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{{Short description|European ethnic group}}
{{About|the early medieval Normans|modern Normans|Normandy|other uses| Norman_(disambiguation){{!}}Norman}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group= Normans
| native_name =
| image = BayeuxTapestry39.jpg
| image_caption = Arrival in England scene from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], depicting Normans using [[longship]]s
| population =
| languages = {{Hlist|[[Old Norman]]|[[Latin]]|[[Old Norse]]}}
| religions = [[Christianity]], [[Norse paganism]]
| related = Historical: {{Hlist|[[Norse people|Norse]]|[[Gallo-Romans]]|[[Franks]]}}
| native_name_lang =
}}
{{Norse people}}
The '''Normans''' ([[Norman language|Norman]]: ''Normaunds''; {{langx|fr|Normands}}; {{langx|la|Nortmanni/Normanni}}) were a population arising in the medieval [[Duchy of Normandy]] from the intermingling between [[Norsemen|Norse]] Viking settlers and locals of [[West Francia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1994|p=18: "The first Viking settlers in Normandy, it is agreed, were predominantly Danish, though their leader, Rollo was of Norse extraction."}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Brown|1994|p=19: "the Northmen of Normandy became increasingly Gallicized, increasingly Norman we may say, until by the mid-eleventh century they were more French than the French, or, to speak correctly, more Frankish than the Franks."}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Normans in Europe|author=Elizabeth Van Houts|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=2000|page=1|isbn=9780719047510|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IarkHmOdjnsC&q=%22The+Normans+were+the+people+of+Normandy%22|access-date=4 May 2021|archive-date=2 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073629/https://books.google.com/books?id=IarkHmOdjnsC&q=%22The+Normans+were+the+people+of+Normandy%22|url-status=live}}</ref> The Norse settlements in West Francia followed a series of raids on the French northern coast mainly from what is now Denmark, although some also sailed from Norway and Sweden.<ref>{{cite web |title= Généalogie de la noble et ancienne maison des Le Roy |author= Du Cluzel de Remaurin, Chevalier. |website= Bibliothèque nationale de France, département Philosophie, histoire, sciences de l'homme |url= https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k56642609/f12.item |access-date= 30 May 2023 |quote= D'orgine normande, la noble maison des LE ROY 1, divisée en quatre principales bran-ches, dont nous donnons ici la généalogie, remonte à la plus haute antiquité, c'est-à-dire à ces fiers enfants du Nord (Nort-mans) qui, du fond de la Norwège 2, sous la conduite des Hadding, des Gerlon, des Héric et autres chefs non moins inhumains et farouches, inon-dèrent la Gaule au septième siècle, et ne laissèrent rien d'entier sur leur passage que les traces sanglantes de leur barbarie, la désolation et des' ruines, assiégèrent trois fois Paris et en effrayèrent si fort les habitants..." "2 Nortwége selon Moriri, et Norwegue selon Bruzen de a Martinière. |year= 1863 |archive-date= 30 May 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230530194718/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k56642609/f12.item |url-status= live }}</ref> These settlements were finally legitimized when [[Rollo]], a Scandinavian [[Vikings|Viking]] leader, agreed to swear [[fealty]] to [[Charles the Simple|King Charles III of West Francia]] following the [[Siege of Chartres (911)|siege of Chartres]] in 911, leading to the formation of the ''County of Rouen''. This new [[fief]], through [[kinship]] in the decades to come, would expand into what came to be known as the ''Duchy of Normandy''. The Norse settlers, whom the region as well as its inhabitants were named after, adopted the [[language]], [[Christianity|religion]], [[culture|social customs]] and [[military|martial]] doctrine of the West Franks but their offspring nonetheless retained many of their traits, notably their [[mercenary]] tendencies and their fervour for adventures. The intermixing between Norse folk and native West Franks in Normandy produced an [[Ethnic group|ethnic]] and cultural "Norman" identity in the first half of the 10th century, an identity which continued to evolve over the centuries.<ref name="Sicily">{{cite web|url=http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art171.htm|title=Sicilian Peoples: The Normans|work=L. Mendola & V. Salerno|publisher=Best of Sicily Magazine|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=14 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114141353/http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art171.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
The [[House of Normandy|Norman dynasty]] had a major political, cultural and military impact on [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] and the [[Near East]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://normancenturies.com/|title=Norman Centuries – A Norman History Podcast by Lars Brownworth|website=normancenturies.com|access-date=20 May 2018|archive-date=27 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727054559/https://normancenturies.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Impact">{{cite web|url=http://www.historytoday.com/r-allen-brown/norman-impact|title=The Norman Impact|work=History Today Volume 36 Issue 2|publisher=[[History Today]]|date=2 February 1986|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=6 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106194715/https://www.historytoday.com/r-allen-brown/norman-impact|url-status=live}}</ref> The Normans were historically famed for their martial spirit, and eventually for their [[Catholicism|Catholic]] [[piety]] as adherents of the Catholic orthodoxy of the Romance community.<ref name="Norman" /> The original Norse settlers adopted the [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance language]] of the Frankish land they settled, with their [[Old Norman|Old Norman dialect]] becoming known as [[Norman language|Norman, Normaund or Norman French]], an important literary language which is still spoken today in parts of mainland Normandy ([[Cotentinais]] and [[Cauchois dialect|Cauchois]] dialects) and the nearby [[Channel Islands]] ([[Jèrriais]] and [[Guernésiais]]). The [[Duchy of Normandy]], which arose from the [[Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte]], was a great fief of medieval France. The Norman dukes exercised independent control of their holdings in Normandy, while at the same time being vassals owing fealty to the King of France, and under [[Richard I of Normandy]] (byname ''Richard sans Peur'', meaning "Richard the Fearless"), the duchy was forged into a cohesive and formidable [[principality]] in [[Feudalism|feudal]] tenure.<ref name=searle>{{cite book|first=Eleanor|last=Searle|title=Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066|url=https://archive.org/details/predatorykinship0000sear|url-access=registration|publisher=University of California Press|___location=Berkeley, California|date=1988|isbn=978-0520062764|page=[https://archive.org/details/predatorykinship0000sear/page/89 89]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=François|last=Neveux|title=A Brief History of The Normans|publisher=Constable & Robbinson, Ltd|___location=London, England|date=2008|isbn=978-1845295233|pages=73–74}}</ref>
Between 1066 and 1204, as a result of the [[Norman conquest of England]], most of the [[List of English monarchs|kings of England]] were also [[Duke of Normandy|dukes of Normandy]]. Gradually, an [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] culture developed in the [[British Isles]]. In 1204, [[Philip II of France]] seized mainland Normandy by force of arms, having earlier declared the Duchy of Normandy to be forfeit to him. It remained a disputed territory until the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris of 1259]], when the English sovereign ceded his claim to the Duchy, except for the [[Channel Islands]]. In the present day, the Channel Islands (the [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]] and the [[Bailiwick of Jersey]]) are considered to be officially the last remnants of the Duchy of Normandy, and are not part of the United Kingdom but are instead self-governing [[Crown Dependencies]].<ref name="HoG">Marr, J., ''The History of Guernsey – the Bailiwick's story'', Guernsey Press (2001).</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Ministry of Justice|title=Fact sheet on the UK's relationship with the Crown Dependencies|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/361537/crown-dependencies.pdf|website=GOV.UK|access-date=14 February 2016|quote=HM Government is responsible for the defence and international relations of the Islands.|archive-date=9 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141209173145/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/361537/crown-dependencies.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
