Tajikistani Civil War: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Armed conflict in Tajikistan from 1992 to 1997}}

{{Infobox Military Conflict|

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}

|conflict=Tajikistan Civil War

{{Infobox military conflict

|image=[[Image:Tajikfighter.jpg|250px]]

| conflict = Tajikistani Civil War

|date=[[1992]] - [[1997]]

| partof = the [[post-Soviet conflicts]] and spillover of the [[Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)]]

|place=[[Tajikistan]]

| image = Spetsnaz troopers during the 1992 Tajik war.jpg

|result=[[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored [[armistice]] and peace negotiations between Tajikistan President [[Emomali Rahmonov]] and the opposition. Rahmonov wins the 1999 Tajik presidential election and some political stability is establishment.

| image_size = 250px

|casus=Political struggle between Tajikistan's ruling elite and the opposition.

| caption = Spetsnaz soldiers of the [[15th Independent Special Forces Brigade]] during the Civil War

|combatant1=

| date = 5 May 1992 – 27 June 1997<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=05|day1=05|year1=1992|month2=06|day2=27|year2=1997}})

<li>[[People's Democratic Party of Tajikistan]]</li>

<li>[[Communist| Partyplace of = [[Tajikistan]]</li>

| result = Armistice

<li>[[Socialist Party (Tajikistan)|Socialist Party of Tajikistan]]</li>

| combatant1 = {{tree list}}

|combatant2=

* {{Flagicon|Tajikistan|1991}}/{{flag|Tajikistan}}

<li>[[United Tajik Opposition]]</li>

** [[Popular Front of Tajikistan]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1085952.html|publisher=Radio Liberty Archives|date=9 July 1997|title=Tajikistan: President Meets With Popular Front Commanders|access-date=23 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012062723/https://www.rferl.org/a/1085952.html|archive-date=12 October 2017}}</ref>

<li>[[Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan]]</li>

** [[File:LogoKPT.svg|20px]] [[Communist Party of Tajikistan]]

|commander1=

** [[Socialist Party of Tajikistan]]

|commander2=

{{flagicon|Russia|1991}}/{{flag|Russia}}<br />

|strength1=

{{flag|Uzbekistan}}<br />

|strength2=

{{flagicon|Kazakh SSR}}/{{flag|Kazakhstan}}<br />

|casualties1=

{{flagicon image|Flag of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (reverse).svg}}/{{flag|Kyrgyzstan|1992}}<br>

|casualties2=

{{tree list/end}}'''Supported by:'''{{tree list}}

|casualties3=Over 50,000 killed, 1.2 million displaced

* {{flag|Belarus|1991}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://m.lenta.ru/articles/2002/03/01/belarmor/ |title=Американцы боятся белорусских танков. Белоруссия американских санкций не боится |date=1 March 2002 |trans-title=Americans are afraid of Belarusian tanks. Belarus is not afraid of American sanctions |website=[[Lenta.ru]] |lang=ru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211120145218/https://m.lenta.ru/articles/2002/03/01/belarmor/ |archive-date=20 November 2021}}</ref> (weapons supplies)

* {{flagdeco|United Nations}} [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan|UNMOT]]

** {{flag|Austria}}

** {{flag|Bangladesh}}

** {{flag|Bulgaria}}

** {{flag|Czech Republic}}

** {{flag|Denmark}}

** {{flag|Ghana}}

** {{flag|Hungary}}

** {{flag|Indonesia}}

** {{flag|Jordan}}

** {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Nepal}}

** {{flag|Nigeria}}

** {{flag|Poland}}

** {{flag|Switzerland}}

** {{flag|Ukraine|1992}}

** {{flag|Uruguay}}

{{tree list/end}}

| combatant2 = {{tree list}}

* {{flagicon image|Flag of the United Tajik Opposition.svg}} [[United Tajik Opposition]]

** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan.svg}} [[Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan|Islamic Renaissance Party]]

** [[File:LOGODemocratic Party of Tajikistan.jpg|20px]] [[Democratic Party (Tajikistan)|Tajik Democratic Party]]

** [[Party of People's Unity (Tajikistan)|Party of People's Unity]]

** [[Rastokhez|Rastokhez Popular Movement]]

** {{flagicon image|Flag of Gorno-Badakhshan.svg}} [[Lali Badakhshan]]

{{tree list/end}}

{{tree list}}

* {{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1992–2001).svg}} [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] (until 1996)

** {{flagicon image|Flag of Jamiat-e Islami.svg}} [[Jamiat-e-Islami (Afghanistan)|Jamiat-e Islami]] (until 1996)<ref name="google">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hLi9oJMT5B8C&pg=PA96|title=Tajikistan in the New Central Asia|isbn=9781845112936|access-date=17 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116011515/https://books.google.com/books?id=hLi9oJMT5B8C&pg=PA96|archive-date=16 January 2016|url-status=live|last1=Jonson|first1=Lena|date=25 August 2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref>{{tree list/end}}'''Supported by'''

