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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Lebanese Civil War
| partof = the [[Cold War]] and [[Arab Cold War]]<br>[[Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab–Israeli]] ([[Israeli–Lebanese conflict|Israeli–Lebanese]], [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Israeli–Palestinian]], and [[Israeli–Syrian conflict|Israeli–Syrian]]) conflicts<br>[[Iran–Israel proxy conflict|Iran–Israel]], [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|Iran–Saudi]], [[Iran–Iraq War|Iran–Iraq]] and [[Assadist–Saddamist conflict|Iraq–Syria]] proxy wars
| image = {{multiple image|total_width=300px|perrow=1/2/2/1|border=infobox
| image1 = Martyrs Square 1982.jpg
| image2 =
| image3 = USS New Jersey firing in Beirut, 1984.jpg
| image4 = Beirutbarr.jpg
| image5 =
| image6 = FatehMilitia.jpg
}}
| image_size = 300px
| caption = '''Left-to-right from top:'''<br />Monument at [[Martyrs' Square, Beirut|Martyrs' Square]] in the city of [[Beirut]]; the [[USS New Jersey (BB-62)|USS ''New Jersey'']] firing a salvo off of the Lebanese coast; smoke seen rising from the ruins of the American barracks in Beirut shortly after the [[1983 Beirut barracks bombings|1983 bombing]]; a Palestinian rally for [[Fatah]] in Beirut
| date = 13 April 1975 – 13 October 1990{{#tag:ref|The last battle took place from [[Battle of Sidon (1991)|2–6 July 1991]] between the Lebanese government and the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] due to the latter's refusal to accept the [[Taif Agreement]].|group="Note"}}<br/>({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=04|day1=13|year1=1975|month2=10|day2=13|year2=1990}})
| place = Lebanon
| width =
| result = * [[Taif Agreement]]
** Christian-to-Muslim representation in [[Parliament of Lebanon]] adjusted from ratio of 55:45 to 50:50<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-r.org/downloads/Accord24_TheTaifAgreement.pdf|title=The Taif Agreement|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417041235/http://www.c-r.org/downloads/Accord24_TheTaifAgreement.pdf|archive-date=17 April 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
** Political powers of Muslim-reserved position of [[Prime Minister of Lebanon|Prime Minister]] strengthened over Christian-reserved position of [[President of Lebanon|President]]
** Disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias, excluding Iran-backed [[Hezbollah]]<ref>Ranstorp, Magnus, ''Hizb'allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis'', New York, St. Martins Press, 1997, p. 105</ref>
* Continued hostilities between Lebanon and the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), and PLO expulsion to [[Tunis]], [[Tunisia]] in [[1982 Lebanon War|1982]].
** Expulsion of Palestinian militias from Lebanon after the [[Battle of Sidon (1991)|Battle of Sidon]] in 1991
* Collapse of the Israel-backed [[State of Free Lebanon]] in 1984 and of Israel's [[South Lebanon security belt administration]] in 2000
** Continued fighting between Israel and Hezbollah in the [[2000–2006 Shebaa Farms conflict|Shebaa Farms conflict]], eventually leading to the [[2006 Lebanon War]]
* Dominance of [[Hezbollah armed strength]] across Lebanon since 1990
| territory = *[[Syrian occupation of Lebanon|Syria occupies northern/eastern Lebanon]] until 30 April 2005
* [[Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon|Israel occupies southern Lebanon]] until 25 May 2000
| combatant1 = {{Collapsible list
|title={{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Front.svg|border}} [[Lebanese Front]]
|1={{flagicon image|Flag of Kataeb Party.svg|size=22px}} [[Kataeb Party]]
|2=[[File:Ahrar flag.gif|23px|border]] [[National Liberal Party (Lebanon)|National Liberal Party]] (until 1980)
|3={{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Forces.svg|size=22px}} [[Lebanese Forces (militia)|Lebanese Forces]]
|4={{flagicon image|Marada-flag.png}} [[Zgharta Liberation Army|Marada Brigade]] (until 1978)<br/>[[File:Flagofgocparty.gif|22px|border]] [[Guardians of the Cedars]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Al-Tanzim.svg|22px|border]] [[Al-Tanzim]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Youth Movement.svg}} [[Lebanese Youth Movement (MKG)]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Tyous Team of Commandos.svg}} [[Tyous Team of Commandos]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of Lebanon.svg}} [[Zahliote Group]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Shuraya Party.svg}} [[Shuraya Party]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of Druze (version).svg}} [[Vanguard of the Maani Army (Movement of the Druze Jihad)|Vanguard of the Maani Army (MDJ)]]<br/>(Other minor organizations)}}<br/>{{flagicon image|Lebanesearmyfirstflag.png}} [[Army of Free Lebanon]] (until 1977)<br/>{{flagicon image|Lebanesearmyfirstflag.png}} [[South Lebanon Army]] (from 1976)<br/>{{flag|Israel}} (from 1978)
| combatant2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Lebanon (1943-1990).svg}} [[Lebanese National Movement]] (1975–1982)<br/>{{flagicon image|Lebanese National Resistance Front.jpg}}{{Collapsible list|
title=[[Lebanese National Resistance Front|Jammoul]] (1982–1990)
|{{flagicon image|Flag of Mourabitoun.svg}} [[Al-Mourabitoun]]|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Progressive Socialist Party.svg}} [[Progressive Socialist Party]] (PSP)|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Communist Party.svg}} [[Lebanese Communist Party]] (LCP)|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party.svg}} [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon]] (SSNP)|[[File:OACLsymbol.PNG|22px|border]] [[Communist Action Organization in Lebanon]] (OCAL)|{{flagdeco|Palestine}} [[Lebanese Movement in Support of Fatah]] (LMSF)|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ba'ath Party.svg}} [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region]]|{{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[Revolutionary Communist Group (Lebanon)|Revolutionary Communist Group]]|{{flagdeco|Palestine}} [[Sixth of February Movement]]|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ba'ath Party.svg}} [[Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party]] (SALVP)<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Popular Nasserist Organization.svg|22px}} [[Popular Nasserist Organization]] (PNO)<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Toilers League (Lebanon).svg}} [[Toilers League]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Lebanesearmyfirstflag.png}} [[Lebanese Arab Army]] (LAA)<br/>Other minor organizations
}}
{{flagdeco|PLO}} [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] (1975–1983)<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of ASALA.png}} [[Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia|ASALA]]
----
{{flagicon image|InfoboxHez.PNG}} [[Hezbollah]] (1985–1990)<br />
{{flag|Iran}}
(from 1980, mainly [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps|IRGC]] and [[Islamic Republic of Iran Army|Army]] paramilitary units)
----
{{Flagicon image|Tawheed flag.webp}} [[Islamic Unification Movement]] (from 1982)
| combatant3 = {{flagdeco|Syria|1980}} [[Ba'athist Syria|Syria]] (1976, 1983–1991)<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Amal Movement.svg}} [[Amal Movement]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of Palestine.svg}} [[Palestinian National Salvation Front|PNSF]]<br>{{flagicon image|Marada-flag.png}} [[Zgharta Liberation Army|Marada Brigade]] (left LF in 1978; aligned with Syria)<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Forces.svg}} [[Lebanese Forces – Executive Command]]
| combatant4 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Lebanon (1943-1990).svg}} [[Lebanese Armed Forces]]
----
{{flagdeco|United Nations}} [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|UNIFIL]] (from 1978)<br/>[[Multinational Force in Lebanon]] (1982–1984)
* {{flag|United States}}
* {{flag|UK}}
* {{flag|France}}
* {{flag|Italy|1946}}
----
{{flagdeco|Arab League}} [[Arab Deterrent Force]] (1976–1982)<ref name="Mays">Mays, Terry M. Historical Dictionary of Multinational Peacekeeping. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 1996, pp. 9–10</ref>