The Normans are noted both for their culture, such as their unique [[Romanesque architecture]] and musical traditions, and for their significant military accomplishments and innovations. Norman adventurers played a role in founding the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] under [[Roger II of Sicily|Roger II]] after [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|conquering southern Italy]] and [[Malta]] from the [[Saracen]]s and [[Byzantine Greeks|Byzantines]], and an expedition on behalf of their duke, [[William the Conqueror]], led to the [[Norman conquest of England]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]] in 1066.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_01.shtml|title=Claims to the Throne|work=Mike Ibeji|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=17 February 2011|access-date=26 August 2015|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001092010/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/1066_01.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> Norman and [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] forces contributed to the Iberian [[Reconquista]] from the early eleventh to the mid-thirteenth centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medievalists.net/2008/09/norman-and-anglo-norman-participation-in-the-iberian-reconquista-c1018-c1248/|title=Norman and Anglo-Norman Participation in the Iberian Reconquista c.1018–1248 – Medievalists.net|date=24 September 2008|website=Medievalists.net|access-date=20 May 2018|archive-date=22 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122234344/http://www.medievalists.net/2008/09/norman-and-anglo-norman-participation-in-the-iberian-reconquista-c1018-c1248/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Norman cultural and military influence spread from these new European centres to the [[Crusader states]] of the Near East, where their prince [[Bohemond I of Antioch|Bohemond I]] founded the [[Principality of Antioch]] in the [[Levant]], to [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] in Great Britain, to [[Ireland]], and to the coasts of [[Kingdom of Africa|north Africa]] and the [[Canary Islands]]. The legacy of the Normans persists today through the [[Norman language#Geographical distribution|regional languages and dialects]] of France, England, Spain, Quebec and Sicily, and also through the various cultural, judicial, and political arrangements they introduced in their conquered territories.<ref name="Impact"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/hudson_norman_01.shtml|title=What Did the Normans Do for Us?|work=John Hudson|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=12 February 2012|access-date=31 July 2015|archive-date=24 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424044517/https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/hudson_norman_01.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Etymology==
The English name "Normans" comes from the [[Old French|French]] words ''Normans''/''Normanz'', plural of ''Normant'',<ref>{{cite book | first = TF | last = Hoad | title = The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | ___location = Oxfordshire, England | year = 1993 | isbn = 978-0192830982 | page = [https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic00tfho/page/315 315] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseoxforddic00tfho/page/315 }}</ref> modern French ''normand'', which is itself borrowed from [[Low Franconian languages|Old Low Franconian]] ''Nortmann'' "Northman"<ref name="Dauzat">{{harvnb|Dauzat|Dubois|Mitterand|1971|p=497}}.</ref> or directly from [[Old Norse]] ''Norðmaðr'', [[Latinisation of names|Latinized]] variously as ''Nortmannus'', ''Normannus'', or ''Nordmannus'' (recorded in [[Medieval Latin]], 9th century) to mean "Norseman, [[Viking]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/normand |title=Etymologie de Normand |publisher=Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales |language=fr |access-date=22 April 2011 |archive-date=30 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130052010/http://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/normand |url-status=live }}</ref>
The 11th century [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine monk]] and [[historian]], [[Goffredo Malaterra]], characterised the Normans thus:
{{Blockquote|Specially marked by cunning, despising their own inheritance in the hope of winning a greater, eager after both gain and dominion, given to imitation of all kinds, holding a certain mean between lavishness and greediness, that is, perhaps uniting, as they certainly did, these two seemingly opposite qualities. Their chief men were specially lavish through their desire of good report. They were, moreover, a race skillful in flattery, given to the study of eloquence, so that the very boys were orators, a race altogether unbridled unless held firmly down by the yoke of justice. They were enduring of toil, hunger, and cold whenever fortune laid it on them, given to hunting and hawking, delighting in the pleasure of horses, and of all the weapons and [[Clothing|garb]] of war.{{Sfn | Gunn | 1975}}}}
==History==
===Settling of Normandy===
{{See also|Duchy of Normandy|Rollo|William I Longsword|Richard the Fearless}}
[[File:911-1050 duche de normandie-en.svg|thumb|Duchy of Normandy between 911 and 1050. In blue the areas of intense [[Norsemen|Norse]] settlement]]
In the course of the 10th century, the initially destructive incursions of [[Norsemen|Norse]] war bands going upstream into the rivers of [[France]] penetrated further into interior [[Europe]], and evolved into more permanent encampments that included local French women and personal property.<ref name=Bates20>{{cite book|first=David|last=Bates|title=Normandy Before 1066|publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]|___location=Hoboken, New Jersey|date=2002|isbn=978-1405100700|pages=20–21}}</ref> From 885 to 886, [[Odo of France|Odo of Paris]] (Eudes de Paris) succeeded in [[Siege of Paris (885–886)|defending Paris against Viking raiders]] with his fighting skills, fortification of Paris and tactical shrewdness.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/globetrotting-vikings-to-the-gates-of-paris|title=Globetrotting Vikings: To the Gates of Paris|last=Klein|first=Christopher|website=HISTORY|language=en|access-date=26 February 2020|archive-date=20 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620164201/https://www.history.com/news/globetrotting-vikings-to-the-gates-of-paris|url-status=live}}</ref> In 911, [[Robert I of France]], brother of Odo, again defeated another band of Viking warriors in Chartres with his well-trained horsemen. This victory paved the way for [[Rollo]]'s baptism and settlement in [[Normandy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France|title=Robert I {{!}} king of France|website=Encyclopædia Britannica|language=en|access-date=26 February 2020|archive-date=20 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620160754/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Duchy of Normandy]], which began in 911 as a [[fiefdom]], was established by the [[treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte]] between [[Charles the Simple|King Charles III (Charles the Simple)]] (879–929, ruled 893–929) of [[West Francia]] and the famed [[Viking]] ruler [[Rollo]] also known as Gaange Rolf ({{circa|846}}–{{circa|929}}), from [[Scandinavia]], and was situated in the former [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdom of [[Neustria]].<ref name="Epte">Neveux, p. 5</ref> The treaty offered Rollo and his men the [[France|French]] coastal lands along the [[English Channel]] between the river [[Epte]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic Ocean coast]] in exchange for their protection against further Viking incursions.<ref name="Epte"/> As well as promising to protect the area of Rouen from Viking invasion, Rollo swore not to invade further Frankish lands himself, accepted baptism and conversion to [[Christianity]] and swore fealty to King Charles III. Robert I of France stood as godfather during Rollo's baptism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France|title=Robert I of France|website=Britannica Encyclopaedia|access-date=26 February 2020|archive-date=20 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620160754/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-I-king-of-France|url-status=live}}</ref> He became the first Duke of Normandy and Count of Rouen.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Normans|last=Chibnall|first=Marjorie|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2008}}</ref> The area corresponded to the northern part of present-day [[Upper Normandy]] down to the river [[Seine]], but the Duchy would eventually extend west beyond the Seine.<ref name="Norman">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418283/Norman |title=Norman |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429235448/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/418283/Norman |url-status=live }}</ref> The territory was roughly equivalent to the old province of [[Rouen]], and reproduced the old [[Roman Empire]]'s administrative structure of ''Gallia Lugdunensis II'' (part of the former ''[[Gallia Lugdunensis]]'' in [[Gaul]]).