{{tree list}}

* {{flag|Al-Qaeda}}<ref>''Inside Al Qaeda: global network of terror'', by Rohan Gunaratna, pg. 169</ref>

* {{flagicon|Al-Qaeda}} [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]]

* {{flagicon image|Flag of Taliban.svg}} [[Taliban]]

* {{flag|Iran}} (alleged, denied by Iran)<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran dismisses Tajik civil war claims as attempt to damage ties |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-tajikistan-iran-idUKKBN1AQ0OG |access-date=10 August 2017 |work=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A Thaw Between Tajikistan and Iran, But Challenges Remain |url=https://jamestown.org/program/a-thaw-between-tajikistan-and-iran-but-challenges-remain/ |publisher=Jamestown |access-date=July 10, 2019 |quote=Fearing a continuity of Soviet-era policies, Iran supported the Islamic and nationalist opposition during the civil war.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abdulfattoh |first1=Shafiev |title=Iran and Tajikistan: A Story of Love and Hate |journal=Central Asia Policy Brief |url=https://centralasiaprogram.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Policy-Brief-34-February-2016.pdf |date=February 2016 |volume=34 |quote=At the end of 1992, Tajikistan entered into a bloody civil war. Tehran gave refuge and support to the leaders of the Democratic-Islamic coalition of the Tajik opposition, and was therefore considered to be a pro-Islamic actor. However, it also contributed a critical role in helping peace discussions: Tehran hosted several rounds of the Tajik peace negotiations in 1994, 1995, and 1997, bringing both sides to the discussion table. President Rahmon paid an official visit to Tehran in 1995 and opened an embassy there. But seen from Dushanbe, Moscow was a more reliable ally than Tehran, and any kind of pan-Persian nationalism was rapidly shut down by the authorities.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Ahmad |first1=Majidyar |title=Tajikistan Accuses Iran of Sponsoring Terrorism, Restricts Iranian Organizations' Activities |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/tajikistan-accuses-iran-sponsoring-terrorism-restricts-iranian-organizations |publisher=[[Middle East Institute]] |access-date=August 9, 2017 |quote=Tajikistan has accused Iran of having played a subversive role in the country’s civil war in the 1990s by sending terrorists to the Central Asian republic, the latest sign of deteriorating relations between the two countries.}}</ref>{{tree list/end}}

| commander1 = {{Flagicon|Tajikistan|1991}}/{{flagicon|TJK}} [[Rahmon Nabiyev]] <br /> {{Flagicon|Tajikistan|1991}}/{{flagicon|TJK}} [[Akbarsho Iskandrov]] <br /> {{flagicon|TJK}} [[Emomali Rahmon]] <br /> {{flagicon|Uzbekistan}} [[Islam Karimov]] <br /> {{Flagicon|Russia|1991}}/{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Boris Yeltsin]] <br /> {{flagicon|Kazakh SSR}}/{{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]] <br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (reverse).svg}}/{{flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} [[Askar Akayev]] <br /> {{flagicon|United Nations}}{{flagicon|Jordan}} Hassan Abaza

| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Flag red white green 5x3.svg}}{{flagicon image|Flag of the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan.svg}} [[Sayid Abdulloh Nuri]] (UTO)<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan.svg}} [[Muhammad Sharif Himmatzoda|Mohammed Sharif Himmatzade (IRP)]]<br /> {{flagicon|al-Qaeda}} [[Ibn al-Khattab]]<br />{{flagicon image|Flag red white green 5x3.svg}} Shadman Youssof (Democratic Party)

| strength1 = {{Flagicon|Tajikistan|1991}}/{{Flag|Tajikistan}}: 42,000–45,000 <br />{{flagicon|Russia|1991}}/{{Flag|Russia}}: 5,000–15,000 border troops <br />{{flagicon|Uzbek SSR}}/{{flag|Uzbekistan}}: 20,600 <br />{{flagicon|Kazakh SSR}}/{{flag|Kazakhstan}}: 10,300 <br />{{flagicon image|Flag of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (reverse).svg}}/{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}: 278<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://otvaga2004.ru/voyny/wars-ussr/wars-tadj/tadzhiksko-afgan-granic-1990/ | title=Боевые действия на таджикско-афганской границе (начало 1990–х гг.) | access-date=5 May 2020 | archive-date=13 November 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113112839/http://otvaga2004.ru/voyny/wars-ussr/wars-tadj/tadzhiksko-afgan-granic-1990/ | url-status=live }}</ref><br>'''Total strength:''' 78,178–91,178

| strength2 = Estimated: around 50,000–70,000

| casualties1 = 302 killed, 1,583 wounded (only Russian casualties){{sfn|Krivosheev|2001}}

| casualties2 = Unknown

| casualties3 = 20,000<ref name="rferl1"/>–150,000 killed<ref name="rferl2"/><br />1.2 million displaced

| notes = {{notelist}}

| casus = Political struggle between Tajikistan's ruling elite and the opposition.

| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Post-Soviet conflicts}}

}}

{{Civil Wars sidebar}}

The '''Tajikistani Civil War''',{{Efn|{{langx|tg|Ҷанги шаҳрвандии Тоҷикистон|Jangi shahrvandiyi Tojikiston}}, {{IPA|tg|ˈdʒaŋɡɪ ʃɐɦɾʋɐnˈdijɪ tʰɔdʒikʰɪsˈtʰɔn|IPA}}; {{lang-rus|Гражданская война в Таджикистане|r=Graždanskaja vojna v Tadžikistane|p=ɡrɐʐˈdanskəjə vɐjˈna f‿tədʐ(ː)ɨkʲɪˈstanʲe}}}} also known as the '''Tajik Civil War''', was an armed conflict in Tajikistan that began in May 1992 and ended in June 1997. Regional groups from the [[Garm, Tajikistan|Garm]] and [[Gorno-Badakhshan]] regions of [[Tajikistan]] rose up against the newly formed government of President [[Rahmon Nabiyev]], which was dominated by people from the [[Khujand]] and [[Kulab, Tajikistan|Kulob]] regions. The rebel groups were led by a combination of [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] reformers and [[Islamists]], who would later organize under the banner of the [[United Tajik Opposition]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dubovitsky|first=Viktor|url=http://www.analitika.org/article.php?story=20060307230526550&mode=print|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411201135/http://www.analitika.org/article.php?story=20060307230526550&mode=print|title=Features of the ethnic and confessional situation in the Republic of Tajikistan|date=February 2003|archive-date=11 April 2008|url-status=usurped|language=ru}}</ref> The government was supported by Russian military and border guards.<ref name="rferl.org">{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-tajikistan-civil-war/28575338.html|title=Tajikistan's Civil War: A Nightmare The Government Won't Let Its People Forget|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=23 June 2017 |access-date=20 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605010633/https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-tajikistan-civil-war/28575338.html|archive-date=5 June 2019|url-status=live |last1=Pannier |first1=Bruce }}</ref>

The main zone of conflict was in the country's south, although disturbances occurred nationwide.<ref name="c-r.org">{{cite web|url=https://www.c-r.org/accord-article/tajik-civil-war-causes-and-dynamics|title=The Tajik civil war: Causes and dynamics|date=30 December 2011|website=Conciliation Resources|access-date=20 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412223027/https://www.c-r.org/accord-article/tajik-civil-war-causes-and-dynamics|archive-date=12 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> The civil war was at its peak during its first year and continued for five years, devastating the country.<ref name="c-r.org"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-unconquerable-gorno-badakhshan-region/29534057.html|title=Tajikistan's Unconquerable Gorno-Badakhshan Region|newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date=9 October 2018 |access-date=20 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412221511/https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-unconquerable-gorno-badakhshan-region/29534057.html|archive-date=12 April 2019|url-status=live |last1=Pannier |first1=Bruce }}</ref> An estimated 20,000<ref name="rferl1">{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-civil-war-peace-20th-anniversary-rahmon-nuri/28579612.html|publisher=Radio Liberty|date=26 June 2017|first=Bruce|last=Pannier|access-date=4 July 2017|title=The Many Agents Of Tajikistan's Path To Peace|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703185157/https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-civil-war-peace-20th-anniversary-rahmon-nuri/28579612.html|archive-date=3 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> to 150,000<ref name="rferl2">{{cite news |title=The Peace Deal That Ended Tajikistan's Bloody Civil War |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/anniversary-of-the-end-of-tajikistan-s-bloody-civil-war/31330072.html |access-date=31 August 2022 |work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |date=27 June 2021 |language=en |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831050139/https://www.rferl.org/a/anniversary-of-the-end-of-tajikistan-s-bloody-civil-war/31330072.html |url-status=live }}</ref> people were killed in the conflict, and about 10 to 20 percent of the population of Tajikistan were internally displaced.<ref name="rferl.org"/> On 27 June 1997, Tajikistan president [[Emomali Rahmon]], [[United Tajik Opposition]] (UTO) leader [[Sayid Abdulloh Nuri]] and [[Special Representative of the Secretary-General|Special Representative of the United Nations Secretary-General]] Gerd Merrem signed the ''General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan'' and the ''Moscow Protocol'' in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], ending the war.<ref name=OVERVIEW>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/tajikistan.htm Tajikistan Civil War] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070414021906/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/tajikistan.htm |date=14 April 2007 }} Global Security</ref>

The '''Tajikistan Civil War''' was an armed conflict that took place in [[Tajikistan]] from May [[1992]] to June [[1997]]. The collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], the rise of Tajik nationalism and [[Islamic fundamentalism]], and political struggles between the ruling elite and the opposition were all factors that played into the violent conflict.

==Background History ==

=== Background ===

[[Image:Dushanberiots.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A scene from the Dushanbe Riots of 1990.]]

