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{{Short description|Core group of ancient Hebrew scriptures}}
{{Redirect|Tanak}}
{{About|the Jewish text||Old Testament|and|Bible translations into Hebrew|and|Hebrew Bible (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox religious text
| name = Hebrew Bible
| subheader = {{lang|he|תָּנָ״ךְ}} {{tlit|he|Tanakh}}
| religion = {{hlist|[[Judaism]] | [[Christianity]]}}
| image = Entire Tanakh scroll set.png
| image_size = 259px
| language = {{hlist|[[Biblical Hebrew]] | [[Biblical Aramaic]]}}
| books = 24
| chapters =
| alt =
| caption = Complete set of scrolls, constituting the Tanakh
| period = 8th/7th centuries BCE – 2nd/1st centuries BCE
|native_wikisource = מקרא
|orig_lang_code = he
}}
{{Tanakh OT}}
The '''Hebrew Bible''' or '''Tanakh'''{{efn|Also spelled '''Tanach''' and '''Tenakh'''.}} ({{IPAc-en|t|ɑː|ˈ|n|ɑː|x}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanach "Tanach"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304134849/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/tanach |date=2016-03-04 }}. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{langx|he|תַּנַ״ךְ|tanaḵ}}; {{langx|he|תָּנָ״ךְ|tānāḵ|label=none}}; or {{langx|he|תְּנַ״ךְ|tənaḵ|label=none}}), also known in Hebrew as '''{{tlit|he|Miqra}}''' ({{IPAc-en|m|iː|ˈ|k|r|ɑː}}; {{langx|he|מִקְרָא|miqrāʾ|label=none}}), is the [[Biblical canon|canonical collection]] of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] scriptures, comprising the [[Torah]] (the five Books of Moses), the [[Nevi'im]] (the Books of the Prophets), and the [[Ketuvim]] ('Writings', eleven books). Different branches of [[Judaism]] and [[Samaritanism]] have maintained different versions of the canon, including the 3rd-century BCE [[Septuagint]] text used in [[Second Temple Judaism]], the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Peshitta]], the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and most recently the 10th-century medieval [[Masoretic Text]] compiled by the [[Masoretes]], currently used in [[Rabbinic Judaism]].<ref name= Tov2014>{{cite book |author-last=Tov |author-first=Emanuel |author-link=Emanuel Tov |year=2014 |chapter=The Myth of the Stabilization of the Text of Hebrew Scripture |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YPgxBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |editor1-last=Martín-Contreras |editor1-first=Elvira |editor2-last=Miralles Maciá |editor2-first=Lorena |title=The Text of the Hebrew Bible: From the Rabbis to the Masoretes |___location=[[Göttingen]] |publisher=[[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] |series=Journal of Ancient Judaism: Supplements |volume=103 |pages=37–46 |doi=10.13109/9783666550645.37 |isbn=978-3-525-55064-9 |access-date=2023-02-16 |archive-date=2023-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215183958/https://books.google.com/books?id=YPgxBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}</ref> The terms "Hebrew Bible" or "Hebrew Canon" are frequently confused with the Masoretic Text; however, the Masoretic Text is a medieval version and one of several texts considered authoritative by different types of [[Jewish history|Judaism throughout history]].<ref name= Tov2014/> The current edition of the Masoretic Text is mostly in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with a few passages in [[Biblical Aramaic]] (in the books of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], and the verse [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] [[Jeremiah 10#Verse 11|10:11]]).<ref>{{Bibleverse|Jeremiah|10:11|HE}}</ref>
The authoritative form of the modern Hebrew Bible used in [[Rabbinic Judaism]] is the Masoretic Text (7th to 10th centuries CE), which consists of 24 books, divided into chapters and ''[[Chapters and verses of the Bible#Passukim|pesuqim]]'' (verses). The [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Hebrew Bible developed]] during the [[Second Temple Period]], as the Jews decided which religious texts were of divine origin; the Masoretic Text, compiled by the [[Masoretes|Jewish scribes and scholars]] of the [[Early Middle Ages]], comprises the 24 [[Biblical Hebrew|Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]] books that they considered authoritative.<ref name= Tov2014/> The [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] Greek-speaking [[Jews of Alexandria]] produced a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible called "the [[Septuagint]]", that included books later identified as the [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]], while the [[Samaritans]] produced their own edition of the Torah, the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]]. According to the Dutch–Israeli biblical scholar and linguist [[Emanuel Tov]], professor of Bible Studies at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], both of these ancient editions of the Hebrew Bible differ significantly from the medieval Masoretic Text.<ref name= Tov2014/>
In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern biblical scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of sources.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jta.org/2014/05/13/news-opinion/united-states/scholars-seek-hebrew-bibles-original-text-but-was-there-one. |title=Scholars seek Hebrew Bible's original text – but was there one? |author-last1=Weiss|author-first1=Anthony|website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |access-date=25 September 2015 |date=2014-05-13 |archive-date=2016-11-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105223020/http://www.jta.org/2014/05/13/news-opinion/united-states/scholars-seek-hebrew-bibles-original-text-but-was-there-one. |url-status=live }}</ref> These include the Septuagint, the [[Syriac language]] [[Peshitta]] translation, the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] collection, the [[Targum Onkelos]], and quotations from [[Rabbinic literature|rabbinic manuscripts]]. These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it.<ref>{{cite web |author-last1=Weiss|author-first1=Anthony|date=14 May 2014|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/controversy-lurks-as-scholars-suss-out-original-biblical-text/#ixzz31uFPqDC8 |title=Controversy lurks as scholars try to work out Bible's original text |website=The Times of Israel |access-date=25 September 2015 |archive-date=25 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925151526/http://www.timesofisrael.com/controversy-lurks-as-scholars-suss-out-original-biblical-text/#ixzz31uFPqDC8 |url-status=live }}</ref> These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, an [[Urtext (biblical studies)|Urtext]] of the Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today.<ref>Isaac Leo Seeligmann, Robert Hanhart, Hermann Spieckermann: ''The Septuagint Version of Isaiah and Cognate Studies'', Tübingen 2004, pp. 33–34.</ref> However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is debated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shanks|first1=Herschel|title=Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls|url=https://archive.org/details/understandingdea00shan|url-access=registration|year= 1992|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0679414483|page=[https://archive.org/details/understandingdea00shan/page/336 336]|edition= 1st}}</ref>
There are many similarities between the Hebrew Bible and the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Old Testament includes the same books as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged in different orders. The [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] churches include the [[Deuterocanonical books]], which are not included in certain versions of the Hebrew Bible.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Andersen |first=Alex |date=Spring 2019 |title=Reconsidering the Roman Catholic Apocrypha |url=https://firescholars.seu.edu/ccplus/3 |url-status=live |journal=Classical Conversations |___location=[[Lakeland, Florida]] |publisher=[[Southeastern University (Florida)|Southeastern University]] |volume=3 |pages=1–47 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216070312/https://firescholars.seu.edu/ccplus/3/ |archive-date=16 February 2023 |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref> In [[Islam]], the ''[[Torah in Islam|Tawrat]]'' ({{langx|ar|توراة}}) is often identified not only with the ''[[Pentateuch]]'' (the five books of [[Moses]]), but also with the other books of the Hebrew Bible.<ref>Isabel Lang ''Intertextualität als hermeneutischer Zugang zur Auslegung des Korans: Eine Betrachtung am Beispiel der Verwendung von Israiliyyat in der Rezeption der Davidserzählung in Sure 38: 21-25'' Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, 31.12.2015 {{ISBN|9783832541514}} p. 98 (German)</ref>
==
=== Tanakh ===
{{Judaism |texts |width=22.0em}}
{{Further|Hebrew abbreviations|Abjad}}
''Tanakh'' is an [[acronym]], made from the first [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew letter]] of each of the Masoretic Text's three traditional divisions: [[Torah]] (literally 'Instruction' or 'Law'),<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Torah|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/torah|access-date=21 February 2021|dictionary=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127015809/https://www.etymonline.com/word/torah|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Nevi'im]] (Prophets), and [[Ketuvim]] (Writings)—hence TaNaKh.
