budnick, Rich (1992). ''Stolen Kingdom: An American Conspiracy''. Honolulu: Aloha Press. {{ISBN|0-944081-02-9}}
* Churchill, Ward. Venne, Sharon H. (2004). ''Islands in Captivity: The International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians''. Hawaiian language editor Lilikala Kameʻeleihiwa. Boston: [[South End Press]]. {{ISBN|0-89608-738-7}}
* Coffman, Tom (2003). ''Nation Within: The Story of America's Annexation of the Nation of Hawaii''. Epicenter. {{ISBN|1-892122-00-6}}
* Coffman, Tom (2003). ''The Island Edge of America: A Political History of Hawaiʻi.'' University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2625-6}} / {{ISBN|0-8248-2662-0}}
* Conklin, Kenneth R. ''Hawaiian Apartheid: Racial Separatism and Ethnic Nationalism in the Aloha State''. {{ISBN|1-59824-461-2}}
* Daws, Gavan (1968). ''Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands''. Macmillan, New York, 1968. Paperback edition, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1974.
* Dougherty, Michael (2000). ''To Steal a Kingdom''. Island Style Press. {{ISBN|0-9633484-0-X}}
* Dudley, Michael K., and Agard, Keoni Kealoha (1993 reprint). ''A Call for Hawaiian Sovereignty''. Nā Kāne O Ka Malo Press. {{ISBN|1-878751-09-3}}
* J. Kēhaulani Kauanui. 2018. ''[https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/2499/Paradoxes-of-Hawaiian-SovereigntyLand-Sex-and-the Paradoxes of Hawaiian Sovereignty: Land, Sex, and the Colonial Politics of State Nationalism]''. Duke University Press.
*Kameʻeleihiwa, Lilikala (1992). ''Native Land and Foreign Desires''. Bishop Museum Press. {{ISBN|0-930897-59-5}}
* Liliʻuokalani (1991 reprint). ''[[Hawaii's Story by Hawaii's Queen]]''. Mutual Publishing. {{ISBN|0-935180-85-0}}
* Osorio, Jonathan Kay Kamakawiwoʻole (2002). ''Dismembering Lahui: A History of the Hawaiian Nation to 1887.'' University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2549-7}}
* Silva, Noenoe K. (2004). ''Aloha Betrayed: Native Hawaiian Resistance to American Colonialism''. Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-3349-X}}
* Twigg-Smith, Thurston (2000). ''Hawaiian Sovereignty: Do the Facts Matter?''. Goodale Publishing. {{ISBN|0-9662945-1-3}}
== External links ==
* {{cite web |url= https://www.angelfire.com/big11a/NHSC.html |title=Native Hawaiians Study Commission Report – GrassrootWiki |author=Native Hawaiians Study Commission |date=December 7, 2006 |___location=Honolulu, HI |publisher=Grassroot Institute of Hawaii |access-date=April 30, 2012}}
* [http://morganreport.org/ morganreport.org] Online images and transcriptions of the entire Morgan Report
* [https://nupepa.org/ Historic Hawaiian-language newspapers] Ulukau: Hawaiian Electronic Library: Hoʻolaupaʻi – Hawaiian Nupepa Collection
* [https://libweb.hawaii.edu//digicoll/annexation/annexation.php Hui Aloha Aina Anti-Annexation Petitions, 1897–1898]
=== Politics ===
* {{Cite web |url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~hslp/journal.html |title=Hawaiian Journal of Law and Politics |access-date=January 12, 2012 |issn=1550-6177 |oclc=55488821 |___location=Honolulu, HI |publisher=[[University of Hawaii at Manoa]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212062946/http://www2.hawaii.edu/~hslp/journal.html |archive-date=February 12, 2012 |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite web |title=Hawaiian Society of Law and Politics |access-date=January 12, 2013 |url=http://www2.hawaii.edu/~hslp/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819120906/http://www2.hawaii.edu/~hslp/ |archive-date=August 19, 2012 |url-status=live}}
* [http://oha.org/ Office of Hawaiian Affairs]
* [http://www.unpo.org/member_profile.php?id=28
* [http://www.hawaii-nation.org/ Nation of
=== Media ===