{{Collapsible list
|title=
|1={{flag|Saudi Arabia|size=22px}}<br/>(1976–1979)
|2={{flag|Sudan|size=22px}}<br/>(1976–1979)
|3={{flag|UAE|size=22px}}<br/>(1976–1979)
|4={{flagicon image|Flag of Libya (1972–1977).svg}} [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi#Libyan Arab Republic (1969–1977)|Libya]]<br/>(1976 only)
|5={{flag|South Yemen|size=22px}}<br/>(1976–1977)}}
| commander1 = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Kataeb Party.svg}} [[Bachir Gemayel]]{{KIA}}<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of Kataeb Party.svg}} [[Amine Gemayel]]<br/>{{Flagicon image|Flag of Kataeb Party.svg}} [[William Hawi]]{{KIA}}<br>[[File:Ahrar flag.gif|23px|border]] [[Dany Chamoun]]{{KIA}}<br/> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Forces.svg}} [[Elie Hobeika]] (until 1986)<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Forces.svg}} [[Samir Geagea]]<br/>[[File:Flagofgocparty.gif|22px|border]] [[Etienne Saqr]]<br/>[[File:Flag of Al-Tanzim.svg|22px|border]] [[Georges Adwan]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Lebanesearmyfirstflag.png}} [[Saad Haddad]] [[Death by natural causes|#]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Lebanesearmyfirstflag.png}} [[Antoine Lahad]]<br/>{{flagdeco|Israel}} [[Menachem Begin]]<br/>{{flagdeco|Israel}} [[Ariel Sharon]]<br/>{{flagdeco|Israel}} [[Rafael Eitan]]<br/>{{flagdeco|Israel}} [[Avigdor Ben-Gal]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Progressive Socialist Party.svg}} [[Kamal Jumblatt]]{{KIA}}<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Progressive Socialist Party.svg}} [[Walid Jumblatt]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party.svg}} Inaam Raad<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party.svg}} Abdallah Saadeh<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ba'ath Party.svg}} [[Assem Qanso]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Communist Party.svg}} [[George Hawi]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Communist Party.svg}} [[Elias Atallah]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} Muhsin Ibrahim<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of Mourabitoun.svg}} [[Ibrahim Kulaylat]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Single_Color_Flag_-_0434B1.svg}} [[Ali Eid]]<br/>{{flagdeco|PLO}} [[Yasser Arafat]]<br/>{{flagdeco|PLO}} [[George Habash]]<br/>{{flagdeco|PLO}} [[Nayef Hawatmeh]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of ASALA.png}} [[Hagop Hagopian (militant)|Hagop Hagopian]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Flag of ASALA.png}} [[Monte Melkonian]]
----
{{flagicon image|InfoboxHez.PNG}} [[Subhi al-Tufayli]]<br/>{{flagicon image|InfoboxHez.PNG}} [[Abbas al-Musawi]]
----
{{Flagicon image|Tawheed flag.webp}} Said Shaaban
| commander3 = {{flagdeco|Syria|1980}} [[Hafez al-Assad]]<br/>{{flagdeco|Syria|1980}} [[Mustafa Tlass]]<br/>{{flagdeco|Syria|1980}} [[Hikmat al-Shihabi]]<br>{{flagdeco|Syria|1980}} [[Ali Aslan]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of the Amal Movement.svg}} [[Nabih Berri]]<br/>{{flagicon image|Marada-flag.png}} [[Tony Frangieh]]{{KIA}}<br/>{{flagicon image|Marada-flag.png}} Robert Frangieh<br/> {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lebanese Forces.svg}} [[Elie Hobeika]] (from 1986)
| commander4 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Lebanon (1943-1990).svg}} [[Michel Aoun]]
----
{{flagdeco |United Nations}} [[Emmanuel Erskine]]<br/>{{flagdeco |United Nations}} [[William O'Callaghan (Irish Army officer)|William O'Callaghan]]<br/>{{flagdeco|United Nations}} [[Gustav Hägglund]]<br/>{{flagdeco|United States}} Timothy J. Geraghty
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| strength3 = {{flagdeco|Syria|1980}} 25,000 troops (1976)<ref name="Mays"/>
| strength4 = {{flagdeco|Saudi Arabia|size=22px}} 1,200 troops<ref name="Mays"/><br/>{{flagdeco |Sudan|size=22px}} 1,000 troops<ref name="Mays"/><br/>{{flagdeco |UAE|size=22px}} 1,000 troops<ref name="Mays"/><br/>{{flagdeco |Libya|1972|size=22px}} 700 troops<ref name="Mays"/><br/>{{flagdeco |South Yemen|size=22px}} 700 troops<ref name="Mays"/>
| notes = {{center|120,000–150,000 people killed<ref>''World Political Almanac'', 3rd ed., Chris Cook.</ref>}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Lebanese Civil War}}
{{Campaignbox Lebanon}}
{{History of Lebanon}}
The '''Lebanese Civil War''' ({{langx|ar|الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية}} {{Transliteration|ar|Al-Ḥarb al-Ahliyyah al-Libnāniyyah}}) was a multifaceted armed conflict that took place from 1975 to 1990. It resulted in an estimated 150,000 fatalities<ref>UN Human Rights Council. 23 November 2006. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070115172923/http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/docs/specialsession/A.HRC.3.2.pdf IMPLEMENTATION OF GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 60/251 OF 15 MARCH 2006 ENTITLED HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL]." p.18.</ref> and led to the exodus of almost one million people from [[Lebanon]].<ref>[[Daniel Byman|Byman, Daniel]], and [[Kenneth Michael Pollack]]. ''Things Fall Apart: Containing the Spillover from an Iraqi Civil War''. p. 139</ref>
The religious diversity of the [[Lebanese people]] played a notable role in the lead-up to and during the conflict: [[Lebanese Christians]] and [[Lebanese Sunni Muslims]] comprised the majority in the coastal cities; [[Lebanese Shia Muslims]] were primarily based throughout [[southern Lebanon]] and in the [[Beqaa Valley]] in the east; and [[Lebanese Druze|Druze]] and Christians populated the country's mountainous areas. At the time, the Lebanese government was under the influence of elites within the [[Maronite Christian]] community.<ref>[[Marcia C. Inhorn|Inhorn, Marcia C.]], and Soraya Tremayne. 2012. ''Islam and Assisted Reproductive Technologies''. p. 238.</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6932786.stm|title= Who are the Maronites?|work=BBC News – Middle East|date=6 August 2007}}</ref> The link between politics and religion was reinforced under the [[Greater Lebanon|French Mandate]] from 1920 to 1943, and the country's parliamentary structure favoured a leading position for Lebanese Christians, who constituted the majority of the population. However, Lebanon's Muslims comprised a large minority and the influx of thousands of [[Palestinians in Lebanon|Palestinians]]—first [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight|in 1948]] and again [[1967 Palestinian exodus|in 1967]]—contributed to Lebanon's demographic shift towards an eventual Muslim majority. Lebanon's Christian-dominated government had been facing increasing opposition from Muslims, [[pan-Arabists]], and [[left-wing]] groups. The [[Cold War]] also exerted a disintegrative effect on the country, closely linked to the political polarization that preceded the [[1958 Lebanese crisis]]. Christians mostly sided with the [[Western world]] while Muslims, pan-Arabists, and leftists mostly sided with [[Soviet]]-aligned [[Arab countries]].<ref>"Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East." p. 62</ref>
Fighting between [[Lebanese Front|Lebanese Christian militias]] and [[Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon|Palestinian insurgents]], mainly from the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]], began in 1975 and generated an alliance between the Palestinians and Lebanese Muslims, pan-Arabists, and leftists.<ref>Halliday, 2005: 117</ref> The conflict deepened as foreign powers, mainly [[Syria]], [[Israel]], and [[Iran]], became involved and supported or fought alongside different factions. Over the course of the conflict, these alliances shifted rapidly and unpredictably. While much of the fighting took place between opposing religious and ideological factions, there was significant conflict within some faith communities, especially amongst both Christians and Shias. Peacekeeping forces, such as the [[Multinational Force in Lebanon]] and the [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon]], were stationed in Lebanon during this time.