The three-part division reflected in the acronym {{tlit|he|Tanakh}} is well attested in the [[rabbinic literature]] dating from the medieval/Masoretic period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://people.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/MG.html|title=Mikra'ot Gedolot|website=people.ucalgary.ca|access-date=2022-09-09|archive-date=2022-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830130802/https://people.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/TalmudMap/MG.html|url-status=live}}</ref> During that period however, the term {{tlit|he|Tanakh}} was not used, rather the proper title was {{tlit|he|Mikra}} or {{tlit|he|Miqra}} ({{lang|he|מקרא}}), meaning 'reading' or 'that which is read', because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym {{tlit|he|Tanakh}} is first recorded in later Masoretic texts and commentary.<ref>It appears in the [[Masoretic Text|''masorah magna'']] of the Biblical text, and in the [[History of responsa in Judaism|responsa]] of the [[Shlomo ibn Aderet|Rashba]] (5:119); see [https://networks.h-net.org/node/28655/discussions/2030881/tanakh%D7%AA%D7%A0%D7%B4%D7%9A Research Query: Tanakh/תנ״ך] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718172906/https://networks.h-net.org/node/28655/discussions/2030881/tanakh%25D7%25AA%25D7%25A0%25D7%25B4%25D7%259A |date=2019-07-18 }}</ref> ''Mikra'' continues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spoken [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], they are interchangeable.<ref>Biblical Studies Mikra: Text, Translation, Reading, and Interpretation. Norton Irish Theological Quarterly. 2007; 72: 305–306</ref>
=== Hebrew Bible ===
{{Bible-related |CB}}
{{See also|Biblia Hebraica (disambiguation)}}
Many [[biblical studies]] scholars advocate use of the term ''Hebrew Bible'' (or ''Hebrew Scriptures'') as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g., ''Tanakh'' or ''[[Old Testament]]'').<ref>{{Cite news | url = https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/25/magazine/the-new-old-testament.html | title = The New Old Testament | first = William | last = Safire | newspaper = The New York Times | date = 1997-05-25 | access-date = 2019-12-06 | archive-date = 2019-12-06 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191206110054/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/25/magazine/the-new-old-testament.html | url-status = live }}.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html |title=From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible: Jews, Christians and the Word of God |first=Mark |last=Hamilton |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=2007-11-19 |quote=Modern scholars often use the term 'Hebrew Bible' to avoid the confessional terms Old Testament and Tanakh. |archive-date=2018-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614021417/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/scriptures.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Society of Biblical Literature]]'s ''Handbook of Style'', which is the standard for major academic journals like the ''[[Harvard Theological Review]]'' and conservative Protestant journals like the ''[[Bibliotheca Sacra]]'' and the ''[[Westminster Theological Journal]]'', suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either.<ref>{{cite book |title=The SBL Handbook of Style |publisher=Hendrickson |___location=Peabody, MA |year=1999 |editor1-first=Patrick H |editor1-last=Alexander |isbn=978-1-56563-487-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/sblhandbookofsty0000unse/page/17 17 (section 4.3)] |url=https://archive.org/details/sblhandbookofsty0000unse/page/17 |display-editors=etal }} See [https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/SBLHS2_FAQ.pdf ''Society of Biblical Literature'': Questions Regarding Digital Editions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304190407/https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/pubs/SBLHS2_FAQ.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>
"Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the [[Second Temple period|Second Temple era]] and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |title=Scanning an Ancient Biblical Text That Humans Fear to Open |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/05/science/biblical-codes-morgan-library.html |date=January 5, 2018 |access-date=June 14, 2019 |archive-date=July 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190706070231/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/05/science/biblical-codes-morgan-library.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The Hebrew Bible includes small portions in [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]] (mostly in the books of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]), written and printed in [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic square-script]], which was adopted as the [[Hebrew alphabet]] after the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian exile]].
== Content ==
==
The Tanakh includes a variety of genres, including narratives of events set in the past. The [[Torah]] ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] and [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]) contains legal material. The Book of [[Psalms]] is a collection of hymns, but songs are included elsewhere in the Tanakh, such as Exodus 15, 1 Samuel 2, and Jonah 2. Books such as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are examples of [[wisdom literature]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Barton | first = John | author-link = John Barton (theologian) | chapter = Introduction to the Old Testament | year = 2001 | title = The Oxford Bible Commentary | editor-last1 = Barton | editor-first1 = John | editor-last2 = Muddiman | editor-first2 = John | pages = 8–9 | publisher = Oxford University Press | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ef1QEAAAQBAJ | isbn= 9780198755005 | doi = 10.1093/acref/9780198755005.001.0001}}</ref>
Other books are examples of [[prophecy]]. In the prophetic books, a prophet denounces evil or predicts what God will do in the future. A prophet might also describe and interpret visions. The Book of Daniel is the only book in the Tanakh usually described as [[apocalyptic literature]]. However, other books or parts of books have been called proto-apocalyptic, such as Isaiah 24–27, Joel, and Zechariah 9–14.{{Sfn|Barton|2001|p=9}}
A central theme throughout the Tanakh is [[monotheism]], worshiping one [[God in Judaism|God]]. The Tanakh was created by the [[Israelites]], a people who lived within the cultural and religious context of the [[ancient Near East]]. The [[religions of the ancient Near East]] were [[polytheistic]], but the Israelites rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism. Biblical scholar [[Christine Hayes]] writes that the Hebrew Bible was "the record of [the Israelites'] religious and cultural revolution".<ref>{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKbkXYHxvlAC |title=Introduction to the Bible |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780300188271 |page=3 |author-link=Christine Hayes}}</ref>
According to biblical scholar [[John Barton (theologian)|John Barton]], "[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] is consistently presented throughout the [Hebrew Scriptures] as the God who created the world, and as the only God with whom Israel is to be concerned".{{Sfn|Barton|2001|p=9}} This special relationship between God and Israel is described in terms of [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]]. As part of the covenant, God gives his people the [[Promised Land]] as an eternal possession. The God of the covenant is also a God of [[Redemption (theology)#Judaism|redemption]]. God liberates his people from Egypt and continually intervenes to save them from their enemies.{{Sfn|Barton|2001|pp=9–10}}