[[File:History of the Normans by Dudo of Saint-Quentin.jpg|thumb|upright|10th–11th century ''History of the Normans'', by [[Dudo of Saint-Quentin]]]]
Before Rollo's arrival, Normandy's populations did not differ from [[Picardy]] or the [[Île-de-France]], which were considered "Frankish". Earlier Viking settlers had begun arriving in the 880s, but were divided between colonies in the east ([[Roumois]] and [[Pays de Caux]]) around the low Seine valley and in the west in the [[Cotentin Peninsula]], and were separated by traditional ''[[Pagus|pagii]]'', where the population remained about the same with almost no foreign settlers. Rollo's contingents from Scandinavia who raided and ultimately settled Normandy and parts of the European Atlantic coast included [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]], [[Norwegians]], [[Norse–Gaels]], [[Orkney|Orkney Vikings]], possibly [[Swedes]], and Anglo-Danes from the English [[Danelaw]] territory which earlier came under Norse control in the late 9th century.
The descendants of Vikings replaced the [[Norse religion]] and [[Old Norse]] language with [[Catholicism]] ([[Christianity]]) and the [[Langues d'oïl|Langue d'oil]] of the local people, descending from the [[Latin language|Latin]] of the [[Roman Empire|Romans]]. The [[Norman language]] (Norman French) was forged by the adoption of the indigenous ''[[Langues d'oïl|langue d'oïl]]'' branch of [[Romance languages|Romance]] by a Norse-speaking ruling class, and it developed into the [[Languages of France|French regional languages]] that survive today.<ref name="Norman" />
The new Norman rulers were culturally and ethnically distinct from the old [[French nobility|French aristocracy]], most of whom traced their lineage to the [[Franks]] of the [[Carolingian dynasty]] from the days of [[Charlemagne]] in the 9th century. By intermarrying with the local aristocracy and adopting the growing [[feudalism|feudal]] doctrines of the rest of France, the Normans would progressively work these principles into a functional hierarchical system in their own [[Normandy|duchy]], and later export it to [[Norman England|Norman dominated England]].<ref name="searle"/>
As the proliferation of aristocratic families throughout the French kingdom limited the prospects of most heirs, young knights were encouraged to seek land and riches beyond their homeland, with Normandy becoming a major source of such adventurers.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Duby | first = Georges | title = Dans la France du Nord-Ouest au XIIe siècle : les " jeunes " dans la société aristocratique |journal=Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations. 19ᵉ année|volume=19|year=1964| issue = 5 |pages=835–846 | doi = 10.3406/ahess.1964.421226 | s2cid = 161176498 | language = fr }}</ref> Many Normans of Italy, France and England eventually served as avid [[Crusades|Crusaders]] soldiers under the [[Italo-Norman]] prince [[Bohemund I of Antioch]] and the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevin-Norman]] king [[Richard the Lion-Heart]], one of the more famous and illustrious Kings of England.
===Conquests and military offensives===
====Italy====
{{main|Norman conquest of southern Italy}}
{{See also|Emirate of Sicily|Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture|Robert Guiscard|Italo-Norman}}
[[File:Kingdom of Sicily 1154.svg|thumb|left|alt=Multicolored map of 12th-century Italy|The Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]] (in green) in 1154, upon the death of [[Roger II]]]]
Opportunistic bands of Normans successfully established a foothold in [[southern Italy]]. Probably as the result of returning pilgrims' stories, the Normans entered southern Italy as warriors in 1017 at the latest. In 999, according to [[Amatus of Montecassino]], Norman pilgrims returning from [[Jerusalem]] called in at the port of [[Salerno]] when a Muslim attack occurred. The Normans fought so valiantly that Prince [[Guaimar III of Salerno|Guaimar III]] begged them to stay, but they refused and instead offered to tell others back home of the Prince's request. [[William of Apulia]] tells that, in 1016, Norman pilgrims to the shrine of the [[Michael (archangel)|Archangel Michael]] at [[Sanctuary of Monte Sant'Angelo|Monte Gargano]] were met by [[Melus of Bari]], a [[Lombards|Lombard]] nobleman and rebel, who persuaded them to return with more warriors to help throw off the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule, which they did.
The two most prominent Norman families to arrive in the [[Mediterranean]] were descendants of [[Tancred of Hauteville]] and the [[Drengot family]].
A group of Normans with at least five brothers from the Drengot family fought the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in [[Apulia]] under the command of [[Melus of Bari]]. Between 1016 and 1024, in a fragmented political context, the {{ill|County of Ariano|it|Contea di Ariano}} was founded by another group of Norman knights headed by [[Gilbert Buatère]] and hired by Melus of Bari. Defeated at [[Cannae]], Melus of Bari escaped to [[Bamberg]], [[Germany]], where he died in 1022. The county, which replaced the pre-existing chamberlainship, is considered to be the first political body established by the Normans in the south of Italy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cesn.it/mezzogiorno.htm|title=Il Mezzogiorno agli inizi dell'XI secolo|trans-title=The south of Italy at the beginning of 11th century|website=European Center for Norman Studies|language=it|access-date=14 October 2017|archive-date=15 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115095046/http://www.cesn.it/mezzogiorno.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Normans in Italy 1016–1194|author=Raffaele D'Amato & Andrea Salimbeti|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|year=2020|page=7|isbn=9781472839442}}</ref>
Then [[Rainulf Drengot]], from the same family, received the county of [[Aversa]] from Duke [[Sergius IV of Naples]] in 1030.
[[File:Adrano normannisches Kastell.jpg|thumb|The early Norman castle at [[Adrano]]]]
The [[Hauteville family]] achieved princely rank by proclaiming Prince [[Guaimar IV of Salerno]] "Duke of [[Apulia]] and [[Calabria]]". He promptly awarded their elected leader, [[William Iron Arm]], with the title of count in his capital of [[Melfi]]. The Drengot family thereafter attained the [[principality of Capua]], and Emperor [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]] legally ennobled the Hauteville leader, [[Drogo of Hauteville|Drogo]], as "''dux et magister Italiae comesque Normannorum totius Apuliae et Calabriae''" ("''Duke and Master of Italy and Count of the Normans of all Apulia and Calabria''") in 1047.{{sfn|Brown|1994|p=106}}
From these bases, the Normans eventually captured [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]] from the Muslims, under the leadership of the famous [[Robert Guiscard]], a Hauteville, and his younger brother [[Roger I of Sicily|Roger the Great Count]]. Roger's son, [[Roger II of Sicily]], was crowned king in 1130 (exactly one century after Rainulf was "crowned" count) by [[Antipope Anacletus II]]. The [[Kingdom of Sicily]] lasted until 1194, when it was transferred to the [[House of Hohenstaufen]] through marriage.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCX660FA5wMC&pg=PA793 |title=The Common Law Abroad: Constitutional and Legal Legacy of the British Empire |first=Jerry |last=Dupont |publisher=Wm. S. Hein Publishing|___location=Getzville, New York|date=2001 |isbn=978-0-8377-3125-4 |page=793}}</ref> The Normans left their legacy in many castles, such as [[William Iron Arm]]'s citadel at [[Squillace]], and cathedrals, such as Roger II's [[Cappella Palatina]] at [[Palermo]], which dot the landscape and give a distinct architectural flavor to accompany its unique history.