In 1989, the [[Taif Agreement]] marked the beginning of the end for the fighting as a committee appointed by the [[Arab League]] began to formulate solutions to the conflict. In March 1991, the [[Parliament of Lebanon]] passed an amnesty law that pardoned all political crimes that had been perpetrated prior to the law's time of enactment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-r.org/sites/c-r.org/files/Accord24_ExMilitiaFighters.pdf|title=Ex-militia fighters in post-war Lebanon|access-date=23 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200854/http://www.c-r.org/sites/c-r.org/files/Accord24_ExMilitiaFighters.pdf|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> In May 1991, all of the armed factions that had been operating in Lebanon were dissolved, excluding [[Hezbollah]], an Iran-backed [[Islamist Shi'ism|Shia Islamist militia]]. Though the [[Lebanese Armed Forces]] slowly began to rebuild as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian armed institution after the conflict,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ghazi.de/civwar.html|title=Lebanon's History: Civil War|work=ghazi.de}}</ref> the federal government remained unable to challenge [[Hezbollah armed strength|Hezbollah's armed strength]]. Religious tensions, especially between [[Shias and Sunnis]], persisted across Lebanon since the formal end of the hostilities in 1990.<ref>Rolland, John C. 2003. ''Lebanon: Current Issues and Background''. p. 144. {{ISBN|978-1590338711}}.</ref>
==Background==
{{more citations needed section|date=October 2014}}
===Ottoman and European rule===
In 1860, a [[1860 conflict in Lebanon|civil war between Druze and Maronites]] erupted in the Ottoman [[Mutasarrifate]] of [[Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate|Mount Lebanon]]. The war resulted in the massacre of about 10,000 Christians and at least 6,000 Druzes.
[[File:LebaneseFighters.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Soldiers in [[Mount Lebanon]] during the [[mutasarrif]] period]]
[[World War I]] was hard for the Lebanese. Most of the [[Lebanese people#Arabization|Arabs]] fought in the Ottoman army against the British and French invaders.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Deringil |first=Selim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_qdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 |title=The Ottoman Twilight in the Arab Lands: Turkish Memoirs and Testimonies of the Great War |date=2019-06-03 |publisher=Academic Studies PRess |isbn=978-1-64469-090-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Provence |first=Michael |title=Arab Officers in the Ottoman Army |url=https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/arab_officers_in_the_ottoman_army |website=[[1914-1918-online|1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Uyar |first=Mesut |date=2013 |title=Ottoman Arab Officers between Nationalism and Loyalty during the First World War |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26098245 |journal=War in History |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=526–544 |doi=10.1177/0968344513494658 |jstor=26098245 |s2cid=144274670 |issn=0968-3445|url-access=subscription |hdl=1959.4/unsworks_43797 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fisk |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jp2mZr7BoGsC&pg=PT397 |title=The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East |date=2007-12-18 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-307-42871-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooke |first=Miriam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBu9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38 |title=Nazira Zeineddine: A Pioneer of Islamic Feminism |date=2012-12-01 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-78074-214-4 |language=en}}</ref>
With the [[defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922)]] the French invaders took control of the area under what they called the [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] under the [[League of Nations]]. The French created the state of [[Greater Lebanon]] as a safe haven for the Maronites, but included a large Muslim population within the borders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arab-american.net/Historical_Chronology_of_Lebanon.pdf |title=National Council of Arab Americans (NCA) |access-date=26 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319121339/http://www.arab-american.net/Historical_Chronology_of_Lebanon.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2009 }}</ref>
In 1926, Lebanon was declared a republic, and a constitution was adopted. However, the constitution was suspended in 1932. Various factions sought unity with Syria, or independence from the French.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arab-american.net/Historical_Chronology_of_Lebanon.pdf |title=National Council of Arab Americans (NCA) |access-date=26 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319121339/http://www.arab-american.net/Historical_Chronology_of_Lebanon.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2009 }}</ref> In 1936, the Maronite [[Kataeb Party|Phalange]] party was founded by [[Pierre Gemayel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Kataeb Party |url=https://www.lebanesekataeb.com/تاريخ-الحزب |access-date=2022-05-09 |website=Kataeb Party |language=ar}}</ref>
===Lebanese independence===
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2022}}
[[World War II]] and the 1940s brought great change to Lebanon and the Middle East. Lebanon was promised independence, which was achieved on 22 November 1943. [[Free French]] troops, who had invaded Lebanon in 1941 to rid Beirut of the [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] forces, left Lebanon in 1946. The Maronites assumed power over Lebanon and economy. A parliament was created in which both [[Islam in Lebanon|Muslims]] and [[Christianity in Lebanon|Christians]] each had a set quota of seats. Accordingly, the President was to be a Maronite, the Prime Minister a [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni]] Muslim and the Speaker of Parliament a [[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shia]] Muslim.
In 1947, the [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] led to [[1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war in Palestine]], the end of [[Mandatory Palestine]], and the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence]] on 14 May 1948. The ongoing civil war was transformed into a state conflict between Israel and the Arab states in the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. This led to [[Palestinians in Lebanon|Palestinian refugees]] crossing the border into Lebanon.
[[File:Foxhole - Lebanon - Beirut - July 1958.jpg|thumb|U.S. Marine sits in a foxhole outside Beirut during the [[1958 Lebanon crisis]].]]
In July 1958, Lebanon was [[1958 Lebanon crisis|threatened by a civil war]] between [[Maronite]] Christians and Muslims. President [[Camille Chamoun]] had attempted to break the stranglehold on Lebanese politics exercised by traditional political families in Lebanon. These families maintained their electoral appeal by cultivating strong client–patron relations with their local communities. Although he succeeded in sponsoring alternative political candidates to enter the elections in 1957, causing the traditional families to lose their positions, these families then embarked upon a war with Chamoun, referred to as the ''War of the Pashas''.
In 1956, tensions with Egypt escalated when the non-aligned President, Camille Chamoun, did not break off diplomatic relations with the Western powers that attacked Egypt during the [[Suez Crisis]], angering Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]. This was during the [[Cold War]] and Chamoun has often been called pro-Western, though he had signed several trade deals with the [[Soviet Union]] (see Gendzier). Nasser had attacked Chamoun because of his suspected support for the U.S. led [[Baghdad Pact]]. Nasser felt that the pro-western Baghdad Pact posed a threat to [[Arab nationalism]].
President Chamoun looked to regional pacts to ensure protection from foreign armies: Lebanon historically had a small cosmetic army that was never effective in defending Lebanon's territorial integrity, and this is why in later years the PLO guerrilla factions had found it easy to enter Lebanon and set up bases, as well as take over army barracks on the border with Israel as early as 1968. Early skirmishes saw the army lose control over its barracks to the PLO and lose many soldiers. Even prior to this, president Chamoun was aware of the country's vulnerability to outside forces.