The Tanakh imposes [[Ethics in the Bible|ethical requirements]], including social justice and ritual purity {{Crossreference|(see [[Tumah and taharah]])}}. The Tanakh forbids the exploitation of widows, orphans, and other vulnerable groups. In addition, the Tanakh condemns murder, theft, bribery, corruption, deceitful trading, adultery, incest, bestiality, and homosexual acts. Another theme of the Tanakh is [[theodicy]], showing that God is just even though evil and suffering are present in the world.{{Sfn|Barton|2001|p=10}}
=== Narrative ===
The Tanakh begins with the [[Genesis creation narrative]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Collins |first=John J. |title=Introduction to the Hebrew Bible |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-5064-4598-4 |edition=3rd |place=Minneapolis, US |page=13 |author-link=John J. Collins}}</ref> Genesis 12–50 traces Israelite origins to the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]: [[Abraham]], his son [[Isaac]], and grandson [[Jacob]]. God promises Abraham and his descendants blessing and land. The covenant God makes with Abraham is signified by [[Brit milah|male circumcision]]. The children of Jacob become the ancestors of the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|twelve tribes of Israel]]. Jacob's son [[Joseph (Genesis)|Joseph]] is sold into slavery by his brothers, but he becomes a powerful man in Egypt. During a famine, Jacob and his family settle in Egypt.<ref>{{cite book |last=Carr |first=David M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p08lEAAAQBAJ |title=The Hebrew Bible: A Contemporary Introduction to the Christian Old Testament and the Jewish Tanakh |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2021 |isbn=9781119636670 |edition=2nd |pages=52–53 |author-link=David M. Carr}}</ref>
Jacob's descendants lived in Egypt for 430 years. After [[the Exodus]], the Israelites wander in the wilderness for 40 years.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=13}} God gives the Israelites the [[Law of Moses]] to guide their behavior. The law includes rules for both religious ritual and ethics {{Crossreference|(see [[Ethics in the Bible]])}}. This moral code requires justice and care for the poor, widows, and orphans. The biblical story affirms God's unconditional love for his people, but he still punishes them when they fail to live by the covenant.<ref>{{cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjudaism0000good_z2n1 |title=A History of Judaism |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-846-14155-3 |page=38 |author-link=Martin Goodman (historian) |url-access=registration}}</ref>
God leads Israel into the [[Promised Land]] of [[Canaan]],{{Sfn|Goodman|2017|p=38}} which they conquer after five years. For the next 470 years, the Israelites were led by [[Hebrew Bible judges|judges]].{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=13}} In time, a new enemy emerged called the [[Philistines]]. They continued to trouble Israel when the prophet [[Samuel]] was judge (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1). When Samuel grew old, the people requested that he choose a king because Samuel's sons were corrupt and they wanted to be like other nations ([[1 Samuel 8]]). The Tanakh presents this negatively as a rejection of God's kingship; nevertheless, God permits it, and [[Saul]] of the [[tribe of Benjamin]] is [[anointed]] king. This inaugurates the united monarchy of the [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Kingdom of Israel]].{{Sfn|Carr|2021|p=62}}
An officer in Saul's army named [[David]] achieves great militarily success. Saul tries to kill him out of jealousy, but David successfully escapes (1 Samuel 16–29). After Saul dies fighting the Philistines ([[1 Samuel 31]]; [[2 Chronicles 10]]), the kingdom is divided between his son [[Ish-bosheth|Eshbaal]] and David (David ruled his [[tribe of Judah]] and Eshbaal ruled the rest). After Eshbaal's assassination, David was anointed king over all of Israel ([[2 Samuel]] 2–5).{{Sfn|Carr|2021|p=63}}
David captures the [[Jebusites|Jebusite]] city of [[Jerusalem]] ([[2 Samuel 5]]:6–7) and makes it his capital. Jerusalem's ___location between Judah in the southern hills and the northern Israelite tribes made it an ideal ___location from which to rule over all the tribes. He further increased Jerusalem's importance by bringing the [[Ark of the Covenant]] there from [[Shiloh (biblical city)|Shiloh]] ([[2 Samuel 6]]).{{Sfn|Carr|2021|p=60}} David's son [[Solomon]] built the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]] in Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=13}}
After Solomon's death, the united kingdom split into the [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|northern Kingdom of Israel]] (also known as the Kingdom of Samaria) with its capital at [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]] and the southern [[Kingdom of Judah]] with its capital at Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Goodman|2017|p=23}} The Kingdom of Samaria survived for 200 years until it was conquered by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] in 722 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah survived for longer, but it was conquered by the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Babylonians]] in 586 BCE. The Temple was destroyed, and many Judeans were [[Babylonian captivity|exiled to Babylon]]. In 539 BCE, Babylon was conquered by [[Cyrus the Great in the Bible|Cyrus the Great]] of Persia, who allowed the exiles to [[Return to Zion|return to Judah]]. Between 520 and 515 BCE, the Temple was rebuilt {{Crossreference|(see [[Second Temple]])}}.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|pp=13–14}}
==
=== Traditional attribution ===
Religious tradition ascribes [[Mosaic authorship|authorship of the Torah to Moses]]. In later Biblical texts, such as Daniel 9:11 and Ezra 3:2, it is referred to as the "[[Law of Moses|Torah (Law) of Moses]]".<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Schmid | first1 = Konrad | author-link1 = Konrad Schmid (theologian) | last2 = Schröter | first2 = Jens | title = The Making of the Bible: From the First Fragments to Sacred Scripture | publisher = Harvard University Press | translator-last = Lewis | translator-first = Peter | year = 2021 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=0AlBEAAAQBAJ | isbn = 9780674269392 | page = 44}}</ref> However, the Torah itself credits Moses with writing only some specific sections.{{efn|See Exodus 17:14, 24:4, 34:28; Numbers 33:2; and Deuteronomy 31:9, 31:22.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=43}}}} According to scholars{{who|date=November 2024}}, Moses would have lived in the [[2nd millennium BC|2nd millennium BCE]], but this was before the development of Hebrew writing{{citation needed|date=March 2025}}. The Torah is dated to the [[1st millennium BCE]] after Israel and Judah had already developed as states. Nevertheless, "it is highly likely that extensive oral transmission of proverbs, stories, and songs took place during this period", and these may have been included in the Hebrew Bible.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=44}} Elements of Genesis 12–50, which describes the [[patriarchal age]], and the Book of Exodus may reflect [[oral tradition]]s. In these stories, Israelite ancestors such as Jacob and Moses use [[Trickster|trickery]] and deception to survive and thrive.{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=51 & 56}}
King [[David]] ({{circa|1000 BCE}}) is credited as the author of at least 73 of the Biblical [[Psalms]]. His son, [[Solomon]], is identified as the author of [[Book of Proverbs]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Song of Songs|Song of Solomon]]. The Hebrew Bible describes their reigns as a [[Golden Age|golden age]] when Israel flourished both culturally and militarily. However, there is no archeological evidence for this, and it is most likely a "retrospective extrapolation" of conditions under King [[Jeroboam II]] ({{reign|781|742}} BCE).{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=44–45}}
=== Before the exile ===
{{Further|Tradition history}}