Institutionally, the Normans combined the administrative machinery of the Byzantines, Arabs, and Lombards with their own conceptions of [[feudal law]] and order to forge a unique government. Under this state, there was great religious freedom, and alongside the Norman nobles existed a meritocratic bureaucracy of Jews, Muslims and Christians, both [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]]. The Kingdom of Sicily thus became characterized by Norman, Byzantine, Greek, Arab, Lombard and "native" Sicilian populations living in harmony, and its [[List of monarchs of Sicily#Kings of Sicily|Norman rulers]] fostered plans of establishing an empire that would have encompassed [[Fatimid]] Egypt as well as the [[crusader states]] in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377080/Roger-II |title=Roger II – King of Sicily |publisher=Concise.britannica.com |access-date=21 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070523045823/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377080/Roger-II |archive-date=23 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |title=Tracing The Norman Rulers of Sicily |newspaper=New York Times |date=26 April 1987 |access-date=21 January 2010 |first=Louis |last=Inturrisi |archive-date=3 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090303151440/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>''Les Normands en Sicile'', p. 17.</ref> One of the great geographical treatises of the [[Middle Ages]], the "''[[Tabula Rogeriana]]''", was written by [[al-Idrisi]] for King Roger II of Sicily, and entitled "''Kitab Rudjdjar''" ("''The Book of Roger''").<ref name="Lewis, p.148">Lewis, p. 148</ref>
====The Iberian Peninsula====
The Normans began appearing in the military confrontations between Christians and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula since the early eleventh century. The first Norman who appears in the narrative sources was [[Roger I of Tosny]] who according to [[Ademar of Chabannes]] and the later [[Chronicle of St Pierre le Vif]] went to aid the Barcelonese in a series of raids against the [[al-Andalus|Andalusi]] Muslims {{circa|1018}}.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2008) 'Roger of Tosny's adventures in the County of Barcelona', Nottingham Medieval Studies 52, pp. 5–16. https://doi.org/10.1484/J.NMS.3.426 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073631/https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.NMS.3.426 |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref> Later in the eleventh century, other Norman adventurers such as [[Robert Crispin]] and [[Walter Giffard]] participated in the probably papal organised [[siege of Barbastro]] of 1064. Even after the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the Normans continued to participate in ventures in the peninsula. After the Frankish conquest of the Holy Land during the First Crusade, the Normans began to be encouraged to participate in ventures of conquest in the northeast of the peninsula. The most significant example of this was the incursion of [[Rotrou II of Perche]] and [[Robert Burdet]] in the 1120s in the Ebro frontier. By 1129 Robert Burdet had been granted a semi-independent [[Principality of Tarragona|principality in the city of Tarragona]] by the then Archbishop of this see, Oleguer Bonestruga. Several others of Rotrou's Norman followers were rewarded with lands in the Ebro valley by King Alfonso I of Aragon for their services.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2017), 'Spiritual and material rewards on the Christian-Muslim Frontier', Medievalismo 27, pp. 353–376. https://doi.org/10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073637/http://revistas.um.es/medievalismo/article/view/310701 |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref>
With the rising popularity of the sea route to the Holy Land, Norman and Anglo-Norman crusaders also started to be encouraged locally by Iberian prelates to participate in the Portuguese incursions into the western areas of the Peninsula. The first of these incursions occurred when a fleet of these Crusaders was invited by the Portuguese king [[Afonso I Henriques]] to conquer the city of Lisbon in 1142.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2013) 'Revisiting the Anglo-Norman Crusaders' Failed Attempt to Conquer Lisbon c. 1142', Portuguese Studies 29.1, pp. 7–20 https://doi.org/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073633/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/portstudies.29.1.0007 |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref> Although this [[Siege of Lisbon (1142)]] was a failure it created a precedent for their involvement in Portugal. So in 1147 when another group of Norman and other groups of crusaders from Northern Europe arrived in Porto on their way to join the crusading forces of the [[Second Crusade]], the Bishop of Porto and later Afonso Henriques according to ''[[De expugnatione Lyxbonensi]]'' convinced them to help with the [[siege of Lisbon]]. This time the city was captured and according to the arrangement agreed upon with the Portuguese monarch many of them settled in the newly sacked city.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2015) 'Norman and Anglo-Norman Intervention in the Iberian Wars of Reconquest before and after the First Crusade', in Harlock and Oldfield, Crusading and Pilgrimage in the Norman World, Woodbridge, Boydell, pp. 103–124 https://doi.org/10.1484/J.NMS.5.111293 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073632/https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/10.1484/J.NMS.5.111293 |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref> The following year the remainder of the crusading fleet, including a substantial number of Anglo-Normans, was invited by the count of Barcelona, [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona|Ramon Berenguer IV]], to participate in the [[siege of Tortosa (1148)]]. Again the Normans were rewarded with lands in the newly conquered frontier city.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal (2009), 'Anglo-Norman Intervention in the Conquest and Settlement of Tortosa', Crusades 8 (2009), pp. 63–129. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315271590-7 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073633/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315271590-7/anglo-norman-intervention-conquest-settlement-tortosa-1148%E2%80%931180 |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref>
==
{{See also|Kingdom of Africa}}
Between 1135 and 1160, the Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]] conquered and kept as vassals several cities on the [[Ifriqiya]] coast, corresponding to Tunisia and parts of Algeria and Libya today.
They were lost to the Almohads.
====Byzantium====
{{See also|Byzantine-Norman wars|Varangian Guard|William Iron Arm}}
{{more citations needed section|date=December 2012}}
Soon after the Normans began to enter Italy, they entered the [[Byzantine Empire]] and then [[Medieval Armenia|Armenia]], fighting against the [[Pechenegs]], the [[Bulgarians]], and especially the [[Seljuk Turks]]. Norman mercenaries were first encouraged to come to the south by the Lombards to act against the Byzantines, but they soon fought in Byzantine service in Sicily. They were prominent alongside [[Varangian]] and Lombard contingents in the Sicilian campaign of [[George Maniaces]] in 1038–40. There is debate whether the Normans in Greek service actually were from Norman Italy, and it now seems likely only a few came from there. It is also unknown how many of the "Franks", as the Byzantines called them, were Normans and not other Frenchmen.
[[File:Norman Conquests copy (1).jpg|thumb|A chronological map of the Norman Conquests]]
One of the first Norman mercenaries to serve as a Byzantine general was [[Hervé (Norman)|Hervé]] in the 1050s. By then, however, there were already Norman mercenaries serving as far away as [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. They were based at [[Malatya]] and [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], under the Byzantine duke of [[Antioch]], [[Isaac Komnenos, Duke of Antioch|Isaac Komnenos]]. In the 1060s, [[Robert Crispin]] led the Normans of Edessa against the Turks. [[Roussel de Bailleul]] even tried to carve out an independent state in [[Asia Minor]] with support from the local population in 1073, but he was stopped in 1075 by the Byzantine general and future emperor [[Alexius I Komnenos|Alexius Komnenos]].{{sfn|Beihammer|2017|pages=211–213}}
Some Normans joined Turkish forces to aid in the destruction of the Armenian vassal-states of [[Sassoun]] and [[Taron (historic Armenia)|Taron]] in far eastern [[Anatolia]]. Later, many took up service with the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia|Armenian state further south in Cilicia]] and the [[Taurus Mountains]]. A Norman named [[Roussel de Bailleul|Oursel]] led a force of "Franks" into the upper [[Euphrates]] valley in northern [[Syria]]. From 1073 to 1074, 8,000 of the 20,000 troops of the Armenian general [[Philaretus Brachamius]] were Normans—formerly of Oursel—led by [[Raimbaud]]. They even lent their ethnicity to the name of their castle: Afranji, meaning "Franks". The known trade between [[Republic of Amalfi|Amalfi]] and Antioch and between [[Bari]] and [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] may be related to the presence of Italo-Normans in those cities while Amalfi and Bari were under Norman rule in Italy.
Several families of Byzantine Greece were of Norman mercenary origin during the period of the [[Comnenian Restoration]], when Byzantine emperors were seeking out western European warriors. The Raoulii were descended from an Italo-Norman named Raoul, the Petraliphae were descended from a Pierre d'Aulps, and that group of [[Albania]]n clans known as the Maniakates were descended from Normans who served under [[George Maniaces]] in the Sicilian expedition of 1038.