[[File:RIAN archive 699865 Dushanbe riots, February 1990.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[1990 Dushanbe riots]]]]

{{See also|History of Tajikistan}}

There were numerous causes of the civil war in Tajikistan, such as economic hardship, communal way of life of Tajiki people and their high religiosity. Under Soviet President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s '[[Perestroika]]' policies, a Muslim-Democratic movement began to emerge in Tajiki SSR. The backbone of opposition were [[Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan|Party of Tajikistan Muslim Resurrection]], [[Democratic Party (Tajikistan)|Democratic Party of Tajikistan]] and some other movements. The fight between the former communist elite and opposition shifted from the political sphere to an ethnic and clan based one.

Tensions began in the spring of 1992 after opposition members took to the streets in demonstrations against the results of the 1991 presidential election. President [[Rahmon Nabiyev]] and Speaker of the [[Supreme Soviet]], [[Safarali Kenjayev]], orchestrated the distribution of weapons to pro-government militias, while the opposition turned to [[mujahideen]] in Afghanistan for military aid.

Mountainous and isolated, Tajikistan became a [[Tajik SSR|constituent republic]] of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1929. Before that it was an autonomous region within the [[Uzbek SSR]] and its indigenous peoples (the Persian-speaking Tajiks) resisted social change that the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] attempted to impose on them. Because of this, Tajikistan's political apparatus (which was initially comprised of mostly ethnic Tajiks) was purged under [[Joseph Stalin]] (this occured twice; once in 1927-28 and again in 1930-31). <ref name="nationalties">Zev Katz, Rosemarie Rogers, and Frederic Harned. ''Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalties'', p. 322. ISBN 0029170907</ref> After the establishment of [[Collectivisation in the USSR|Stalin's collectivization initiative]] in the republic (which too was bitterly resisted until 1934), the Soviet government did little to develop the newly-formed Tajik state and it remained relatively behind other [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]] in terms of living conditions, education, and industry. After Stalin's purge of ethnic Tajiks from the state government, it was primarily governed by officials sent out from [[Moscow]]. <ref name="world-ref">M. Wesley Shoemaker. ''World Today Series: Russia And The Commonwealth Of Independent States'', p. 215. ISBN 1887985786</ref> Soviet years also brought increased ethnic tensions given that roughly 40% of the state's population were non-Tajiks (the bulk of which were Uzbeks and Russians). <ref name="NewStates-NewPolitics">Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras. ''New States, New Politics: Building Post-Soviet Nations'', p. 607-8. ISBN 0521577993</ref> This pattern changed under [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] with his reforms of [[glasnost]] and [[perestroika]]. <ref name="world-ref" />

=== Conflict (1992–1993) ===

Once ethnic Tajik [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] members asserted themselves as the head of the Tajik SSR, they began to perceive Tajik nationalist sentiments to have a widespread following. This attitude was reflected in policy shifts in 1989 and mainifested itself in many forms. These included the establishment of a Tajik cultural foundation to preserve Tajik heritage, the changing of the name of Tajikistan's second largest city Leninabad back to [[Khujand]], the local media printing editorials that expressed explicit nationalist concerns (most of which were authored by members of the future opposition), and the enactment of the 1989 language law which gave the [[Tajik language]] primacy over [[Russian language|Russian]]. <ref name="NewStates-NewPolitics02">Bremmer and Taras. p. 606.</ref>

Fighting broke out on 5 May 1992 between old-guard supporters of the government and a loosely organized opposition composed of ethnic and regional groups from the [[Gharm]] and [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region|Gorno-Badakhshan]] areas (the latter were also known as [[Pamiris]]). Ideologically, the opposition included [[democracy|democratic]] [[Liberalism|liberal]] reformists and Islamists. The government, on the other hand, was dominated by people from the [[Khujand|Leninabad]]i region, which had also made up most of the ruling elite during the entire Soviet period. It was also supported by people from the Kulob and Regar ([[Tursunzoda]]) region, who had held high posts in the [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Tajikistan)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]] in Soviet times. After many clashes, the Leninabadis were forced to accept a compromise and a new coalition government was formed, incorporating members of the opposition and eventually dominated by them.<ref name="uni-hamburg">{{cite web |url=http://www.sozialwiss.uni-hamburg.de/publish/Ipw/Akuf/kriege/208bk_tadschikistan.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021116162256/http://www.sozialwiss.uni-hamburg.de/publish/Ipw/Akuf/kriege/208bk_tadschikistan.htm |archive-date=16 November 2002 |title=Department Sozialwissenschaften : Institut für Politische Wissenschaft : Arbeits- und Forschungsstellen : Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kriegsursachenforschung : Kriege-Archiv : ... VMO: 208 Tadschikistan (BK) – Bewaffneter Konflikt in Tadschikistan 1992–1998 und 1998–2001 (Universität Hamburg) |access-date=26 February 2015 }}</ref> On 7 September 1992, Nabiyev was captured by opposition protesters and forced at gunpoint to resign his presidency.<ref name="books.google.com">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JYAkAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA76 Political Construction Sites: Nation-building in Russia and the Post-Soviet States]'', page 76</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/37.htm|title=Tajikistan – Government|access-date=17 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202447/http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/37.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Chaos and fighting between the opposing factions reigned outside of the capital [[Dushanbe]].