Modern scholars{{who|date=November 2024}} believe that the ancient Israelites mostly originated from within Canaan. Their material culture was closely related to their Canaanite neighbors, and Hebrew was a [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite dialect]]. Archaeological evidence indicates Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in the [[Geography of Israel#Central hills|hill country of modern-day Israel]] {{circa|1250|1000 BCE}}. During crises, these tribes formed temporary alliances. The [[Book of Judges]], written {{circa|600 BCE|lk=no}} (around 500 years after the events it describes), portrays Israel as a grouping of decentralized tribes, and the [[Deborah#The Song of Deborah|Song of Deborah]] in Judges 5 may reflect older oral traditions. It features archaic elements of Hebrew and a [[Twelve Tribes of Israel#Scholarly examination|tribal list]] that identifies Israel exclusively with the northern tribes.{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=37–38, 45, 42–49 & 54}}
By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, the [[Scribe#Judaism|scribal]] culture of Samaria and Judah was sufficiently developed to produce biblical texts.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=66}} The Kingdom of Samaria was more powerful and culturally advanced than the Kingdom of Judah. It also featured multiple cultic sites, including the sanctuaries at [[Bethel]] and [[Dan (ancient city)|Dan]].{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|pp=71 & 73}}
Scholars estimate that the Jacob tradition (Genesis 25–35) was first written down in the 8th century BCE and probably originated in the north because the stories occur there. Based on the prominence given to the sanctuary at Bethel (Genesis 28), these stories were likely preserved and written down at that religious center. This means the Jacob cycle must be older than the time of King [[Josiah]] of Judah ({{reign|640|609 BCE}}), who pushed for the centralization of worship at Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|pp=73–74}}
The story of Moses and the [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] appears to also originate in the north. It existed as a self-contained story in its oral and earliest written forms, but it was connected to the patriarchal stories during the exile or post-exile periods. The account of Moses's birth ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus 2]]) shows similarities to the birth of [[Sargon of Akkad]], which suggests [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] influence sometime after 722 BCE. While the Moses story is set in Egypt, it is used to tell both an anti-Assyrian and anti-imperial message, all while appropriating Assyrian story patterns.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|pp=76–79}} [[David M. Carr]] notes the possibility of an early oral tradition for the Exodus story: "To be sure, there may have been a 'Moses group,' themselves of Canaanite extraction, who experienced slavery and liberation from Egypt, but most scholars believe that such a group—if it existed—was only a small minority in early Israel, even though their story came to be claimed by all."{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=45 & 54}}
Scholars believe [[Psalm 45]] could have northern origins since it refers to a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of the [[Omrides]].{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=79}} Some psalms may have originated from the shrine in the northern city of Dan. These are the [[Sons of Korah (Bible)|Sons of Korah]] psalms, [[Psalm 29]], and [[Psalm 68]]. The city of Dan probably became an Israelite city during the reign of King [[Jeroboam II]] (781–742{{nbsp}}BCE). Before then, it belonged to [[Aram (region)|Aram]], and [[Psalm 20]] is nearly identical to an [[Aramaic]] psalm found in the 4th century BCE [[Papyrus Amherst 63]].{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=74–75}}
The author of the [[Books of Kings]] likely lived in Jerusalem.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}} The text shows a clear bias favoring Judah, where God's worship was centralized in Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Samaria is portrayed as a godless breakaway region whose rulers refuse to worship at Jerusalem.{{Sfn|Schmid|Schröter|2021|p=71}}
===Fixing the canon===
{{Main|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon}}
The books that make up the Hebrew Bible were composed and edited in stages over several hundred years. According to biblical scholar [[John J. Collins]], "It now seems clear that all the Hebrew Bible received its final shape in the postexilic, or [[Second Temple period|Second Temple]], period."{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=15}}
Traditionally, [[Moses]] was considered the author of the Torah, and this part of the Tanakh achieved authoritative or canonical status first, possibly as early as the 5th century BCE. This is suggested by [[Ezra 7]]:6, which describes [[Ezra]] as "a scribe skilled in the law (''torah'') of Moses that the Lord the God of Israel had given".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Coogan |first1=Michael D. |title=The Old Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to the Hebrew Scriptures |last2=Chapman |first2=Cynthia R. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0190608651 |edition=4th |pages=4–5 |author-link1=Michael Coogan}}</ref>
The Nevi'im had gained canonical status by the 2nd century BCE. There are references to the "Law and the Prophets" in the [[Book of Sirach]], the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and the [[New Testament]]. The Book of Daniel, written {{circa|164 BCE}}, was not grouped with the Prophets presumably because the Nevi'im collection was already fixed by this time.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=5}}
The Ketuvim was the last part of the Tanakh to achieve canonical status. The prologue to the Book of Sirach mentions "other writings" along with the Law and Prophets but does not specify the content. The [[Gospel of Luke]] refers to "the Law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms" ([[Luke 24]]:44). These references suggest that the content of the Ketuvim remained fluid until the canonization process was completed in the 2nd-century CE.{{Sfn|Coogan|Chapman|2018|p=5}}
There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by the [[Hasmonean dynasty]],<ref name="Davies662">{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Philip R. |title=The Canon Debate |publisher=Baker Academic |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-4412-4163-4 |editor1-last=McDonald |editor1-first=Lee Martin |page=PT66 |chapter=The Jewish Scriptural Canon in Cultural Perspective |quote=With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty. |editor2-last=Sanders |editor2-first=James A. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT66}}</ref> while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.<ref name="Neusner2">McDonald & Sanders, ''The Canon Debate'', 2002, p. 5, cited are Neusner's ''Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine'', pp. 128–145, and ''Midrash in Context: Exegesis in Formative Judaism'', pp. 1–22.</ref> The speculated late-1st-century [[Council of Jamnia]] was once credited with fixing the Hebrew canon, but modern scholars believe there was no such authoritative council of rabbis. Between 70 and 100 CE, rabbis debated whether certain books "make the hands unclean" (meaning the books are holy and should be considered scripture), and references to fixed numbers of canonical books appear.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=5}} There were several criteria for inclusion. Books had to be older than the 4th century BCE or attributed to an author who had lived before that period. The original language had to be Hebrew, and books had to be widely used. Many books considered scripture by certain Jewish communities were excluded during this time.{{Sfn|Coogan|Chapman|2018|pp=5 & 7}}
[[File:Texts of the OT.svg|thumb|right|350px|The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible (some identified by their siglum). Mt being the Masoretic text. The lowermost text "(lost)" would be the [[Urtext (Biblical studies)|Urtext]].]]