His Lebanese pan-Arabist Sunni Muslim Prime Minister [[Rashid Karami]] supported Nasser in 1956 and 1958. Lebanese Muslims pushed the government to join the newly created [[United Arab Republic]], a country formed out of the unification of Syria and Egypt, while the majority of Lebanese and especially the Maronites wanted to keep Lebanon as an independent nation with its own independent parliament. President Camille Chamoun feared the toppling of his government and asked for U.S. intervention. At the time the United States was engaged in the [[Cold War]].
Chamoun asked for assistance proclaiming that [[Communist]]s were going to overthrow his government. Chamoun was responding not only to the revolt of former political bosses, but also to the fact that both Egypt and Syria had taken the opportunity to deploy proxies into the Lebanese conflict. Thus the [[Arab Nationalist Movement]] (ANM), led by [[George Habash]] and later to become the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) and a faction of the PLO, were deployed to Lebanon by Nasser.
The ANM were a clandestine militia implicated in attempted coups against both the Jordanian monarchy and the Iraqi president throughout the 1950s at Nasser's bidding. The founding members of [[Fatah]], including [[Yasser Arafat]] and [[Khalil Wazir]], also flew to Lebanon to use the insurrection as a means by which a war could be fomented toward Israel. They participated in the fighting by directing armed forces against the government security in the city of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]] according to [[Yezid Sayigh]]'s work.
In 1958, President Chamoun was unable to convince the Maronite army commander, [[Fuad Chehab]], to use the armed forces against Muslim demonstrators, fearing that getting involved in internal politics would split his small and weak multi-confessional force. The [[Kataeb Party|Phalange militia]] came to the president's aid instead to bring a final end to the road blockades which were crippling the major cities. Encouraged by its efforts during this conflict, later that year, principally through violence and the success of general strikes in Beirut, the Phalange achieved what journalists{{who|date=October 2014}} dubbed the "counterrevolution". By their actions the Phalangists brought down the government of Prime Minister Karami and secured for their leader, [[Pierre Gemayel]], a position in the four-man cabinet that was subsequently formed.
Estimates of the Phalange's membership by Yezid Sayigh and other academic sources put them at a few thousand. Non-academic sources tend to inflate the Phalanges membership. What should be kept in mind was that this insurrection was met with widespread disapproval by many Lebanese who wanted no part in the regional politics and many young men aided the Phalange in their suppression of the insurrection, especially as many of the demonstrators were little more than proxy forces hired by groups such as the ANM and Fatah founders as well as being hired by the defeated parliamentary bosses.
===Demographic tensions===
{{further|Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon}}
==== Palestinian insurgency in Lebanon ====
In the 1960s Lebanon was relatively calm, but this soon changed. Fatah and other Palestinian Liberation Organization factions had long been active among the 400,000 Palestinian refugees in Lebanese camps. Throughout the 1960s, the center for armed Palestinian activities had been in Jordan. They were forced to relocate after being evicted by [[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein]] during the 1970 [[Black September in Jordan]]. Fatah and other Palestinian groups attempted to mount a coup in Jordan by incentivizing a split in the [[Royal Jordanian Army|Jordanian army]], something that the ANM had attempted to do a decade earlier by Nasser's bidding. Jordan responded, and expelled the Palestinian forces into Lebanon. When they arrived, they created "a State within the State". This action was not welcomed by the Lebanese government, and this shook Lebanon's fragile sectarian balance.
Solidarity with the Palestinians was expressed by the Lebanese Sunni Muslims, with the aim to change the political system from one of consensus amongst different sects, towards one where their power share would increase. Certain groups in the Lebanese National Movement wished to bring about a more secular and democratic order, but as this group increasingly included Islamist groups, encouraged to join by the PLO, the more progressive demands of the initial agenda was dropped by January 1976. Islamists did not support a secular order in Lebanon and wished to bring about rule by Muslim clerics.
These events, especially the role of Fatah and the Tripoli Islamist movement known as Tawhid, in changing the agenda being pursued by many groups, including Communists. This ragtag coalition has often been referred to as left-wing, but many participants were actually very conservative and had religious elements that did not share any broader ideological agenda. Rather, they were brought together by the short-term goal of overthrowing the established political order, each motivated by their own grievances.
These forces enabled the PLO / Fatah to transform the Western Part of Beirut into its stronghold. Fatah constituted 80% of the membership of the PLO and Fatah guerrillas now controlled most of its institutions. The PLO had taken over the heart of Sidon and Tyre in the early 1970s. It controlled great swathes of south Lebanon, in which the indigenous Shiite population had to suffer the humiliation of passing through PLO checkpoints and now they had worked their way by force into Beirut.
The PLO did this with the assistance of so-called volunteers from Libya and Algeria shipped in through the ports it controlled, as well as a number of Sunni Lebanese groups who had been trained and armed by PLO/ Fatah and encouraged to declare themselves as separate militias. However, as Rex Brynen makes clear in his publication on the PLO, these militias were nothing more than "shop-fronts" or in Arabic "Dakakin" for Fatah, armed gangs with no ideological foundation and no organic reason for their existence, except the fact their individual members were put on the PLO/ Fatah payroll.
In February 1975, the strike by fishermen at Sidon could be considered the first important episode that set off the outbreak of hostilities. That event involved a specific issue: the attempt of former President Camille Chamoun, also the head of the Maronite-oriented National Liberal Party, to monopolize fishing along the coast of Lebanon. The injustices perceived by the fishermen evoked sympathy from many Lebanese, and reinforced the resentment and antipathy that were widely felt against the state and the economic monopolies. The demonstrations against the fishing company were quickly transformed into a political action supported by the political left and their allies in the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). The state tried to suppress the demonstrators, and a sniper reportedly killed a popular figure in the city, the former Mayor of [[Sidon]], [[Maarouf Saad]].
Many non-academic sources claim a government sniper killed Saad; however, there is no evidence to support such a claim, and it appears that whoever had killed him had intended that what began as a small and quiet demonstration to evolve into something more. The sniper targeted Saad right at the end of the demonstration as it was dissipating.
Farid Khazen, sourcing the local histories of Sidon academics and eyewitnesses, gives a run-down of the puzzling events of the day that based on their research. Khazen reveals, based on the Sidon academic's work, that Saad was not in dispute with the fishing consortium made up of Yugoslav nationals. The Yugoslavian representatives in Lebanon had negotiated with the fisherman's union to make the fishermen shareholders in the company. The company offered to modernize the fishermen's equipment, buy their catch, and give their union an annual subsidy.
Saad, as a union representative, and not the mayor of Sidon at the time as many erroneous sources claim, was offered a place on the company's board. There has been some speculation that Saad's attempts to narrow the differences between the fishermen and the consortium, and his acceptance of a place on the board made him a target of attack by the conspirator, who sought a full conflagration around the small protest. The events in Sidon were not contained for long. The government began to lose control of the situation in 1975.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}}
==Political divide and sectarianism==
{{See also|Lebanese Front|Lebanese National Movement|List of militias in the Lebanese Civil War}}{{More citations needed section|date=August 2020}}
In the run-up to the war and its early stages, militias tried to be politically orientated non-sectarian forces, but due to the sectarian nature of Lebanese society, they inevitably gained their support from the same community as their leaders came from. In the long run almost all militias openly identified with a given community. The two main alliances were the Lebanese Front, consisting of nationalist Maronites who were against Palestinian militancy in Lebanon, and the Lebanese National Movement, which consisted of pro-Palestinian Leftists. The LNM dissolved after the Israeli invasion of 1982 and was replaced by the [[Lebanese National Resistance Front]], known as ''Jammoul'' in Arabic.