* {{cite news |title= Pride in Hawaiian Culture Reawakened: Seeds of Sovereignty Movement Sown during 1960s–70s Renaissance |newspaper= [[Honolulu Advertiser]] |date= August 9, 2009 |author= Michael Tsai |url= <!-- http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2009/Aug/09/ln/hawaii908090366.html body missing, so use re post --> http://sixties-l.blogspot.com/2009/09/pride-in-hawaiian-culture-reawakened.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110708063136/http://sixties-l.blogspot.com/2009/09/pride-in-hawaiian-culture-reawakened.html |archive-date= July 8, 2011 |url-status= dead }}
* [http://www.honoluluadvertiser.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050814/NEWS23/508140322/1001 Native Hawaiians battle in the courts and in Congress] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219000845/http://honoluluadvertiser.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20050814%2FNEWS23%2F508140322%2F1001 |date=February 19, 2006 }} ''Honolulu Advertiser'' chronology of legislative and legal events relating to Hawaiian sovereignty since 1996
* [https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2005/sep/17/20050917-104942-3257r/ Political tsunami hits Hawaii, by Rubellite Kawena Kinney Johnson]
* [https://www.hawaiiankingdom.info/ Blog of articles and documents on Hawaiian sovereignty]
* [http://starbulletin.com/1999/10/13/news/story4.html Indigenous students silent no more] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071125194929/http://starbulletin.com/1999/10/13/news/story4.html |date=November 25, 2007 }}, article from ''[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]]'' on Native Hawaiian student activism at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa
* [http://www.sovereignstories.org/articles/article-100years.htm Sovereign Stories: 100 Years of Subjugation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050311182949/http://www.sovereignstories.org/articles/article-100years.htm |date=March 11, 2005 }}, article from ''[[Honolulu Weekly]]''
* [http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/ngo2.html Resolution on Kānaka Maoli Self-Determination and Reinscription of Ka Pae ʻĀina (Hawaiʻi) on the U.N. list of Non-Self-Governing Territories], ''In Motion Magazine''
* [http://www.hawaiiheart.com/health2.html/ Connection between Hawaiian health and sovereignty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050516073352/http://www.hawaiiheart.com/health2.html |date=May 16, 2005 }}, paper by Dr. Kekuni Blaisdell presented August 24, 1991, at a panel on Puʻuhonua in Hawaiian Culture
* [https://www.namaka.com/ Nā Maka O Ka ʻĀina]: award-winning documentary, film/video resources, and sovereignty-related A/V tools
* [http://www.ksbe.edu/pase/pdf/KSResearchConference/2004presentations/Perkins.pdf 2004 Presentation given by Umi Perkins at a Kamehameha Schools research conference] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050110164703/http://www.ksbe.edu/pase/pdf/KSResearchConference/2004presentations/Perkins.pdf |date=January 10, 2005 }}
* [https://nohohewa.com/ ''Noho Hewa'': Documentary by Anne Keala Kelly]
===
* [https://www.angelfire.com/hi2/hawaiiansovereignty/ Documents and essays opposing sovereignty] collected or written by [[Kenneth R. Conklin]], Ph.D.
* [https://www.grassrootinstitute.org/ Grassroot Institute of Hawaii] – co-founded by [[Richard O. Rowland]] and ''[[Hawaii Reporter]]'' publisher [[Malia Zimmerman]]
* [http://aloha4all.org/ Aloha for All] – co-founded by [[H. William Burgess]] and [[Thurston Twigg-Smith]]
* {{cite web | title=Hawaii Reporter: Hawaii Reporter | date=2003-03-21 | url=http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?ab166d66-d042-4561-9276-b6577961accd | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522093137/http://www.hawaiireporter.com/story.aspx?ab166d66-d042-4561-9276-b6577961accd | archive-date=2006-05-22 | url-status=dead | ref=none}}
{{Hawaii}}
{{Secession in the United States}}
{{Ethnic nationalism |state=collapsed}}
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