There are various [[textual variants in the Hebrew Bible]] resulting from centuries of hand-copying. [[Sofer|Scribes]] introduced thousands of minor changes to the biblical texts. Sometimes, these changes were by accident. At other times, scribes intentionally added clarifications or theological material. In the Middle Ages, Jewish scribes produced the Masoretic Text, which became the authoritative version of the Tanakh.{{Sfn|Carr|2021|pp=6–7}} [[Biblical Hebrew|Ancient Hebrew]] was written without vowels, but the Masoretes added vowel markings to the text to ensure accuracy.{{Sfn|Collins|2018|pp=7–8}}
Rabbi and Talmudic scholar [[Louis Ginzberg]] wrote in ''[[Legends of the Jews]]'', published in 1909, that the twenty-four book canon was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in the [[Second Temple period]].<ref>[[Louis Ginzberg|Ginzberg, Louis]] (1909). ''[[Legends of the Jews|The Legends of the Jews]] [http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends%20of%20the%20Jews.pdf Vol. IV : Chapter XI Ezra] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313050820/http://www.swartzentrover.com/cotor/e-books/misc/Legends/Legends |date=2020-03-13 }}'' (Translated by [[Henrietta Szold]]) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=January 2024}} According to the [[Talmud]], much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of the [[Great Assembly]] (''Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah''), a task completed in 450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since.<ref>(Bava Batra 14b–15a, Rashi to Megillah 3a, 14a)</ref> The 24-book canon is mentioned in the [[Ecclesiastes Rabbah|Midrash Koheleth]] 12:12: ''Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion''.<ref>[[Ecclesiastes Rabbah|Midrash Qoheleth]] 12:12</ref>
==Language and pronunciation==
The original [[writing system]] of the Hebrew text was an [[abjad]]: [[consonant]]s written with some applied vowel letters (''"[[Mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]"''). During the early [[Middle Ages]], scholars known as the Masoretes created a single formalized system of [[niqqud|vocalization]]. This was chiefly done by [[Aaron ben Moses ben Asher]], in the [[Tiberias]] school, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the name [[Tiberian vocalization]]. It also included some innovations of [[Ben Naphtali]] and the [[Babylonian captivity#Exilic literature and post-exilic revisions of the Torah/Pentateuch|Babylonian exiles]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gh6OHYcIZgkC&pg=PA20 |page=20 |title=The Masorah of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia: Introduction and Annotated Glossary |isbn=978-0802843630 |last1=Kelley |first1=Page H. |last2=Mynatt |first2=Daniel S. |last3=Crawford |first3=Timothy G. |date=1998 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans }}</ref> Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation and [[Hebrew cantillation|cantillation]] to derive from [[Mount Sinai (Bible)|the revelation at Sinai]], since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dissertationconc00gill |title=A Dissertation Concerning the Antiquity of the Hebrew Language: Letters, Vowel-points, and Accents |author=John Gill |author-link=John Gill (theologian) |publisher=G. Keith |date=1767 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dissertationconc00gill/page/136 136]–137}} also [https://archive.org/details/dissertationconc00gill/page/250 pp. 250–255]</ref> The combination of a text ({{lang|he|מקרא|rtl=yes}} ''mikra''), pronunciation ({{lang|he|ניקוד|rtl=yes}} ''niqqud'') and cantillation ({{lang|he|טעמים|rtl=yes}} ''te`amim'') enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text.
===Number of different words used===
The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 are [[Hapax legomenon|hapax legomena]],<ref name=Revivalistics>{{cite book|author=Zuckermann, Ghil'ad|author-link=Ghil'ad Zuckermann|title=Revivalistics: From the Genesis of Israeli to Language Reclamation in Australia and Beyond|publisher=Oxford University Press|___location=New York|year=2020|isbn=978-0199812790|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/revivalistics-9780199812790?lang=en&cc=us|access-date=2020-04-30|archive-date=2020-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505121004/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/revivalistics-9780199812790?lang=en&cc=us|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|112}} words or expressions that occur only once. The number of distinct [[Semitic root]]s, on which many of these biblical words are based, is roughly 2000.<ref name=Revivalistics />{{rp|112}}
==Books==
The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel and 2 Samuel]], [[Books of Kings|1 Kings and 2 Kings]], [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles and 2 Chronicles]], and [[Ezra–Nehemiah]]. The [[Twelve Minor Prophets]] ({{lang|he|תרי עשר|rtl=yes}}) are also counted as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by their [[Incipit|prominent first words]].
===Torah===
{{Main|Torah}}
The Torah ({{lang|he|תּוֹרָה}}, literally "teaching") is also known as the "Pentateuch", or as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often called {{lang|he-Latn|Chamisha Chumshei Torah}} ({{lang|he|חמישה חומשי תורה|rtl=yes}} "Five fifth-sections of the Torah") and informally as {{lang|he-Latn|[[Chumash (Judaism)|Chumash]]}}.
* {{lang|he-Latn|Bərē’šīṯ}} ({{lang|he|בְּרֵאשִׁית|rtl=yes}}, literally "In the beginning") – [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Šəmōṯ}} ({{lang|he|שְׁמֹות|rtl=yes}}, literally "The names of") – [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Vayyīqrā’}} ({{lang|he|וַיִּקְרָא|rtl=yes}}, literally "And He called") – [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Bəmīḏbar}} ({{lang|he|בְּמִדְבַּר|rtl=yes}}, literally "In the desert of") – [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Dəvārīm}} ({{lang|he|דְּבָרִים|rtl=yes}}, literally "Things" or "Words") – [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
===Nevi'im===
{{Main|Nevi'im}}
''Nevi'im'' ({{lang|he|נְבִיאִים|rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|Nəḇīʾīm}}, "Prophets") is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and [[Ketuvim]]. This division includes the books which cover the time from the entrance of the Israelites into the [[Land of Israel]] until the [[Babylonian captivity]] of Judah (the ''"period of prophecy"''). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.{{clarify|date=August 2024}}
The [[Nevi'im#Former Prophets ⋅|Former Prophets]] ({{lang|he|נביאים ראשונים |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|Nevi'im Rishonim}}):
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yəhōšúaʿ}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יְהוֹשֻעַ}}) – [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Šōfṭīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|שֹׁפְטִים}}) – [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Šəmūʾēl}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|שְׁמוּאֵל}}) – [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Məlāḵīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מְלָכִים}}) – [[Books of Kings|Kings]]
The [[Nevi'im#Latter Prophets|Latter Prophets]] ({{lang|he|נביאים אחרונים |rtl=yes}} {{lang|he-Latn|Nevi'im Aharonim}}):
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yəšaʿyāhū}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יְשַׁעְיָהוּ}}) – [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yīrməyāhū}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יִרְמְיָהוּ}}) – [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yəḥezqēʾl}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יְחֶזְקֵאל}}) – [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
The [[Twelve Minor Prophets]] ({{lang|he|תרי עשר|rtl=yes}}, {{lang|he-Latn|Trei Asar}}, "The Twelve"), which are considered one book:
* {{lang|he-Latn|Hōšēaʿ}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|הוֹשֵׁעַ}}) – [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yōʾēl}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יוֹאֵל}}) – [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|ʿĀmōs}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|עָמוֹס}}) – [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|ʿŌḇaḏyā}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|עֹבַדְיָה}}) – [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Yōnā}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|יוֹנָה}}) – [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Mīḵā}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מִיכָה}}) – [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Naḥūm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|נַחוּם}}) – [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Ḥăḇaqqūq}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|חֲבַקּוּק}}) – [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Ṣəfanyā}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|צְפַנְיָה}}) – [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Ḥaggay}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|חַגַּי}}) – [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Zəḵaryā}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|זְכַרְיָה}}) – [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Malʾāḵī}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מַלְאָכִי}}) – [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
===Ketuvim===
{{Main|Ketuvim}}
{{lang|he-Latn|Kəṯūḇīm}} ({{lang|he|כְּתוּבִים|rtl=yes}}, "Writings") consists of eleven books.
====Poetic books====
{{Further|Ketuvim#Sifrei Emet}}
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel [[wikt:stich#English|stichs]] in the verses, which are a function of their [[Biblical poetry|poetry]]. Collectively, these three books are known as {{lang|he-Latn|Sifrei Emet}} (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, {{lang|he|rtl=yes|איוב, משלי, תהלים}} yields {{lang|he-Latn|Emet}} {{lang|he|rtl=yes|אמ"ת}}, which is also the Hebrew for "[[truth]]").