Throughout the war most or all militias operated with little regard for human rights, and the sectarian character of some battles, made [[non-combatant]] civilians a frequent target.
===Finances===
As the war dragged on, the militias deteriorated ever further into [[mafia]]-style organizations, with many commanders turning to crime as their main occupation rather than fighting. Finances for the war effort were obtained in one or all of three ways:{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}}
# '''Outside support''': Notably from [[Syria]] or [[Israel]]. Other Arab governments and [[Iran]] also provided considerable funds. Alliances would shift frequently.
# '''Local population''': The militias, and the political parties they served, believed they had legitimate [[moral authority]] to raise taxes to defend their communities. Road checkpoints were a particularly common way to raise these (claimed) taxes. Such taxes were in principle viewed as legitimate by much of the population who identified with their community's militia. However, many militia fighters would use taxes/customs as a pretext to extort money. Furthermore, many people did not recognize militia's tax-raising authority, and viewed all militia money-raising activities as mafia-style extortion and theft.
# '''Smuggling''': During the civil war, Lebanon turned into one of the world's largest [[narcotics]] producers, with much of the [[hashish]] production centered in the [[Bekaa valley]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2014}} However, much else was also smuggled, such as guns and supplies, all kinds of stolen goods, and regular trade—war or no war, Lebanon would not give up its role as the middleman in European-Arab business. Many battles were fought over Lebanon's ports, to gain smugglers access to the sea routes.
===Cantons===
[[File:East Beirut canton.png|thumb|The [[East Beirut canton|East Beirut canton (Marounistan)]]. One of many unrecognized administrations or "mini-states" during the Lebanese Civil War]]
As central government authority disintegrated and rival governments claimed national authority, the various parties/militias started to create comprehensive state administrations in their territory. These were known as [[Canton (country subdivision)|''cantons'']], [[Cantons of Switzerland|Swiss-like]] autonomous provinces. The best known was "[[Maronistan|Marounistan]]", which was the Phalangist/Lebanese Forces territory. The [[Progressive Socialist Party|Progressive Socialist Party's]] territory was the "[[Civil Administration of the Mountain]]", commonly known as the ''Jebel-el-Druze'', a name which had formerly been used for a Druze state in Syria. The Marada area around [[Zghorta]] was known as the "Northern Canton".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hirst |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwU5DgAAQBAJ&dq=Marounistan&pg=PT290 |title=Beware of Small States: Lebanon, Battleground of the Middle East |year=2010 |publisher=PublicAffairs |isbn=978-0786744411 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=1986-02-02 |title=A Setback for Syria in Lebanon |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-02-op-3603-story.html |access-date=2022-06-19 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Harik |first=Judith P. |date=1993 |title=Change and Continuity among the Lebanese Druze Community: The Civil Administration of the Mountains, 1983–90 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4283575 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=377–398 |doi=10.1080/00263209308700957 |jstor=4283575 |issn=0026-3206|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2022-05-11 |title=Lebanon: Carving Out a Christian Canton |magazine=Time |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,914383,00.html |access-date=2022-06-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511154911/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,914383,00.html |archive-date=11 May 2022 }}</ref>
Wilton Wynn, a [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] correspondent, visited the [[East Beirut canton|East Beirut Christian canton]] in 1976, the same year as its foundation.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=1976-07-26 |title=Lebanon: Carving Out a Christian Canton| page =2 |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,914383-2,00.html |magazine=Time |language=en-US |issn=0040-781X |access-date=2022-06-26}}</ref> He reported that compared to the villages outside of the canton, in Maronite towns and villages no garbage littered the streets, gas was one-fifth the price charged in West Beirut and the price of bread was controlled to levels comparable to pre-war pricing.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=1976-07-26 |title=Lebanon: Carving Out a Christian Canton |language=en-US |magazine=Time |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,914383-2,00.html |access-date=2022-07-01 |issn=0040-781X}}</ref>
===Maronite Christians===
Maronite Christian militias acquired arms from [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] as well as from West Germany, Belgium and Israel,<ref>Bregman and El-Tahri, 1998, p. 158. (This reference only mentions Israel.)</ref> and drew supporters from the larger Maronite population in the north of the country, they were generally right-wing in their political outlook, and all the major Christian militias were [[Maronite]]-dominated, and other Christian sects played a secondary role.
Initially, the most powerful of the Maronite militias was the National Liberal Party, locally known as "Ahrar", who were politically led by the former president [[Camille Chamoun]]. The NLP had its own militia which was founded in 1968 and led by Camille's son [[Dany Chamoun]], the [[Tigers Militia]].
Another party was the [[Kataeb Party]], or Phalangists, which was founded by [[Pierre Gemayel]] in 1936. Kataeb similarly had its own militia which was officially formed in 1961, the [[Kataeb Regulatory Forces]] led by [[William Hawi]] until 1976 when [[Bachir Gemayel]] succeeded him. Kataeb Regulatory Forces merged with [[Tigers Militia]] and several minor groups ([[Al-Tanzim]], [[Guardians of the Cedars]], [[Lebanese Youth Movement]], [[Tyous Team of Commandos]]) and formed an umbrella militia known as the [[Lebanese Forces (Militia)|Lebanese Forces]] (LF) which acted in unity, and were politically known as the [[Lebanese Front]] coalition. Before 1975, Maronite militias were reportedly supplied by weapons from [[Bulgaria]], and by the onset of the war were receiving support from [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Pahlavi Iran]], [[West Germany]], Israel, and [[Saudi Arabia]], who temporarily cut off their funding after [[Black Saturday (Lebanon)|Black Saturday]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Randal |first1=Jonathan C. |title=Going all the way : Christian warlords, Israeli adventurers, and the war in Lebanon |date=1984|publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-0394723594 |edition=1st, rev.}}</ref> This funding enabled the newly formed Lebanese Forces militia to establish itself in Maronite-dominated strongholds, and rapidly transformed from an unorganized and poorly equipped militia into a fearsome armed group that now had its own armor, artillery, commando units (SADM), a small Navy, and a highly advanced Intelligence branch. Meanwhile, in the north, the [[Zgharta Liberation Army]] served as the private militia of the [[Suleiman Franjieh|Franjieh]] family in [[Zgharta District|Zgharta]], which became allied with Syria after breaking with the [[Lebanese Front]] in 1978.
In 1980, after months of intra Christian clashes, the Tigers militia of Dany Chamoun split with the Lebanese Forces which was dominated by the Kataeb members. Led by Bachir Gemayel, Kataeb launched a surprise attack on the Tigers in what became known as the [[Safra massacre]], which claimed the lives of up to 83 people, effectively bringing an end to the Tigers as a militia.
In 1985, under the leadership of [[Samir Geagea]] and [[Elie Hobeika|Hobeika]], the Lebanese Forces split from the Kataeb and other groups to form an independent militia by the name of [[Lebanese Forces]]. The Command Council then elected Hobeika to be LF President, and he appointed Geagea to be LF Chief of Staff. In January 1986, Geagea and Hobeika's relationship broke down over Hobeika's support for the pro-Syrian [[Tripartite Accord (Lebanon)|Tripartite Accord]], and an internal civil war began. The [[Geagea-Hobeika Conflict]] resulted in 800 to 1000 casualties before Geagea secured himself as LF leader and Hobeika fled. Hobeika formed the [[Lebanese Forces – Executive Command]] which remained allied with Syria until the end of the war.