[[Robert Guiscard]], another Norman adventurer previously elevated to the dignity of count of [[Apulia]] as the result of his military successes, ultimately drove the Byzantines out of southern Italy. Having obtained the consent of [[Pope Gregory VII]] and acting as his vassal, Robert continued his campaign conquering the Balkan peninsula as a foothold for western feudal lords and the Catholic Church. After allying himself with [[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)|Croatia]] and the Catholic cities of Dalmatia, in 1081 he led an army of 30,000 men in 300 ships landing on the southern shores of [[Albania]], capturing [[Vlora|Valona]], [[Kaninë|Kanina]], Jericho ([[Orikumi]]), and reaching [[Butrint]] after numerous pillages. They joined the fleet that had previously conquered [[Corfu]] and attacked [[Dyrrachium]] from land and sea, devastating everything along the way. Under these harsh circumstances, the locals accepted the call of Emperor [[Alexios I Comnenos]] to join forces with the Byzantines against the Normans. The Byzantine forces could not take part in the ensuing [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|battle]] because it had started before their arrival. Immediately before the battle, the Venetian fleet had secured a victory in the coast surrounding the city. Forced to retreat, Alexios ceded the city of Dyrrachium to the [[Count of the Tent]] (or Byzantine provincial administrators) mobilizing from [[Arbanon]] (i.e., ἐξ Ἀρβάνων ὁρμωμένω Κομισκόρτη; the term ''Κομισκόρτη'' is short for κόμης της κόρτης meaning "Count of the Tent").<ref>[[Anna Comnena]]. ''The Alexiad'', 4.8; {{harvnb|Vranousi|1962|pp=5–26}}.</ref> The city's garrison resisted until February 1082, when Dyrrachium was betrayed to the Normans by the Venetian and [[Amalfi]]tan merchants who had settled there. The Normans were now free to penetrate into the hinterland; they took Ioannina and some minor cities in southwestern Macedonia and Thessaly before appearing at the gates of Thessalonica. Dissension among the high ranks coerced the Normans to retreat to Italy. They lost Dyrrachium, Valona, and [[Butrint]] in 1085, after the death of Robert.
A few years after the [[First Crusade]], in 1107, the Normans under the command of Bohemond, Robert's son, landed in Valona and besieged Dyrrachium using the most sophisticated military equipment of the time, but to no avail. Meanwhile, they occupied [[Petrela]], the citadel of Mili at the banks of the river [[Devoll (river)|Deabolis]], Gllavenica (Ballsh), Kanina and Jericho. This time, the Albanians sided with the Normans, dissatisfied by the heavy taxes the Byzantines had imposed upon them. With their help, the Normans secured the [[Arbanon]] passes and opened their way to Dibra. The lack of supplies, disease and Byzantine resistance forced Bohemond to retreat from his campaign and sign a peace treaty with the Byzantines in the city of Deabolis.
The further decline of Byzantine state-of-affairs paved the road to a third attack in 1185, when a large Norman army invaded [[Dyrrachium]], owing to the betrayal of high Byzantine officials. Some time later, Dyrrachium—one of the most important naval bases of the [[Adriatic]]—fell again to Byzantine hands.
====England====
<!--Tostig Godwinson links here-->
{{See also|Norman conquest of England|William the Conqueror|Anglo-Normans}}
{{House of Normandy}}
[[File:Norman infantry and cavalery (xi century) Falaise.jpg|thumb|right|Modern depiction of 11th century Norman cavalry and infantry]]
The Normans were in contact with England from an early date. Not only were their original Viking brethren still ravaging the English coasts, they occupied most of the important ports opposite England across the [[English Channel]]. This relationship eventually produced closer ties of blood through the marriage of [[Emma of Normandy|Emma]], sister of Duke [[Richard II of Normandy]], and King [[Ethelred II of England]]. Due to this, Ethelred fled to Normandy in 1013, when he was forced from his kingdom by [[Sweyn Forkbeard]]. His stay in Normandy (until 1016) influenced him and his sons by Emma, who stayed in Normandy after [[Cnut the Great]]'s conquest of the isle.
When [[Edward the Confessor]] finally returned from his father's refuge in 1041, at the invitation of his half-brother [[Harthacnut]], he brought with him a Norman-educated mind. He also brought many Norman counsellors and fighters, some of whom established an English cavalry force. This concept never really took root, but it is a typical example of Edward's attitude. He appointed [[Robert of Jumièges]] [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] and made [[Ralph the Timid]] [[Earl of Hereford]].
On 14 October 1066, [[William the Conqueror]] gained a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Hastings]], which led to the conquest of England three years later;<ref>''The Normans'', [[Marjorie Chibnall]]</ref> this can be seen on the [[Bayeux tapestry]]. The invading Normans and their descendants largely replaced the [[Anglo-Saxons]] as the ruling class of England. The nobility of England were part of a single Norman culture and many had lands on both sides of the channel. Early Norman kings of England, as Dukes of Normandy, owed homage to the King of France for their land on the continent. They considered England to be their most important holding (it brought with it the title of King—an important status symbol).
Eventually, the Normans merged with the natives, combining languages and traditions, so much so that [[Marjorie Chibnall]] says "writers still referred to Normans and English; but the terms no longer meant the same as in the immediate aftermath of 1066."<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Normans|last=Chibnall|first=Marjorie|author-link = Marjorie Chibnall|publisher=Blackwell publishing|year=2000|isbn=978-1-4051-4965-5|___location=Oxford|pages=62}}</ref> In the course of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the Norman aristocracy often identified themselves as English. The [[Anglo-Norman language]] became distinct from the [[French language|French]] spoken in Paris, something that was the subject of some humour by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]. The Anglo-Norman language was eventually absorbed into the Anglo-Saxon language of their subjects (see [[Old English]]) and influenced it, helping (along with the [[Norse language]] of the earlier [[Danelaw|Anglo-Norse]] settlers and the [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]] used by the church) in the development of [[Middle English]], which, in turn, evolved into [[Modern English]].
====Ireland====
{{See also|Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman Ireland|Normans in Ireland}}
[[File:MarriageAoifeStrongbow.jpg|thumb|Depiction of the marriage of the Norman lord [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Strongbow]] to the Irish princess [[Aoife MacMurrough|Aoife]] in [[Waterford]] in 1170]]
[[File:Trim Castle 6.jpg|thumb|Norman keep in [[Trim, County Meath|Trim]], [[County Meath]]]]
The Normans had a profound effect on Irish culture and history after their invasion at [[Bannow Bay]] in 1169. Initially, the Normans maintained a distinct culture and ethnicity. Yet, with time, they came to be subsumed into Irish culture to the point that it has been said that they became "[[More Irish than the Irish themselves (slogan)|more Irish than the Irish themselves]]". The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of [[Ireland]], later known as [[the Pale]], and also built many fine castles and settlements, including [[Trim Castle]] and [[Dublin Castle]]. The cultures intermixed, borrowing from each other's language, culture and outlook. Norman [[surnames]] still exist today. Names such as ''French'', ''(De) Roche'', ''Devereux'', ''D'Arcy'' and ''Lacy'' are particularly common in the southeast of Ireland, especially in the southern part of [[County Wexford]], where the first Norman settlements were established. Other Norman names, such as ''Furlong'', predominate there.{{Clarify|date=September 2020}} Another common Norman-Irish name was Morell (Murrell), derived from the French Norman name ''Morel''. Names beginning with ''Fitz-'' (from the Norman for "son") usually indicate Norman ancestry. [[Hibernia|Hiberno]]-Norman surnames with the [[prefix]] ''Fitz-'' include ''[[FitzGerald dynasty|Fitzgerald]]'', ''FitzGibbons'' (Gibbons) as well as ''[[Fitzmaurice]]''. Families bearing such surnames as ''[[Barry (name)|Barry]]'' (''de Barra'') and ''[[House of Burke|De Búrca]]'' (''Burke'') are also of Norman extraction.