These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of [[Hebrew cantillation|cantillation]] notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.
* {{lang|he-Latn|Təhīllīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|תְהִלִּים}}) – [[Psalms]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Mīšlē}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|מִשְׁלֵי}}) – [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|’Īyyōḇ}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|אִיּוֹב}}) – [[Book of Job|Job]]
====Five scrolls====
{{Further|Five Megillot}}
The five relatively short books of the [[Song of Songs]], [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]], [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]], [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Book of Esther|Esther]] are collectively known as the {{lang|he-Latn|Ḥamesh Megillot}} (Five Megillot).
In many Jewish communities, these books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parentheses.
* {{lang|he-Latn|Šīr hašŠīrīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|שִׁיר הַשִּׁירִים}}) – [[Song of Songs]], also known as Song of Solomon (on [[Passover]])
* {{lang|he-Latn|Rūṯ}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|רוּת}}) – [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] (on [[Shavuot]])
* {{lang|he-Latn|’Ēḵā}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|אֵיכָה}}) – [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] (on [[Tisha B'Av]])
* {{lang|he-Latn|Qōheleṯ}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|קֹהֶלֶת}}) – [[Ecclesiastes]] (on [[Sukkot]])
* {{lang|he-Latn|’Esṯēr}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|אֶסְתֵר}}) – [[Book of Esther|Esther]] (on [[Purim]])
====Other books====
Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], [[Ezra–Nehemiah]] and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics: their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion); the Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them; two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions in [[Biblical Aramaic|Aramaic]].
* {{lang|he-Latn|Dānīyyē’l}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|דָּנִיֵּאל}}) – [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|‘Ezrā’}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|עֶזְרָא}}) – [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
* {{lang|he-Latn|Dīvrē hayYāmīm}} ({{lang|he|rtl=yes|דִּבְרֵי הַיָּמִים}}) – [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]
====Book order====
The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The [[Talmud]] gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.<ref name=bb14>[[Babylonian Talmud]], [[Bava Batra]] [https://www.sefaria.org/Bava_Batra.14b.11 14b]</ref> This order is roughly chronological (assuming traditional authorship).
In [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]] Masoretic [[codices]] (including the [[Aleppo Codex]] and the [[Leningrad Codex]]), and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Swete|first = Henry Barclay |author-link = Henry Barclay Swete |title=An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek |publisher = Macmillan and Co. |place = Cambridge |year = 1902 |url = https://archive.org/details/anintrotooldtes00swetuoft/page/200/mode/1up?view=theater | page = 200}}</ref> This order is more thematic (e.g. the ''megillot'' are listed together).
===Number of books===
{{See also|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon}}
The Hebrew Bible is generally considered to consist of 24 books, but this number is somewhat arbitrary, as (for example) it regards 12 separate books of minor prophets as a single book.<ref name=niehoff>Darshan, G. [https://www.academia.edu/7021817/The_Twenty-Four_Books_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_and_Alexandrian_Scribal_Methods_in_M.R._Niehoff_ed._Homer_and_the_Bible_in_the_Eyes_of_Ancient_Interpreters_Between_Literary_and_Religious_Concerns_JSRC_16_Leiden_Brill_2012_pp._221_244 "The Twenty-Four Books of the Hebrew Bible and Alexandrian Scribal Methods,"], in: M.R. Niehoff (ed.), ''Homer and the Bible in the Eyes of Ancient Interpreters: Between Literary and Religious Concerns'' (JSRC 16), Leiden: Brill 2012, pp. 221–44</ref> The traditional rabbinic count of 24 books appears in the [[Talmud]]<ref name=bb14/> and numerous works of [[midrash]].<ref>[[Exodus Rabbah]] 41:5; [[Numbers Rabbah]] 13:15, 14:4, 14:18, 15:22, 18:21; [[Song of Songs Rabbah]] 4:11; [[Ecclesiastes Rabbah]] 12:11, 12:12; [[Tanhuma]] Ki Tisa 16:2, Korach 12:1, Vayelech 1:1; [[Pesikta Rabbati]] 3:1; [[Lekach Tov]], Genesis 49:8; [[Minor tractate|Kallah Rabbati]] 10:14, etc.</ref> In several early nonrabbinic sources, the number of books given is 22.<ref>[[Josephus]], [[Against Apion]], 1:8; also [[2 Esdras]] 12:45, [[Origen]]</ref> This number corresponds to the letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]; according to [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] there were 27 books, corresponding to the alphabet with final letter forms (''sofiot'').
The count of 24 was said to be equal to the number of [[priestly divisions]].<ref>[https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/tanach/shelanu/shelanu.htm התנ"ך שלנו]</ref> According to a modern source, the number of books may be related to the division of the [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] into 24 books, corresponding to the letters of the Greek alphabet. Both the Bible and Homer formed "foundational literature" of their respective cultures, studied by children and considered distillations of the society's values. The division of the Bible into 22 books may be a conversion of the Greek system to the Hebrew alphabet, while the division into 24 may be an adoption of the "perfect" number 24 as befitting the Bible's stature in Jewish eyes.<ref name=niehoff/>
==Nach<!--'Nach (Bible acronym)' redirects here-->==
'''Nach'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, also anglicized '''{{visible anchor|Nakh}}'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, refers to the [[Nevi'im]] and [[Ketuvim]] portions of Tanakh.<ref name=Tiferet>{{cite web
|website=[[Yeshiva University]]
|url=https://www.yu.edu/israel-program/women-schools/Tiferet
|title=Guide to Israel Schools (Tiferet)
|quote=.. classes in Chumash, Nach, Practical Halacha, Tefilla, ...
|access-date=2020-06-19
|archive-date=2020-06-22
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622055010/https://www.yu.edu/israel-program/women-schools/Tiferet
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine
|magazine=[[Jewish Action]] (OU)
|url=https://jewishaction.com/religion/education/whos_afraid_of_change_rethinking_the_yeshivah_curriculum
|title=Who's Afraid of Change? Rethinking the Yeshivah Curriculum
|quote=know little Nach, are unexcited by the study of ..
|access-date=2020-06-19
|archive-date=2020-06-23
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623140147/https://jewishaction.com/religion/education/whos_afraid_of_change_rethinking_the_yeshivah_curriculum/
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Nach is often referred to as its own subject,<ref name="NachTeacher" /> [[The Living Torah and Nach|separate from Torah]].<ref>{{cite book |isbn=978-1885-22007-3
|title=The Living Nach
|author=Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]|year=1995
|publisher=Moznaim Publishing Corporation
}}</ref>
It is a major subject in the curriculum of Orthodox high schools for girls and in the seminaries which they subsequently attend,<ref name="Tiferet" /> and is often taught by different teachers than those who teach Chumash.<ref name="NachTeacher">{{cite web
|url=https://www.jcot.org/tova-warburg-sinensky-our-new-yoetzet-halakha.html
|title=Tova .. our new ..
|quote=Tova joined the .. faculty this fall as a Nach teacher .. High School for Girls.
|access-date=2020-06-19
|archive-date=2020-06-21
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621201944/https://www.jcot.org/tova-warburg-sinensky-our-new-yoetzet-halakha.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> The curriculum of Orthodox high schools for boys includes only some portions of Nach, such as the book of Joshua, the book of Judges,<ref>covered in or before 8th grade (so it is a review)</ref> and the Five Megillot.<ref>''Esther, Rus, Shir HaShirim, ''
Eicha'' and ''KoHeles'': these are read aloud in synagogue, each at a particular point in the yearly Holiday cycle.''</ref>
See {{slink|Yeshiva#Torah and Bible study}}.