With the aid of the Russian military and [[Uzbekistan]], the Regari-Kulobi [[Popular Front of Tajikistan|Popular Front]] forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. The coalition government in the capital was forced to resign. On 12 December 1992 the [[Supreme Soviet of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Supreme Soviet]] (parliament), where the coalition faction between Khujand and Kulob had held the majority of seats all along, convened and elected a new government under the leadership of [[Emomali Rahmon]], representing a shift in power from the old power based in Leninabad to the [[militia]]s from [[Kulab, Tajikistan|Kulob]], from which Rahmon came.

The Tajik ruling elite did not have a monopoly on Tajik nationalist expression. Public support among Tajiks in the Tajik capital [[Dushanbe]], for example, for improving the status of the Tajik language began months before the passage of the 1989 language law. Growing Tajik nationalism in the late 1980s also took form in alternative Tajik nationalist political organizations, which articulated nationalist concerns. Among other things, these groups also pushed for full economic and political sovereignty from the Soviet Union. <ref name="NewStates-NewPolitics02" /> It was, however, harder to articulate the attitudes of the rural Tajiks who the ruling elite and non-Tajiks in Dushanbe considered "backward," "primitive," and "lacking a full-fleged ideology but capable of xenophobia and Islamic fundamentalism." Even Tajik nationalist opposition groups considered riral Tajiks ignorant of their historical heritage. Ironically, members of the Dushanbe ruling elite would soon begin to play an active role to ally themselves with local rural groups in hopes of achieving victory. <ref name="NewStates-NewPolitics03">Bremmer and Taras. p. 607.</ref>

The height of hostilities occurred from 1992 to 1993 and pitted Kulobi militias against an array of groups, including militants from the [[Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan]] (IRP) and ethnic minority Pamiris from [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region|Gorno-Badakhshan]]. In large part due to the foreign support they received, the Regari-Kulobi militias were able to soundly defeat opposition forces and went on what has been described by [[Human Rights Watch]] as an [[ethnic cleansing]] campaign against Pamiris and [[Gharmi people|Garmis]].<ref name=HRW>[https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/tajikbkg1005.htm Human Rights Watch Press Backgrounder on Tajikistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019172335/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/tajikbkg1005.htm |date=19 October 2010 }} Human Rights Watch</ref> The campaign was concentrated in areas south of the capital and included the murder of prominent individuals, mass killings, the burning of villages and the expulsion of the Pamiri and Garmi population into Afghanistan. The violence was particularly concentrated in [[Qurghonteppa]], the power base of the IRP and home to many Garmis. Tens of thousands were killed or fled to Afghanistan.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Between Marx and Muhammad''. [[Dilip Hiro]].</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">''The Resurgence of Central Asia''. Ahmed Rashid</ref><ref name=OSI>[http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/Tajik_one.html Tajikistan: Refugee reintegration and conflict prevention] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070903003516/http://www.osi.hu/fmp/html/Tajik_one.html |date=3 September 2007 }} Open Society Institute</ref><ref name=HRWREPORT>[https://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/WR94/Helsinki-20.htm Human Rights Watch World Report: Tajikistan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924164340/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1994/WR94/Helsinki-20.htm |date=24 September 2015 }} Human Rights Watch</ref>

==The first year of fighting==

[[Image:Tajikistancivilwar-fighting.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A scene from one of many battles during the civil war.]]

Tensions began in the spring of 1992 after opposition members took to the streets in demonstrations against presidential elections the previous year. President [[Rakhmon Nabiyev]] and speaker of the [[Supreme Soviet]] [[Safarali Kenjayev]] orchestrated the dispersal of weapons to pro-government militias while the opposition turned to rebels in Afghanistan for military aid.

Ibodullo Boimatov and his units in coalition with Kulobi forces also played a crucial, decisive role to the victory against the opposition. Starting off with a few hundred men in Regar with support from Uzbekistan against the local oppositional juntas - who were discriminatively targeting Uzbeks of the region, too soon Boimatovs militia grew to few thousand units and aided heavily the Kulobi coalition against the opposition. His men seized the control of capital Dushanbe twice during the course of war from the opposition forces.

Fighting broke out in May of [[1992]] between old guard supporters of the government, backed by [[Moscow]], and a loosely organized opposition composed of disenfranchised groups from the regions Garm and Gorno-Badakhshan, [[democratic]] [[liberal]] reformists, and [[Islamists]]. Nabiyev was ousted from the government after the opposition took control of Dushanbe in 1992.