===Secularists===
Although several Lebanese militias claimed to be [[secularism|secular]], most were little more than vehicles for sectarian interests. Still, there existed a number of non-religious groups, primarily but not exclusively of the left and/or [[Pan-Arab]] right.
Examples of this were the [[Lebanese Communist Party]] (LCP) and the more radical and independent [[Communist Action Organization]] (COA). Another notable example was the pan-Syrian [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]] (SSNP), which promoted the concept of [[Greater Syria]], in contrast to [[Pan-Arab]] or Lebanese nationalism. The SSNP was generally aligned with the Syrian government, although it did not ideologically approve of the Ba'athist government (however, this has changed recently, under Bashar Al-Assad, the SSNP having been allowed to exert political activity in Syria as well). The multi-confessional SSNP was led by [[Inaam Raad]], a Catholic and Abdallah Saadeh, a [[Greek Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Greek Orthodox]]. It was active in North Lebanon ([[Koura District|Koura]] and [[Akkar]]), West Beirut (around [[Hamra Street]]), in Mount Lebanon (High [[Metn]], [[Baabda]], [[Aley]] and [[Chouf]]), in South Lebanon (Zahrani, [[Nabatieh]], [[Marjayoun]] and [[Hasbaya]]) and the Beqqa Valley ([[Baalbeck]], [[Hermel]] and [[Rashaya]]).
Another secular group was the [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA), led by [[Saad Haddad]]. The SLA operated in South Lebanon in coordination with the Israelis, and worked for the Israeli-backed parallel government, called "the Government of Free Lebanon". The SLA began as a split from the [[Army of Free Lebanon]], a Maronite Christian faction within the [[Lebanese Army]]. Their initial goal was to be a bulwark against PLO raids and attacks into the Galilee, although they later focused on fighting [[Hezbollah]]. The officers tended to be mostly Christians, while the ordinary soldiers were an amalgam of Christians, [[Lebanese Shia Muslims|Shiites]], [[Lebanese Druze|Druze]] and [[Lebanese Sunni Muslims|Sunnis]]. The SLA continued to operate after the civil war but collapsed after the Israeli army withdrew from South Lebanon in 2000. Many SLA soldiers fled to Israel, while others were captured in Lebanon and prosecuted for collaboration with Israel and treason.
Two competing [[Ba'athism|Ba'ath movement]]s were involved in the early stages of the war: a nationalist one known as [[Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party|"pro-Iraqi"]] headed by Abdul-Majeed Al-Rafei ([[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni]]) and Nicola Y. Ferzli ([[Greek Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon|Greek Orthodox Christian]]), and a Marxist one known as [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Lebanon|"pro-Syrian"]] headed by [[Assem Qanso]] ([[Shi'a Islam in Lebanon|Shiite]]).
The [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] at the time had training camps in Lebanon, where they received support from the Syrians and the PLO. During the Israeli invasion, all PKK units were ordered to fight the Israeli forces. Eleven PKK fighters died in the conflict. [[Mahsum Korkmaz]] was the commander of all PKK forces in Lebanon.<ref name="PKK1">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/pkk-pr.cfm |title=In the Spotlight: PKK (a.k.a KADEK) Kurdish Worker's Party |publisher=Cdi.org |access-date=23 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813012428/http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/pkk-pr.cfm |archive-date=13 August 2011 }}</ref><ref name="PKK2">{{cite web|url=http://www.xs4all.nl/~kicadam/kurdistan/2_99/ocalan.html |title=Abdullah Öcalan en de ontwikkeling van de PKK |publisher=Xs4all.nl |access-date=23 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215175054/http://www.xs4all.nl/~kicadam/kurdistan/2_99/ocalan.html |archive-date=15 December 2010 }}</ref><ref name="PKK3">{{cite web|url=http://www.niqash.org/content.php?contentTypeID%3D75%26id%3D2285%26lang%3D0 |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314022637/http://www.niqash.org/content.php?contentTypeID=75&id=2285&lang=0 |archive-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref>
The Armenian [[Marxist-Leninist]] militia [[ASALA]] was founded in PLO-controlled territory of West Beirut in 1975. This militia was led by revolutionary fighter [[Monte Melkonian]] and group-founder [[Hagop Hagopian (guerilla)|Hagop Hagopian]]. Closely aligned with the Palestinians, ASALA fought many battles on the side of the [[Lebanese National Movement]] and the PLO, most prominently against Israeli forces and their right-wing allies during the [[1982 Lebanon War|1982 phase of the war]]. Melkonian was field commander during these battles, and assisted the PLO in [[Siege of Beirut|its defense of West Beirut]].<ref name=ASALA1>{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/lebanon/95.htm |title=Lebanon – Armenian Parties |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=23 February 2012}}</ref><ref name=ASALA2>Melkonian, Markar (2005). ''My Brother's Road: An American's Fateful Journey to Armenia''. New York: I.B. Tauris. p. x. {{ISBN|1850436355}}.</ref>
===Palestinians===
[[File:FatehMilitia.jpg|thumb|[[Palestinian Arabic|Palestinian]] [[Fatah]] fighters in [[Beirut]] in 1979]]
The [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] movement relocated most of its fighting strength to Lebanon at the end of 1970 after being expelled from [[Jordan]] in the events known as [[Black September in Jordan|Black September]]. The umbrella organization, the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO)—by itself undoubtedly Lebanon's most potent fighting force at the time—was little more than a loose [[confederation]], but its leader, [[Yassir Arafat]], controlled the PLO's largest and most dominant faction, [[Fatah]], effectively making him the strongman of the PLO. Arafat allowed little oversight to be exercised over PLO finances as he was the ultimate source for all decisions made in directing financial matters.
Arafat's control of funds, channeled directly to him by the oil producing countries like [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iraq]], and [[Libya]] meant that he had little real functional opposition to his leadership and although ostensibly rival factions in the PLO existed, this masked a stable loyalty towards Arafat so long as he was able to dispense financial rewards to his followers and members of the PLO guerrilla factions.
Unlike the Lebanese, the Palestinians were not sectarian. [[Palestinian Christians]] similarly supported [[Arab Nationalism]] and fought with their Muslim compatriots against the Maronite Lebanese militias.
The PLO mainstream was represented by Arafat's powerful [[Fatah]], which waged [[guerrilla warfare]] but did not have a strong core ideology, except the claim to seek the liberation of Palestine. As a result, they gained broad appeal with a refugee population of moderately conservative Islamic values. The more ideological factions included [[George Habash]]'s Marxist-Leninist [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP), and its splinter, the [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (DFLP) of [[Nayef Hawatmeh]]. Both Habash and Hawatmeh were Christians.
Fatah was instrumental in splitting the DF from the PFLP in the early days of the PFLPs formation so as to diminish the appeal and competition the PFLP posed to Fatah. Lesser roles were played by the fractious [[Palestinian Liberation Front]] (PLF) and another split-off from the PFLP, the Syrian-aligned [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command]] (PFLP-GC). To complicate things, the rival [[Ba'athism|Ba'athist]] countries of Syria and Iraq both set up Palestinian puppet organizations within the PLO. The [[as-Sa'iqa]] was a Syrian-controlled militia, paralleled by the [[Arab Liberation Front]] (ALF) under Iraqi command. The Syrian government could also count on the Syrian brigades of the [[Palestine Liberation Army]] (PLA), formally but not functionally the PLO's regular army. Some PLA units sent by [[Egypt]] were under Arafat's command.