====Scotland====
{{See also|Scotland in the High Middle Ages|Scoto-Norman}}
One of the claimants of the English throne opposing [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], [[Edgar Atheling]], eventually fled to Scotland. King [[Malcolm III of Scotland]] married Edgar's sister [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]], and came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in 1072, riding as far as [[Abernethy, Perth and Kinross|Abernethy]] where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William and surrendered his son [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan]] as a hostage, beginning a series of arguments as to whether the Scottish Crown owed allegiance to the King of England.
Normans went into Scotland, building castles and founding noble families that would provide some future kings, such as [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]], as well as founding a considerable number of the [[Scottish clan]]s. King [[David I of Scotland]], whose elder brother [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]] had married [[Sybilla of Normandy]], was instrumental in introducing Normans and Norman culture to [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]], part of the process some scholars call the "[[Davidian Revolution]]". Having spent time at the court of [[Henry I of England]] (married to David's sister [[Edith of Scotland|Maud of Scotland]]), and needing them to wrestle the kingdom from his half-brother [[Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair]], David had to reward many with lands. The process was continued under David's successors, most intensely of all under [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]]. The Norman-derived [[feudal]] system was applied in varying degrees to most of Scotland. Scottish families of the names [[Bruce (surname)|Bruce]], [[Gray (surname)|Gray]], Ramsay, Fraser, Rose, Ogilvie, Montgomery, Sinclair, Pollock, Burnard, Douglas and [[Gordon (surname)|Gordon]] to name but a few, and including the later royal [[House of Stewart]], can all be traced back to Norman ancestry.
====Wales====
{{See also|Norman invasion of Wales|Cambro-Norman}}
[[File:Mms chepstow castle from river wye.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|[[Chepstow Castle]] in Wales, built by [[William fitzOsbern]] in 1067]]
Even before the Norman Conquest of England, the Normans had come into contact with [[Wales]]. Edward the Confessor had set up the aforementioned Ralph as Earl of Hereford and charged him with defending the [[Welsh Marches|Marches]] and warring with the Welsh. In these original ventures, the Normans failed to make any headway into Wales.
After the Conquest, however, the Marches came completely under the dominance of William's most trusted Norman barons, including [[Bernard de Neufmarché]], [[Roger de Montgomerie, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury|Roger of Montgomery]] in [[Shropshire]] and [[Hugh, 1st Earl of Chester|Hugh Lupus]] in [[Cheshire]]. These Normans began a long period of slow conquest during which almost all of Wales was at some point subject to Norman interference. Norman words, such as ''baron'' ({{Lang|cy|barwn}}), first entered [[Welsh language|Welsh]] at that time.
====On crusade====
{{See also|Principality of Antioch|Bohemund I of Antioch|Richard the Lion-Heart}}
The legendary religious zeal of the Normans was exercised in religious wars long before the [[First Crusade]] carved out a Norman [[Principality of Antioch|principality in Antioch]]. They were major foreign combatants in the [[Reconquista]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]. In 1018, [[Roger I of Tosny|Roger de Tosny]] travelled to the Iberian Peninsula to carve out a state for himself from [[Moorish]] lands, but failed. In 1064, during the [[War of Barbastro]], [[William of Montreuil]], [[Roger Crispin]] and probably [[Walter Guiffard]] led an army under the papal banner which took a huge booty as they captured the city from its Andelusi rulers. Later a group of Normans led by certain William (some have suggested this was [[William the Carpenter]]) participated in the failed siege of Tudela of 1087.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal, 'The Changing Priorities in the Norman Incursions into the Iberian Peninsula's Muslim–Christian Frontiers, 1018–1191', in ''Normans in the Mediterranean'', eds. Emily Winkler and Liam Fitzgerald, MISCS 9, Turnhout: Brepols, 2021, pp. 90–91. http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503590578-1 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928063224/http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503590578-1 |date=28 September 2021 }}</ref>
In 1096, Crusaders passing by the siege of [[Amalfi]] were joined by [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemond of Taranto]] and his nephew [[Tancred, Prince of Galilee|Tancred]] with an army of Italo-Normans. Bohemond was the ''de facto'' leader of the Crusade during its passage through [[Asia Minor]]. After the successful [[Siege of Antioch]] in 1097, Bohemond began carving out an independent principality around that city. Tancred was instrumental in the conquest of [[Jerusalem]] and he worked for the expansion of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|Crusader kingdom]] in [[Oultrejordain|Transjordan]] and the region of [[Galilee]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}.
After the First Crusade to the Levant, the Normans continued with their involvement in Iberia as well as other areas of the Mediterranean. Among them was Rotrou of Perche and his followers [[Robert Burdet]] and [[William Giffard]] who joined multiple expeditions into the Ebro Valley to aid Alfonso I of Aragon in his campaigns of conquest. Robert Burdet managed to acquire the position of Alcide of Tudela by 1123 and later that of Prince of the city Tarragona in 1129.<ref>Lucas Villegas-Aristizábal, 'Spiritual and Material Rewards on the Christian-Muslim Frontier: Norman Crusaders in the Valley of the Ebro', ''Medievalismo'' 27 (2017): 353–376. https://doi.org/10.6018/medievalismo.27.310701 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073637/http://revistas.um.es/medievalismo/article/view/310701 |date=2 May 2023 }}</ref>
====Anglo-Norman conquest of Cyprus====
{{See also|Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus in the Middle Ages}}[[File:Lusignan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Illuminated manuscript showing King [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] authorizing [[Guy de Lusignan]] to take [[Kingdom of Cyprus|Cyprus]]]]
The conquest of [[Cyprus]] by the [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] forces of the [[Third Crusade]] opened a new chapter in the history of the island, which would be under [[Western Europe]]an domination for the following 380 years. Although not part of a planned operation, the conquest had much more permanent results than initially expected.
In April 1191, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lion-hearted]] left [[Messina]] with a large fleet in order to reach [[Acre (city)|Acre]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 131}} But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus, together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot [[Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus|Isaac Komnenos]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 132}} On 1 May 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of [[Limassol]] on Cyprus.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 132}} He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 132}} Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | pp= 133–134}}
Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular [[Guy de Lusignan]]. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival [[Conrad of Montferrat]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 134}} The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the [[crusade]], and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | pp = 134–36}} But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains, because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June, Richard had conquered the whole island. His exploit was well publicized and contributed to his reputation; he also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 138}} Richard left for [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] on 5 June, with his allies.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 138}} Before his departure, he named two of his Norman generals, [[Richard de Camville]] and [[Robert of Thornham|Robert de Thornham]], as governors of Cyprus.
While in Limassol, Richard the Lion-Heart married [[Berengaria of Navarre]], first-born daughter of King [[Sancho VI of Navarre]]. The wedding was held on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St. George and it was attended by Richard's sister [[Joan of England, Queen of Sicily|Joan]], whom he had brought from [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]]. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendor. Among other grand ceremonies was a double coronation: Richard caused himself to be crowned [[King of Cyprus]], and Berengaria Queen of England and [[List of Cypriot consorts|Queen of Cyprus]] as well.