=== Continued conflict (1993–1997) ===

With the aid of the [[Russia|Russian]] military and Uzbekistan, pro-government forces routed the opposition in early and late 1992. In [[December]] [[1992]] a new government was formed under the leadership of [[Emomali Rahmonov]], representing a shift in power from the old power based in [[Leninabad]] to the [[militia|militias]] from [[Kulyab]], from which Rahmanov came.<ref name=Hiro>[[Dilip Hiro]]. ''Between Marx and Muhammad'', [[HarperCollins]]. ([[London]], [[1995]]).</ref><ref name=Rashid>[[Ahmed Rashid]]. ''The Resurgence of Central Asia''. [[Oxford University Press]]. [[Karachi]]. [[1994]]</ref>

In Afghanistan, the opposition reorganized and rearmed with the aid of the [[Jamiat-e-Islami (Afghanistan)|Jamiat-i-Islami]]. The group's leader [[Ahmad Shah Masoud]] became a benefactor of the Tajik opposition. Later in the war the opposition organized under an umbrella group called the [[United Tajik Opposition]], or UTO. Elements of the UTO, especially in the [[Tavildara]] region, became the [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]], while the leadership of the UTO was opposed to the formation of the organization.<ref name=Rashid2>[[Ahmed Rashid]]. ''Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia''. [[Longman|Orient Longman]]. [[Hyderabad (India)|Hyderabad]]. 2002.</ref>

Other combatants and armed bands that flourished in this civil chaos simply reflected the breakdown of central authority rather than loyalty to a political faction. In response to the violence the [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan]] was deployed. Most fighting in the early part of the war occurred in the southern part of the country, but by 1996 the rebels were battling Russian troops in the capital city of [[Dushanbe]].

The height of hostilities occurred between 1992 and 1993 and pitted Kulyabi militias against an array of groups, including militants from the Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP) and ethnic minority [[Pamir languages|Pamirs]] from [[Gorno-Badakhshan]]. In large part due to the foreign support they received, the Kulyabi militias were able to soundly defeat opposition forces and went on an [[ethnic cleansing]] campaign against Pamirs and [[Garmis]]. The violence was particularly concentrated in [Qurgonteppa]], the powerbase of the IRP and home to many Garmis. Tens of thousands were killed or fled to Afghanistan. <ref name=Hiro/><ref name=Rashid/>

=== Armistice and aftermath ===

==Opposition reorganizes==

[[File:TJ Primirenie.jpg|thumb|300px|Holiday flags in [[Khujand]] in 2007 in honour of 'Day of National Unity', declared a work-free holiday in 1998.]]

In Afghanistan the opposition reorganized and rearmed with the aid of the [[Jamiat-i-Islami]]. The group’s leader [[Ahmad Shah Masoud]] became a benefactor of the Tajik opposition. Later in the war the opposition organized under an umbrella group called the [[United Tajik Opposition]], or UTO. Elements of the UTO, especially in the [[Tavildara]] region, became aligned with the [[Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan]], while the leadership of the UTO was opposed to this alliance.<ref name=Rashid2>[[Ahmed Rashid]]. ''Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia''. [[Orient Longman]]. [[Hyderabad]]. [[2002]].</ref>

A [[United Nations]]-sponsored [[armistice]] finally ended the war in 1997. This was in part fostered by the [[Inter-Tajik Dialogue]], a [[Track II diplomacy]] initiative in which the main players were brought together by international actors, namely the United States and Russia. The peace agreement eliminated the Leninabad region (Khujand) from power. Presidential elections were held on 6 November 1999.

The [[United Tajik Opposition|UTO]] warned in letters to [[United Nations Secretary General]] [[Kofi Annan]] and Tajik President [[Emomali Rahmon]] on 23 June 1997 that it would not sign the proposed peace agreement on 27 June if prisoner exchanges and the allocation of jobs in the coalition government were not outlined in the agreement. [[Akbar Turajonzoda]], second-in-command of the UTO, repeated this warning on 26 June, but said both sides were negotiating. President Rahmon, UTO leader [[Sayid Abdulloh Nuri]] and Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] met in the [[Kremlin]] in [[Moscow]] on 26 June to finish negotiating the peace agreement. The Tajik government had previously pushed for settling these issues after the two sides signed the agreement, with the posts in the coalition government decided by a joint commission for national reconciliation and prisoner exchanges by a future set of negotiations. Russian Foreign Minister [[Yevgeny Primakov]] met with the Foreign Ministers of Iran, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan to discuss the proposed peace accord.<ref name=LETTERS>[http://www.rferl.org/features/1997/06/n.ru.970623155536.asp Tajikistan: Opposition warns it may not sign peace accord] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043628/http://www.rferl.org/features/1997/06/n.ru.970623155536.asp |date=30 September 2007 }} RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty</ref><ref name=DOUBTS>[http://www.rferl.org/features/1997/06/n.ru.970626153108.asp Tajikistan: Opposition may not sign peace accord tomorrow] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930033420/http://www.rferl.org/features/1997/06/n.ru.970626153108.asp |date=30 September 2007 }} RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty</ref>

==Continued stalemate and peace==

Other combatants and armed bands that flourished in this civil chaos simply reflected the breakdown of central authority rather than loyalty to a political faction. In response to the violence the [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan]] was deployed. Most fighting in the early part of the war occurred in the southern part of the country, but by 1996 the rebels were combating Russian troops in the capital city of [[Dushanbe]]. Islamic radicals from northern [[Afghanistan]] also began to fight Russian troops in the region. A [[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored [[armistice]] finally ended the war in 1997. Peaceful elections were held in [[1999]].