==Translations==
{{Further|Jewish English Bible translations|Septuagint|Targum|Old Testament|Bible translations}}
* ''[[Jewish Publication Society of America Version|The Holy Scriptures According to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation with the aid of Previous Versions & with the Constant Consultation of Jewish Authorities]]'' was published in 1917 by the Jewish Publication Society. It was replaced by their ''Tanakh'' in 1985
* ''[[New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh|Tanakh]]'', Jewish Publication Society, 1985, {{ISBN|0-8276-0252-9}}
* ''Tanach: The Stone Edition'', Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996, {{ISBN|0-89906-269-5}}, named after benefactor [[Irving I. Stone]].
* ''[[Tanakh Ram]]'', an ongoing translation to Modern Hebrew (2010–) by Avraham Ahuvya (RAM Publishing House Ltd. and Miskal Ltd.)
* [[The Living Torah and Nach|''The Living Torah'' and ''The Living Nach'']], a 1981 translation of the Torah by Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]] and a subsequent posthumous translation of the Nevi'im and Ketuvim following the model of the first volume
* ''[[Jewish English Bible translations#The Koren Jerusalem Bible|The Koren Jerusalem Bible]]'' is a Hebrew/English Tanakh by [[Koren Publishers Jerusalem]] and was the first Bible published in modern Israel in 1962
==Jewish commentaries==
{{Main|Jewish commentaries on the Bible}}
[[File:Tanach.jpg|thumb|Hebrew bible (Tanakh) in the collection of the [[Jewish Museum of Switzerland]], printed in [[Israel]] in 1962]]
The major commentary used for the Chumash is the [[Rashi]] commentary. The Rashi commentary and [[David Altschuler|Metzudot]] commentary are the major commentaries for the Nach.<ref>{{cite book|title=Mishlei|publisher=Shai LaMora "Eshkol"}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NACH – Shai LaMorah – All Volumes|url=https://www.monseyjudaica.com/product/nach-shai-lamorah-2|quote=Description. Nach metzudos on ...|access-date=2020-06-19|archive-date=2020-06-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625095442/https://www.monseyjudaica.com/product/nach-shai-lamorah-2/|url-status=live}}</ref>
There are two major approaches to the study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is a religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible is divinely inspired.<ref name="JewishBible.NYT2007Ortho">{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/us/15beliefs.html
|title=Irreconcilable Differences in Bible's Interpretations
|quote=of divine origin
|author=Peter Steinfels
|date=September 15, 2007
|access-date=June 21, 2020
|archive-date=February 1, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201152736/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/us/15beliefs.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation.<ref name="JewishBible.NYT2002Con">{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/09/books/new-torah-for-modern-minds.html
|quote=human rather than divine document
|title=New Torah For Modern Minds
|author=Michael Massing
|date=March 9, 2002
|access-date=June 21, 2020
|archive-date=March 27, 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327132240/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/09/books/new-torah-for-modern-minds.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies. The latter practice, when applied to the Torah, is considered heresy<ref name="JewishBible.NYT2007unset">{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/16/books/review/Plotz-t.html
|title=Reading Is Believing, or Not
|quote=Modern scholars have also unmoored ... Most unsettling to religious Jews
|author=David Plotz
|date=September 16, 2007
|access-date=June 21, 2020
|archive-date=June 25, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200625061246/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/16/books/review/Plotz-t.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> by the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] community.<ref name="JewishBible.NYT1984">{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/30/magazine/american-jews-rediscover-orthodoxy.html
|title=American Jews Rediscover Orthodoxy
|quote=watered-down Judaism soon turns to water
|author=Natalie Gittelson
|date=September 30, 1984
|access-date=June 21, 2020
|archive-date=May 1, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200501071143/https://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/30/magazine/american-jews-rediscover-orthodoxy.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbidden<ref name="JewishBible.NYT1982Potok">{{cite news
|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/03/magazine/the-bibles-inspired-art.html
|title=The Bible's Inspired Art
|quote=Song of Songs ... was entirely profane .. could not have been written by Solomon
|author=Chaim Potok
|author-link=Chaim Potok
|date=October 3, 1982
|access-date=June 22, 2020
|archive-date=June 23, 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623085742/https://www.nytimes.com/1982/10/03/magazine/the-bibles-inspired-art.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> by rabbis teaching in Orthodox [[yeshiva]]s. Some classical rabbinic commentators, such as [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], [[Gersonides]], and [[Maimonides]], used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their knowledge of history, science, and [[philology]]. Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered acceptable by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}}
The [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox Jewish]] community allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the
academic world,<ref>{{cite news
|newspaper=Jewish Link NJ
|url=https://www.jewishlinknj.com/features/22780-rabbi-hayyim-angel-s-13th-book-is-compilation-of-tanach-related-topics
|title=Rabbi Hayyim Angel's 13th Book Is Compilation of Tanach-Related Topics
|author=Mitchell First
|date=January 11, 2018
|access-date=June 21, 2020
|archive-date=April 8, 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408153745/https://jewishlink.news/features/22780-rabbi-hayyim-angel-s-13th-book-is-compilation-of-tanach-related-topics
|url-status=live
}}</ref> e.g. the [[Da'at Miqra]] series. Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. "[[Jewish commentaries on the Bible]]", discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from the [[Targums]] to classical [[rabbinic literature]], the [[midrash]] literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern-day commentaries.