[[File:Le Canarien.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|Norman expeditionary ship depicted in the chronicle ''[[Le Canarien]]'' (1490)]]
The rapid Anglo-Norman conquest proved more important than it seemed. The island occupied a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 137}} Shortly after the conquest, Cyprus was sold to the [[Knights Templar]] and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy de Lusignan and became a [[Kingdom of Cyprus|stable feudal kingdom]].{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 137}} It was only in 1489 that the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] acquired full control of the island, which remained a Christian stronghold until the [[Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573)|fall of Famagusta]] in 1571.{{Sfn | Flori | 1999 | p = 138}}
====Canary Islands====
{{see also|Conquest of the Canary Islands}}
Between 1402 and 1405, the expedition led by the Norman noble [[Jean de Bethencourt]]<ref name="EB1911Bethencourt">{{EB1911|wstitle=Béthencourt, Jean de|volume=3}}</ref> and the [[Poitevine]] [[Gadifer de la Salle]] conquered the [[Canary Islands|Canarian islands]] of [[Lanzarote]], [[Fuerteventura]] and [[El Hierro]] off the Atlantic coast of Africa. Their troops were gathered in Normandy, Gascony and were later reinforced by [[Castilian people|Castilian]] colonists.
Bethencourt took the title of [[King of the Canary Islands]], as vassal to [[Henry III of Castile]]. In 1418, Jean's nephew [[Maciot de Bethencourt]] sold the rights to the islands to [[Enrique Pérez de Guzmán, 2nd Count de Niebla]].
==Culture==
===Language===
{{main|Old Norman|Norman language|Anglo-Norman literature}}
When [[Norsemen|Norse]] [[Vikings]] from [[Scandinavia]] arrived in the then-province of [[Neustria]] and settled the land that became known as Normandy, they originally spoke [[Old Norse]], a [[North Germanic language]]. Over time, they came to live among the local [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]-speaking population, with the two communities converging to the point that the original Norsemen largely assimilated and adopted the local dialect of [[Old French]] while contributing some elements from the [[Old Norse]] language.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Elisabeth Ridel|title=Les Vikings et les mots|publisher=Editions Errance|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Norman |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norman-people |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=22 July 2020 |quote=Norman, member of those Vikings, or Norsemen, who settled in northern France...The Normans (from Nortmanni: "Northmen") were originally pagan barbarian pirates from Denmark, Norway, and Iceland |archive-date=24 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324074550/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Norman-people |url-status=live }}</ref> This Norse-influenced dialect which then arose was known as [[Old Norman]], and it is the ancestor of both the modern [[Norman language]] still spoken today in the [[Channel Islands]] and parts of mainland Normandy, as well as the historical [[Anglo-Norman language]] in England. Old Norman was also an important language of the [[Principality of Antioch]] during Crusader rule in the [[Levant]].<ref name="Madden2005">{{cite book|first=Thomas F.|last=Madden|author-link=Thomas F. Madden|title=Crusades: The Illustrated History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5eudAAAACAAJ&pg=PA67|date=12 September 2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-031276|page=67|access-date=23 September 2021|archive-date=2 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502073631/https://books.google.com/books?id=5eudAAAACAAJ&pg=PA67|url-status=live}}</ref>
Old Norman and [[Anglo-Norman literature]] was quite extensive during the Middle Ages, with records existing from notable Norman poets such as [[Wace]], who was born on the island of [[Jersey]] and raised in mainland Normandy.<ref>{{cite Catholic Encyclopedia|wstitle=Robert Wace|last=|first=|page=}}</ref>
===Norman law===
{{main|Norman law|Clameur de haro}}
The [[Custom (law)|customary law]] of [[Normandy]] was developed between the 10th and 13th centuries and survives today through the legal systems of [[Law of Jersey|Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]] in the [[Channel Islands]]. Norman customary law was transcribed in two [[Coutume|customaries]] in [[Latin]] by two judges for use by them and their colleagues:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/cultures/GB_FR/culture1_7.htm|title=Norman customary law|website=Mondes-normands.caen.fr|access-date=20 May 2018|archive-date=23 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131123003719/http://www.mondes-normands.caen.fr/angleterre/cultures/GB_FR/culture1_7.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> These are the ''Très ancien coutumier'' (''Very ancient customary''), authored between 1200 and 1245; and the ''Grand coutumier de Normandie'' (''Great customary of Normandy'', originally ''Summa de legibus Normanniae in curia laïcali''), authored between 1235 and 1245.
Norman law during the ducal period, between 1000 and 1144, blended local Frankish traditions, Carolingian legal structures, and Viking influences. This unique combination created a legal system distinct from both its Norse and Frankish predecessors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hagger |first=Mark |date=1 January 2010 |title=Secular Law and Custom in Ducal Normandy, c. 1000–1144 |url=https://www.academia.edu/462586 |journal=Speculum|volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=827–867 |doi=10.1017/S0038713410002307 }}</ref> The Norse customs that were adopted emphasized community-based dispute resolution, honor, and reparation. The Carolingian legal principles that the Normans utilized were the written codes, administrative structure, and practices such as the use of oaths and ordeals. Lastly, the Normans wanted to preserve some of the existing customary practices in Normandy, particularly in rural areas, such as land ownership and inheritance, governance through local assemblies, and customary taxation and resource management.
In England, the Normans replaced the Anglo-Saxon landholding customs with a feudal system. Under this system, all land was held by the king, who granted it to nobles in exchange for military service and other obligations. The nobles, in turn, granted portions of their land to vassals, land holders for the king, which created a hierarchal structure of land tenure. The [[Domesday Book]], written in 1086 formalized land ownership and feudal obligations in England, creating a legal framework form resolving disputes over property.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seaberg |first=R. B. |date=1981 |title=The Norman Conquest and the Common Law: The Levellers and the Argument from Continuity |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638946 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=791–806 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00008207 |jstor=2638946 |issn=0018-246X}}</ref>
Legal obligations under this feudal system included required military service to the land's respective lords. Failure to meet these duties often resulted in forfeiture of land or other penalties. The disputes over land and feudal obligations were resolved in feudal courts. These courts operated at various levels: local, manorial, or baronial - and reinforced the feudal hierarchy by emphasizing the lord's role as the arbiter of justice within his ___domain.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bates |first=David |url=https://archive.org/details/williamconqueror0000bate |title=William the Conqueror |date=1989 |___location=London |publisher=G. Philip |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-540-01175-9}}</ref>
===Architecture===
{{Main|Norman architecture}}
[[File:Tower of London, Traitors Gate.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A quintessential Norman keep: the [[White Tower (Tower of London)|White Tower]] at the heart of the [[Tower of London]]]]
Norman architecture typically stands out as a new stage in the architectural history of the regions they subdued. They spread a unique [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque idiom]] to England, Italy and Ireland, and the [[encastellation]] of these regions with [[keep]]s in their north French style fundamentally altered the military landscape. Their style was characterised by rounded [[arch]]es, particularly over windows and doorways, and massive proportions.