By the end of the war, Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. Around 1.2{{nbsp}}million people were refugees inside and outside the country. Tajikistan's physical infrastructure, government services and economy were in disarray and much of the population was surviving on subsistence handouts from international aid organizations. The United Nations established a [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan|Mission of Observers]] in December 1994, maintaining peace negotiations until the warring sides signed a comprehensive peace agreement in 1997.<ref name=TOLL>[https://www.un.org/events/tenstories_2006/story.asp?storyID=600 Tajikistan: rising from the ashes of civil war] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090818073537/http://www.un.org/events/tenstories_2006/story.asp?storyID=600 |date=18 August 2009 }} United Nations</ref>

[[Image:Tajikdead.jpg|thumb|200px|A Tajik family mourns its losses from the civil war.]]

== Targeting of journalists ==

==War's toll==

{{see also|List of journalists killed in Tajikistan}}

By the end of the war Tajikistan was in a state of complete devastation. The estimated dead numbered from 50,000 to as many as 100,000. Around 1.2 million people were refugees inside and outside of the country. Tajikistan's physical infrastructure, government services, and economy were in disarray and much of the population was surviving on subsistence hand outs from international aid organizations.

Journalists were particularly targeted for assassination and at least 40 Tajik journalists were killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-tajikistan-civil-war/28575338.html|title=Tajikistan's Civil War: A Nightmare The Government Won't Let Its People Forget|date=23 June 2017|publisher=Radio Liberty|access-date=23 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623151128/https://www.rferl.org/a/qishloq-ovozi-tajikistan-civil-war/28575338.html|archive-date=23 June 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Many more fled the country, leading to a [[brain drain]]. Notable individuals murdered include journalist and politician [[Otakhon Latifi]], journalist and Jewish leader [[Meirkhaim Gavrielov]], politician [[Safarali Kenjayev]] and four members of the [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan]]: [[Yutaka Akino]], a noted Japanese scholar of Central Asian history; Maj. [[Ryszard Szewczyk]] from [[Poland]]; Maj. [[Adolfo Scharpegge]] from [[Uruguay]]; and [[Jourajon Mahramov]] from Tajikistan;<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eurasianet.org/resource/tajikistan/links/unmo22.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060617151815/http://www.eurasianet.org/resource/tajikistan/links/unmo22.html|title=eurasianet.org|archive-date=17 June 2006}}</ref> and documentary filmmaker [[Arcady Ruderman]], from [[Belarus]].

Numerous individuals of notability were assassinated and murdered during the war. Journalists were in particular targeted for killings, and dozens of Tajikistani journalists died and many more fled the country. Notable individuals killed include journalist and politician [[Otakhon Latifi]]; journalist and Jewish leader [[Meirkhaim Gavrielov]]; and politician [[Safarali Kenjayev]]; and four members of the [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan]], including [[Yutaka Akino]], a noted [[Japan|Japanese]] scholar of Central Asian history,

==References Gallery ==

<gallery widths="150" heights="150" perrow="5">

<references/>

File:Tajikistan satellite photo.jpg|Satellite photograph of Tajikistan

File:Destroyed turret of a T-72 in Tajikistan.jpg|Destroyed turret of a [[T-72]]

File:Tajikistan fractions in civil war.gif|Tajikistan factions in civil war: Leading clans: Northern [[Sughd Region]] (red), Southern [[Khatlon Region]] (blue), [[Pamiris|Pamir (Gorno-Badakhshan)]] (green)

File:Ti-cities.gif|The most important cities involved in the conflict. 1) [[Khujand]] 2) [[Dushanbe]] 3) [[Gharm]] 4) [[Qurghonteppa]] 5) [[Kulab, Tajikistan|Kulob]]

</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[Tajikistan-Uzbekistan relations]]

* [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan]]

* [[1992 Tajikistan protests]]

* [[Post-Soviet conflicts]]

* [[List of civil wars]]

== Notes ==

{{CAsia-hist-stub}}

{{Tajikistan-stubnotelist}}

== References ==

[[Category:Civil wars]]

<references group=pron/>

[[Category:History of Tajikistan]]

{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==

[[bg:Гражданска война в Таджикистан]]

* {{Cite book |last=Akiner |first=Shirin |author-link=Shirin Akiner |title=Tajikistan: disintegration or reconciliation? |publisher=[[Royal Institute of International Affairs]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-86203-061-9 |series=Central Asian and Caucasian prospects |___location=London |ref=Akiner}}

[[de:Geschichte Tadschikistans]]

* {{Cite journal |last=Akbarzadeh |first=Shahram |author-link=Shahram Akbarzadeh |year=1996 |title=Why did nationalism fail in Tajikistan? |journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]] |language=en |volume=48 |issue=7 |pages=1105–1129 |doi=10.1080/09668139608412402 |issn=0966-8136 |ref=Akbarzadeh}}