== Influence on Jewish identity ==
Multiple scholars have noted the importance of the Hebrew Bible in developing the [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] and [[national identity]] of the Jewish people in antiquity. [[Fergus Millar]] wrote that the Bible, serving as "both a national history and a source of law," was one of several key sources that helped establishing a sense of national identity among ancient Jews.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |date=1987 |title=Empire, Community and Culture in the Roman near East: Greeks, Syrians, Jews and Arabs |url=https://doi.org/10.18647/1337/JJS-1987 |journal=Journal of Jewish Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=147–148|doi=10.18647/1337/JJS-1987 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> David Goodblatt argued that the Bible and related literature served as a key foundation for Jewish nationalism during the [[Second Temple period]], underpinning the collective belief in shared descent, history, and cultural unity. The Bible provided a "national history" that traced the lineage of the Jewish people through the patriarchal narratives and tribal genealogies, establishing a shared ancestral framework that connected contemporary Jews to their historical forebears and consolidated a sense of shared descent.<ref name="Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism-2006">{{Citation |title=Constructing Jewish Nationalism: The Role of Scripture |date=2006 |work=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism |pages=29–30 |editor-last=Goodblatt |editor-first=David |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/elements-of-ancient-jewish-nationalism/constructing-jewish-nationalism-the-role-of-scripture/9D600C19BF6BA343287CE63CDF2A5C8E |access-date=2024-10-08 |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511499067.003 |isbn=978-0-521-86202-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Moreover, biblical laws, such as [[Brit milah|male circumcision]], [[Shabbat|Shabbat observance]], and dietary prohibitions, became defining cultural markers of Jewish identity, distinguishing Jewish communities from surrounding populations.<ref name="Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism-2006" /> The Bible also played a key role in preserving Hebrew, which, unlike [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and [[Edomite language|Edomite]], survived even as Aramaic replaced other regional languages. The translation of biblical texts into Greek and Aramaic allowed Jewish culture to be expressed across linguistic boundaries, enabling a translingual Jewish identity while maintaining its cultural coherence.<ref name="Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism-2006" />
Several scholars argue that key sections of the Hebrew Bible were deliberately composed during specific historical periods to construct and consolidate a distinct Israelite national consciousness. E. Theodore Mullen, a key proponent of this idea, argued in his first monograph that the "[[Deuteronomist|Deuteronomistic History]]"— including Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings—was composed during the [[Babylonian captivity]] to reinforce a threatened Judean identity. In another work, he focused on the Tetrateuch—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers—arguing that these books were compiled during the Persian era to forge a unified ethnic identity. This material, when combined with Deuteronomy, formed the Pentateuch, and its inclusion in the Deuteronomistic History created what [[David Noel Freedman]] termed the "primary history."<ref name="Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism-2006" />
According to [[Adrian Hastings]], the study of sacred texts, including the Hebrew Bible, was a foundational element that allowed the Jews—whom he describes as the "true proto-nation"—to preserve their national identity during the two millennia following the loss of their political entity in the first century CE. This enduring connection to their heritage enabled Jews to be perceived as a nation rather than merely an ethnic group, ultimately paving the way for the rise of [[Zionism]] and the eventual establishment of the State of Israel.<ref name="Hastings-1997">{{Cite book |last=Hastings |first=Adrian |title=The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-59391-3 |___location=Cambridge |pages=186–187}}</ref>
== Influence on Christianity ==
{{Main|Development of the Christian Biblical canon}}
[[Christianity]] has long asserted a close relationship between the Hebrew Bible and [[New Testament]].<ref name="McGrath">McGrath, Alister, ''Christian Theology'', Oxford: Blackwell, 2011, pp. 120, 123. {{ISBN|978-1444335149}}.</ref> In [[Protestant Bible]]s, the [[Old Testament]] is the same as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged differently. [[Catholic Bible]]s and [[Eastern Orthodoxy#Bible|Eastern Orthodox Bibles]], as well as those in the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] churches, contain books not included in certain versions of the Hebrew Bible, called [[Deuterocanonical books]].{{Sfn|Collins|2018|p=2–5}} Protestant English Bibles originally included the Deuterocanonical books, which Protestants now include among the [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]]. These books were removed when a slimmed-down [[King James Version]] was mass-produced by free [[Bible societies]] out of cost considerations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daniell |first=David |title=The Bible in English: its history and influence |date=2003 |publisher=Yale university press |isbn=978-0-300-09930-0 |___location=New Haven (Conn.)}}</ref>
The ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible currently used by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches are based on the Septuagint, which was considered the authoritative scriptural canon by the [[History of Christianity|early Christians]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Tov |author-first=Emanuel |title=Hebrew Bible, Greek Bible, and Quran |publisher=[[Mohr Siebeck]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-3-16-151454-8 |___location=[[Tübingen]] |doi=10.1628/978-3-16-151454-8}}</ref> The Septuagint was influential on early Christianity as it was the [[Koine Greek|Hellenistic Greek]] translation of the Hebrew Bible primarily used by the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st-century]] [[Early Christian writers|Christian authors]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=MacCulloch |author-first=Diarmaid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC |title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-101-18999-3 |pages=66–69 |author-link=Diarmaid MacCulloch |access-date=2023-03-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408153758/https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC |archive-date=2023-04-08 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Adrian Hastings]] contended that the model of ancient Israel presented in the Hebrew Bible established the original concept of nationhood, which subsequently influenced the development of nation-states in the Christian world.<ref name="Hastings-1997" />
==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism}}
* [[613 commandments]], formal list of Jewish 613 commandments
* [[929: Tanakh B'yachad]]
* [[Hebrew University Bible Project]]
* [[Mikraot Gedolot]]
* [[New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh]]
* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
* [[Shem Tov Bible]]
* [[Weekly Torah portion]]
==References==
;Footnotes
{{Notelist}}
;Sources
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book | first=Paul | last=Johnson | author-link=Paul Johnson (writer) | year=1987 | title=A History of the Jews | edition=First, hardback | publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson | ___location=London | isbn=978-0-297-79091-4}}
* Kuntz, John Kenneth. ''The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought'', Harper and Row, 1974. {{ISBN|0-06-043822-3}}.
* Leiman, Sid. ''The Canonization of Hebrew Scripture'' (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1976).
* Levenson, Jon. ''Sinai and Zion: An Entry into the Jewish Bible'' (San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1985).
* {{cite web|last=Minkoff |first=Harvey |title=Searching for the Better Text |url=http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp |website=Biblical Archaeology Review (online) |access-date=9 June 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314095848/http://www.bib-arch.org/e-features/searching-for-better-text.asp |archive-date=14 March 2012 }}
* [[Martin Noth|Noth, Martin]]. ''A History of Pentateuchal Traditions'' (1948; trans. by Bernhard Anderson; Atlanta: Scholars, 1981).
* Schmid, Konrad. ''The Old Testament: A Literary History'' (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2012).
==External links
{{Wikisource|Tanakh}}
{{Wikisourcelang|he|מקרא|Tanakh (Hebrew source)}}
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/63255/jewish/The-Bible-with-Rashi.htm Judaica Press Translation of Tanakh with Rashi's commentary] Free online translation of Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary
* [[Mikraot Gedolot]] (Rabbinic Bible) at [[:s:|Wikisource]] in [[:s:Mikraot Gedolot|English]] [[:wikisource:Mikraot Gedolot/Genesis/1:1|(sample)]] and [[:s:he:מקראות גדולות|Hebrew]] [[:s:he:מ"ג נחמיה ח ח|(sample)]]
* [https://sites.google.com/site/kadish67/nakh-en A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim] – Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than the [[Chapters and verses of the Bible|chapter divisions]]). The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English, by Seth (Avi) Kadish.
* [http://tanakh.info/ Tanakh Hebrew Bible Project]—An online project that aims to present critical text of the Hebrew Bible with important ancient versions (Samaritan Pentateuch, Masoretic Text, Targum Onkelos, Samaritan Targum, Septuagint, Peshitta, Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus, Theodotion, Vetus Latina, and Vulgate) in parallel with new English translation for each version, plus a comprehensive critical apparatus and a textual commentary for every verse.
* [https://hebrewbible.app/ Hebrew Bible Study App]—An interactive mobile and web application designed to facilitate a detailed study of the Hebrew Bible. It offers features such as customizable reading plans, in-depth articles, and community discussions, enhancing both understanding and engagement with the scriptures.
{{The Bible}}
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{{Books of the Bible}}
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[[Category:Hebrew Bible
[[Category:Ancient Jewish literature]]
[[Category:Ancient Hebrew texts]]
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