When the war officially started in 1975, Palestinian armed manpower numbered roughly 21,000, divided into:<ref>{{cite book |last1=El-Khazen |first1=Farid |title=The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967–1976 |date=2000 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674081055 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQdheeeXQCgC}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
|-
! Group !! Armed manpower
|-
| [[Fatah]] || 7,000
|-
| [[As-Sa'iqa]] || 4,500
|-
| [[DFLP]] || 2,500
|-
| [[Arab Liberation Front]] || 2,500
|-
| Popular Resistance || 2,200
|-
| [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine|PFLP]] || 2,000
|-
| [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command|PFLP–GC]] || 2,000
|-
| Popular Struggle Front || 200
|-
| '''Total''' || '''20,900'''
|}
===Druze===
[[File:Flag of the Progressive Socialist Party.svg|thumb|The flag of the PSP]]
The small [[Druze]] sect, strategically and dangerously seated on the [[Chouf District|Chouf]] in central Lebanon, had no natural allies, and so were compelled to put much effort into building alliances. Under the leadership of the [[Jumblatt Family of Lebanon|Jumblatt family]], first [[Kamal Jumblatt]] (the [[Lebanese National Movement|LNM]] leader) and then his son [[Walid Jumblatt|Walid]], the [[Progressive Socialist Party]] (PSP) ({{Langx|ar|الحزب التقدمي الاشتراكي|lit=|label=none|translit=al-hizb al-taqadummi al-ishtiraki}}) served as an effective Druze militia, building excellent ties to the Soviet Union mainly, and with Syria upon the withdrawal of Israel to the south of the country. However, many Druze in Lebanon at the time were also members of the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]].
Under the leadership of Jumblatt, the PSP was a major political element in the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) which supported Lebanon's [[Arab identity]] and sympathized with the Palestinians. Jumblatt built a militia, the [[People's Liberation Army (Lebanon)|People's Liberation Army]], which received financial support from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and [[Libya]], and boasted around 2,500 militiamen at the start of the war, increasing to 10,000 by early 1984 during the [[Mountain War (Lebanon)|Mountain War]]. The militia played a small role in the actual combat, instead limiting itself to fighting in [[Mount Lebanon]] area.
Its main adversaries were the Maronite [[Kataeb Regulatory Forces|Kataeb]] militia, and later the [[Lebanese Forces (Militia)|Lebanese Forces]] militia, which absorbed the Kataeb. The PSP suffered a major setback after the assassination of Kamal Jumblatt, who was then succeeded by his son [[Walid Jumblatt|Walid]]. From the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf in 1983 to the end of the civil war, the PSP ran the [[Civil Administration of the Mountain]] in the area under its control. Tolls levied at PSP militia checkpoints provided a major source of income for the administration.
The PSP played an important role in the [[Mountain War (Lebanon)|Mountain War]] under the lead of Walid Jumblatt. After the Israelis withdrew from [[Chouf District|Chouf]], important battles took place between the PSP backed by [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command|PFLP-GC]], [[Fatah al-Intifada]] and [[Syrian Armed Forces|Syrian army]], and the Lebanese Forces backed by [[Lebanese Armed Forces|Lebanese army]] and the [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|Multinational Force]]. PSP armed members were accused of several massacres that took place during that war.
===Shia Muslims===
{{Further|History of Hezbollah}}
{{Further|Lebanese Resistance Regiments}}
[[File:Flag of the Amal Movement.svg|thumb|The flag of Amal Movement]]
In the 1960s and early 70s, Lebanon's poorest community, the [[Lebanese Shia Muslims|Shiites]], lacked an initial organization of their own, and thus lent their numbers to a variety of parties and organizations.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Shanahan|first=Rodger|url=https://epdf.pub/the-shia-of-lebanon-clans-parties-and-clerics-library-of-modern-middle-east-stud.html|title=The Shi'a of Lebanon – The Shi'a of Lebanon Clans, Parties and Clerics|publisher=Tauris Academic Studies |year=2005|isbn=978-1850437666|___location=London • New York |pages=42–43, 46, 57, 62–63, 67–69, 77, 79–80, 94, 104, 149|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name="Norton">{{cite book |last1=Norton |first1=Augustus R. |title=Amal and the Shiʻa: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon |date=1987 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292730397 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p5VtAAAAMAAJ&q=Haddad+Shia+dregs+of+society}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Denoeux |first1=Guilain |title=Urban Unrest in the Middle East: A Comparative Study of Informal Networks in Egypt, Iran, and Lebanon |date=1993 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0791415238 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MS_smEipbQC}}</ref> Many Shiites joined the [[Lebanese Communist Party]], where they formed half of its membership by the 1970s. Some joined other leftist parties, including the [[Communist Action Organization in Lebanon|Communist Action Organization]], the [[Arab Socialist Action Party – Lebanon|Arab Socialist Action Party]], and the various [[Ba'athism|Baathist]] factions led by [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]], as well as the Nasserist [[al-Mourabitoun]] (45% of the membership in 1985),<ref name="Nova Publishers">{{cite book |last1=Rolland |first1=John C. |title=Lebanon: Current Issues and Background |date=2003 |publisher=Nova Publishers |isbn=978-1590338711 |page=144 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-JVOKeNkllgC}}</ref> and the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party|SSNP]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Halawi |first1=Majed |title=A Lebanon Defied: Musa Al-sadr And The Shi'a Community |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0429722738 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pnCkDwAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name=":1"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Arab Shiites: Citizenry and Identity |date=2019 |isbn=978-6144452509 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBWLDwAAQBAJ|last1=مؤلفين |first1=مجموعة |publisher=المركز العربي للأبحاث ودراسة السياسات }}</ref><ref name="Nova Publishers"/> A number of Shiites also joined [[Palestine Liberation Organization|Palestinian]] factions and constituted sizeable numbers in the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine|PFLP]], Fatah and [[Arab Liberation Front]].<ref name="Norton"/><ref name="auto3">{{cite book |last1=Shaery-Eisenlohr |first1=Roschanack |title=Shi'ite Lebanon: Transnational Religion and the Making of National Identities |date=2011 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231144278 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vrpRagljvA4C}}</ref> Nevertheless, the majority of the Shiite population was not represented by any particular party.<ref name=":1" />
With the start of hostilities in 1975, [[Musa Sadr]] publicly announced the establishment of the [[Amal Movement|Movement of the Dispossessed]] (later known as AMAL). Sadr adamantly opposed Lebanese infighting, declaring a hunger strike several times, and severely criticized the neglect of Shiite areas by the government and traditional Shiite leaderships.<ref name="Norton"/><ref name="auto1">{{cite web |last1=Sabeh-McGowan |first1=Afaf |last2=Roberts |first2=John |last3=AbuKhalil |first3=As'ad |last4=Mason |first4=Robert S. |title=Lebanon: a country study |url=https://cdn.loc.gov/master/frd/frdcstdy/le/lebanoncountryst00coll/lebanoncountryst00coll.pdf |date=1989}}</ref> Sadr, a Palestinian supporter himself, criticized both Israel and the actions of the PLO actions in the [[Southern Lebanon|South]], which had costed thousands of Shiite civilians' lives.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Reisinezhad |first1=Arash |title=The Shah of Iran, the Iraqi Kurds, and the Lebanese Shia |date=2018 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-89947-3 |isbn=978-3319899473 |s2cid=187523435 |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-89947-3}}</ref> Amal quickly attracted the masses and its armed ranks quickly grew to an estimated 6,000 according to the [[SAVAK]] in 1975.<ref name="auto3"/>