* {{Cite book |last=Djalili |first=Mohammad-Reza |url=https://archive.org/details/tajikistan00moha |title=Tajikistan: the trials of independence |last2=Grare |first2=Frédéric |last3=Akiner |first3=Shirin |author-link3=Shirin Akiner |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-312-16143-9 |editor-last=Djalili |editor-first=Mohammad-Reza |edition=1. publ |___location=New York}}

* {{Cite book |last=Mullojonov |first=Parviz |title=The history of the Tajik civil war, 1992-1997 |date=2022 |publisher=Lexington books |isbn=978-1-7936-1286-1 |series=Contemporary Central Asia |___location=Lanham (Md.)}}

* {{Cite book |last=Rashid |first=Ahmed |author-link=Ahmed Rashid |url=https://archive.org/details/jihadriseofmilit00rash |title=Jihad: the rise of militant Islam in Central Asia |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-300-09345-2 |___location=New Haven}}

* {{Cite book |last=Roy |first=Olivier |author-link=Olivier Roy (professor) |title=The new Central Asia: the creation of nations |last2=Roy |first2=Olivier |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-86064-279-1 |series=The library of international relations |___location=London}}

* {{Cite book |last=Whitlock |first=Monica |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm53180954 |title=Land beyond the river: the untold story of Central Asia |publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-312-27727-7 |edition=1st U.S. |___location=New York |oclc=ocm53180954}}

* {{cite book| title = Таҷрибаи таърихии сулҳи Тоҷикистон. Маҷмӯи тезисҳои Симпозиуми байналмиллалӣ. Душанбе, 26-27 апрели соли 2001 |___location= Душ. |year= 2001 | ref = Таҷрибаи таърихии сулҳи Тоҷикистон|language=tg}}

* {{cite book| author = Усмон И. | title = Сулҳнома |___location= Dushanbe |year= 2001 | ref = Усмон|language=tg}}

* {{cite book| author = Нури С. А.| author-link = Sayid Abdulloh Nuri| title = Оштинома |___location= Dushanbe |year= 2001 | page = 360 | ref = Нури|language=tg}}

* {{cite book| author = Саъдиев Ш. С. | title = Тоҷикистон: роҳи сулҳ ва ризоияти милли |___location= Dushanbe |year= 2002 | ref = Саъдиев|language=tg}}

* {{Cite book |last=Перепелиця Г. М. |author-link=:uk:Перепелиця Григорій Миколайович |title-link=:uk:Українська дипломатична енциклопедія |publisher=Znannja Ukraïny |year=2004 |isbn=978-966-316-039-9 |editor-last=Hubersʹkyj |editor-first=Leonid Vasylʹovyč |volume=1 |___location=Kyïv |page=760 |language=uk |script-title=uk:Українська дипломатична енциклопедія |chapter=Громадянська війна в Таджикистані |ref=Перепелиця}}

* {{cite book |last=Krivosheev |first=Grigori |author-link=Grigori F. Krivosheev |lang=ru |script-title=ru:Россия и СССР в войнах XX столетия. Потери вооружённых сил |trans-title=Russia and the USSR in the wars of the XX century. Losses of the armed forces |url=https://lib.ru/MEMUARY/1939-1945/KRIWOSHEEW/poteri.txt#w11.htm |date=2001 }}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Civil war in Tajikistan}}

* {{in lang|ru|en}} [http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/tajikistan/contents.php Key texts and agreements in the Tajikistan peace process] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090718204234/http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/tajikistan/contents.php |date=18 July 2009 }}

* [http://www.rferl.org/features/1997/01/n.ru.970108185241.asp Tajikistan: Opposition criticizes Dushanbe's plan for Commission]

* [http://www.rferl.org/features/1997/01/n.ru.970103173453.asp Tajikistan: Two Russian military personnel killed]

* [http://www.rferl.org/features/2003/12/02122003171834.asp Tajikistan: Secular – not Shari'a – law prevails in eastern mountains]

* [http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/tango/tajik1992b.htm Tajikistan Civil War 1992–1994]

{{Russian Conflicts}}

{{Fall of Communism}}

{{Post-Cold War Asian conflicts}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tajikistani Civil War}}

[[Category:Tajikistani Civil War| ]]

[[Category:1990s in Tajikistan]]

[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Asia]]

[[Category:Civil wars of the 20th century]]

[[Category:1990s conflicts]]

[[Category:Conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union]]

[[Category:Russia–Tajikistan relations]]

[[Category:Proxy wars]]

[[Category:Ethnicity-based civil wars]]

[[Category:Religion-based civil wars]]

[[Category:Wars involving Afghanistan]]

[[Category:Wars involving Kazakhstan]]

[[Category:Wars involving Kyrgyzstan]]

[[Category:Wars involving Russia]]

[[Category:Wars involving Tajikistan]]

[[Category:Wars involving Uzbekistan]]

[[Category:Wars involving Nepal]]