In England, the period of Norman architecture immediately succeeds that of the [[Anglo-Saxon architecture|Anglo-Saxon]] and precedes the [[Gothic architecture|Early Gothic]]. In southern Italy, the Normans incorporated elements of [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]], [[Lombardic architecture|Lombard]], and [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] building techniques into their own, initiating a unique romanesque style known as [[Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture#Norman-Arab-Byzantine architecture|Norman-Arab architecture]] within the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] and precedes the Early Gothic.<ref name="Sicily" />
===Visual arts===
In the visual arts, the Normans did not have the rich and distinctive traditions of the cultures they conquered. However, in the early 11th century, the dukes began a programme of church reform, encouraging the [[Cluniac reform]] of monasteries and patronising intellectual pursuits, especially the proliferation of [[scriptoria]] and the reconstitution of a compilation of lost [[illuminated manuscript]]s. The church was utilised by the dukes as a unifying force for their disparate duchy. The chief monasteries taking part in this "renaissance" of Norman art and scholarship were [[Mont-Saint-Michel]], [[Fécamp]], [[Jumièges]], [[Bec-de-Mortagne|Bec]], [[Saint-Ouen, Rouen|Saint-Ouen]], [[Saint-Evroul]], and [[Saint-Wandrille]]. These centres were in contact with the so-called "[[Winchester]] school", which channeled a pure [[Carolingian art]]istic tradition to Normandy. In the final decade of the 11th and first of the 12th century, Normandy experienced a golden age of illustrated manuscripts, but it was brief and the major scriptoria of Normandy ceased to function after the midpoint of the century.
[[File:Lion, Norman Italy 2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A bronze lion sculpture attributed to an [[Italo-Norman]] artist. Now in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]]]
The [[French Wars of Religion]] in the 16th century and the [[French Revolution]] in the 18th successively destroyed much of what existed in the way of the architectural and artistic remnant of this Norman creativity. The former, with their violence, caused the wanton destruction of many Norman edifices; the latter, with its assault on religion, caused the purposeful destruction of religious objects of any type, and its destabilisation of society resulted in rampant pillaging.
By far the most famous work of Norman art is the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], which is not a [[tapestry]] but a work of [[embroidery]]. It was commissioned by [[Odo of Bayeux|Odo]], the [[Bishop of Bayeux]] and first [[Earl of Kent]], employing natives from [[Kent]] who were learned in the Nordic traditions imported in the previous half century by the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish]] [[Vikings]].
In Britain, Norman art primarily survives as [[stonework]] or [[metalwork]], such as [[capital (column)|capitals]] and [[baptismal font]]s. In southern Italy, however, Norman artwork survives plentifully in forms strongly influenced by its [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Lombards|Lombard]], and [[Arab]] forebears. Of the royal regalia preserved in [[Palermo]], the crown is [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] and [[Byzantine]] in style and the coronation cloak is of Arab craftsmanship with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] inscriptions. Many churches preserve sculptured fonts, capitals, and more importantly mosaics, which were common in Norman Italy and drew heavily on the Greek heritage. Lombard Salerno was a centre of [[ivory]]work in the 11th century and this continued under Norman domination.
===Music===
[[File:David on harp.jpg|thumb|An illuminated manuscript from [[Saint-Evroul]] depicting [[King David]] on the lyre (or harp) in the middle of the back of the initial 'B']]
Normandy was the site of several important developments in the history of [[classical music]] in the 11th century. [[Fécamp Abbey]] and [[Saint-Evroul Abbey]] were centres of musical production and education. At Fécamp, under two Italian abbots, [[William of Volpiano]] and John of Ravenna, the system of denoting notes by letters was developed and taught. It is still the most common form of pitch representation in English- and German-speaking countries today. Also at Fécamp, the [[Staff (music)|staff]], around which [[neume]]s were oriented, was first developed and taught in the 11th century. Under the German abbot [[Isembard of La Trinité-du-Mont|Isembard]], [[La Trinité-du-Mont]] became a centre of musical composition.
At Saint Evroul, a tradition of singing had developed and the choir achieved fame in Normandy. Under the Norman abbot [[Robert de Grantmesnil]], several monks of Saint-Evroul fled to southern Italy, where they were patronised by Robert Guiscard and established a Latin monastery at [[Lamezia Terme#Sant'Eufemia Lamezia|Sant'Eufemia Lamezia]]. There they continued the tradition of singing.
==Rulers==
* [[Duke of Normandy#List of dukes of Normandy (911–1204)|List of dukes of Normandy]]
* [[Count of Apulia|List of counts and dukes of Apulia and Calabria]]
* [[List of counts of Aversa]]
* [[List of princes of Capua]]
* [[List of dukes of Gaeta]]
* [[Principality of Taranto#Hauteville (Altavilla) dynasty|List of princes of Taranto]]
* [[Principality of Antioch#Princes of Antioch, 1098–1268|List of princes of Antioch]]
* [[Officers of the Principality of Antioch|List of officers of the Principality of Antioch]]
* [[Lusignan dynasty#Second House of Lusignan|Second House of Lusignan]]
* [[List of English monarchs#House of Normandy (1066–1135)|List of English monarchs]]
* [[List of Scottish monarchs]]
* [[List of Sicilian monarchs]]
==See also==
{{Portal|France}}
* [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]]
* [[Bailiwick of Jersey]]
* [[Channel Islands]]
* [[Cotentin Peninsula]]
* [[House of Normandy]]
* [[Norman language]]
* [[Norsemen]]
* [[Rus' people]]
* [[Charter to the Normans]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
===Primary===
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* {{Citation|first=Lucas|last=Villegas-Aristizábal | chapter = The Changing Priorities in the Norman Incursions into the Iberian Peninsula's Muslim–Christian Frontiers, 1018–1191 | title = Normans in the Mediterranean|series=Medieval Identities: Socio-Cultural Spaces |pages=81–119|date=May 2021|volume=9 | doi = 10.1484/M.MISCS-EB.5.121958 |isbn=978-2-503-59057-8 |s2cid=236690847 | author-mask = 3}}
* {{Citation | last=Vranousi | first=Era A. | title="Κομισκόρτης ο έξ Αρβάνων": Σχόλια εις Χωρίον της Άννης Κομνηνής (Δ' 8,4) |year=1962 | ___location=Ioannina | publisher=Εταιρείας Ηπειρωτικών Μελετών | language=el }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |first= David |last= Bates |year= 2013 |title= The Normans and Empire |___location= Oxford, UK |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 9780199674411}}
* {{Cite book |last= Hicks |first= Leonie V. |year= 2016 |title= A Short History of the Normans |___location= London |publisher= I. B. Tauris |isbn= 9781780762128}}
* {{cite book |last= Roach |first= Levi |year= 2022 |title= Empires of the Normans: Conquerors of Europe |___location= Cambridge, UK |publisher= Pegasus Books |type= Hardcover |isbn= 9781639361878}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last= Rowley |editor-first= Trevor |year= 1999 |title= The Normans |___location= Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK |publisher= Tempus Publishing |isbn= 9780752414348}}
==External links==
{{NIE Poster|year=1905|Normans}}
* {{Citation |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/normans/ | first = John | last = Hudson | title = Normans | publisher = [[BBC]]}}.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.the-orb.net/orb_done/dudo/dudindex.html | author = Dudo of St. Quentin | title = Gesta Normannorum | publisher = The orb}}, English translation.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.storiaonline.org/normanni/breve.htm | title = Breve Chronicon Northmannicum | language = la | publisher = Storia online}}.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/edu/resources/pdf/normans.pdf | title = The Normans | publisher = Jersey heritage trust | url-status = dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326114613/http://www.jerseyheritagetrust.org/edu/resources/pdf/normans.pdf | archive-date = 26 March 2009 | df = dmy-all }}.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.mondostoria.it/normanni.html | title = The Normans in Italy | language = it | publisher = MondoStoria | access-date = 14 May 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170901093055/http://www.mondostoria.it/normanni.html | archive-date = 1 September 2017 | url-status = dead }}.
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Normans |volume=19 |pages=751–756 |short=1 |first=Edward Augustus |last=Freeman}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Normans| ]]
[[Category:Romance peoples]]
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