A radical turnover occurred following the [[1982 Lebanon War|Israeli invasion of Lebanon]] in 1982, with the establishment of [[Hezbollah]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=William |title=Lebanon: A History, 600–2011 |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0190217839 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XwUTDAAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="auto4">[[Amal Saad-Ghorayeb]] (2001) ''[https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0745317928 Hizbu'llah: Politics and Religion]''. London: Pluto Press. {{ISBN|0745317928}}</ref><ref name="auto3"/><ref name="auto">[[Odd Karsten Tveit|Tveit, Odd Karsten]] (2010) ''Goodbye Lebanon. Israel's First Defeat.'' Rimal Publication. Translated by Peter Scott-Hansen. {{ISBN|978-9963715039}}.</ref> Hezbollah's main objective was to end Israeli occupation and western influence in Lebanon, and its Islamic ideology attracted many young Shiites eager to fight the new occupation.<ref name="auto4"/> By 1984, thousands of Shiites had been enlisted into Hezbollah as well as most of the important Shiite clergy, including [[Ragheb Harb]].<ref name="Bergman">{{cite book |last1=Bergman |first1=Ronen |title=Rise and Kill First: The Secret History of Israel's Targeted Assassinations |date=2018 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0679604686 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UXKDQAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="Norton"/>
[[Dahieh]], where most Shiites lived, became known as the party's recruition hub, the [[Bekaa valley|Bekaa]] its training ground, and the [[Southern Lebanon|South]] its operational ground.<ref name="auto4"/><ref name="Norton"/> Support for Leftist and Palestinian groups declined, and many Shiites moved their support to their communal parties.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="Bergman"/> In 1988, Hezbollah's militia could boast a total of 25,000 fighters.<ref name="modernwar">{{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=Abraham |last2=Cordesman |first2=Anthony H. |title=The Lessons Of Modern War: Volume I: The Arab-israeli Conflicts, 1973–1989 |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1000302943 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSnJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT248}}</ref> By the 1990s, Hezbollah was the best organized Shia political party, and enjoyed the largest base of popular support.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Norton |first1=Augustus R. |title=Hezbollah A Short History |date=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691131245}}</ref>
==== Alawites ====
The Lebanese [[Alawites]], followers of a sect of Shia Islam, were represented by the 1,000-strong [[Red Knights Militia]] of the [[Arab Democratic Party, Lebanon|Arab Democratic Party]], which was pro-Syrian due to the Alawites being dominant in Syria, and mainly acted in Northern Lebanon around [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rabinovich |first1=Itamar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1XjHn8rrl4C&pg=PA546 |title=Middle East Contemporary Survey, 1984–1985 |last2=Shaked |first2=Haim |publisher=The Moshe Dayan Center |year=1988 |isbn=978-0813374451}}</ref>
===Sunni Muslims===
Some [[Sunni Islam in Lebanon|Sunni]] factions received support from [[Libya]] and [[Iraq]], and a number of minor militias existed due to a general reluctance on the part of Sunnis to join military organisations throughout the civil war. The more prominent groups were secular and holding a [[Nasserism|Nasserist]] ideology, or otherwise having [[pan-Arab]] and [[Arab nationalist]] leanings. A few [[Islamist]] ones emerged at later stages of the war, such as the [[Tawhid Movement]] that took its base in Tripoli, and the [[Islamic Group (Lebanon)|Jama'a Islamiyya]], which gave a Lebanese expression of the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in terms of political orientations and practice. The main Sunni-led organization was the [[al-Mourabitoun]], a major west Beirut based force. They were led by [[Ibrahim Kulaylat]], fought with the Palestinians against the Israelis during the invasion of 1982. There was also the [[Popular Nasserist Organization]] in [[Sidon]] that was formed through the followers of [[Maarouf Saad]], and who rallied later behind his son Mustafa Saad, and now are led by Usama Saad. The [[Sixth of February Movement]] was another pro-Palestinian Nasserist minor militia that sided with the PLO in the [[War of the Camps]] in the 1980s.
===Armenians===
The [[Armenians in Lebanon|Armenian]] parties were Christian by religion but left-wing in outlook, and were therefore uneasy committing to either side of the fighting. As a result, the Armenian parties attempted, with some success, to follow a policy of militant neutrality, with their militias fighting only when required to defend the Armenian areas. However, it was not uncommon for individual Armenians to choose to fight in the Lebanese Forces, and a small number chose to fight on the other side for the [[Lebanese National Movement]]/[[Lebanese National Resistance Front]].
The Beirut suburbs of Bourj Hamoud and Naaba were controlled by the Armenian [[Dashnak]] party. In September 1979, these were attacked by the [[Kataeb]] in an attempt to bring all Christian areas under [[Bashir Gemayel]]'s control. The Armenian Dashnak militia defeated the Kataeb attacks and retained control. The fighting led to 40 deaths.
The [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation in Lebanon]] refused to take sides in the conflict though its armed wing the [[Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide]]<ref>Francis P. Hyland, ''Armenian Terrorism: the Past, the Present, the Prospects'', Boulder • San Francisco • Oxford: Westview Press, 1991, pp. 61–62; Yves Ternon, ''La Cause arménienne'', Paris: Le Seuil, 1983, p. 218; ''The Armenian Reporter'', 19 January 1984, p. 1.</ref> and the [[Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia]] did carry out assassinations and operations during the war.<ref>{{citation|title=Armenia in Crisis: The 1988 Earthquake|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y4kQUU_bpOsC|last=Verluise|first=Pierre|year=1995|publisher=[[Wayne State University Press]]|page=143|isbn=0814325270}}</ref>
==Chronology of decisive events==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Chronology<ref>{{Cite book|last=Makdisi|first=Jean Said|url=https://archive.org/details/beirutfragmentsw00makd|title=Beirut Fragments: A War Memoir|publisher=Persea Books|year=1990|isbn=978-0892551507|___location=New York|oclc=493308231|author-link=Jean Said Makdisi|url-access=registration}}</ref>
|13 April 1975
|Battles between the [[PLO]] and the [[Kataeb]] Christian militia spread to parts of Beirut, especially the downtown area which is totally destroyed leading to the [[Green Line (Lebanon)|demarcation line]] between the two parts of the city. Many militias are formed on both sides and hundreds of civilians are killed or taken hostage. The government divides and the army is split. The militias usurp many functions of the state.
|-
|January 1976
|The [[Karantina massacre]] and the [[Damour massacre]].
|-
|May 1976
|[[Elias Sarkis]] is elected president.
|-
|Summer 1976
|The [[Tel al-Zaatar massacre]] occurs. The Syrian army intervenes for the first time.
|-
|October 1976
|An [[1976 Arab League summit (Riyadh)|Arab League summit]] occurs to instill a ceasefire backed by the deployment of peacekeeping troops.
|-
|March–April 1977
|Multiple massacres of Christians occur in the [[Chouf District|Chouf]] following the assassination of [[Kamal Jumblatt]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=ictj |date=2014-07-30 |title=Christian massacres in Chouf and in West Beirut |url=https://civilsociety-centre.org/sir/christian-massacres-chouf-and-west-beirut |access-date=2022-06-14 |website=Civil Society Knowledge Centre |language=en}}</ref><ref>2.1 Sectarian-based Violence in the Shuf. pp. 34–36 https://www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Report-Lebanon-Mapping-2013-EN_0.pdf</ref>
|-
|February–March 1978
|The [[Hundred Days' War]] begins and the ceasefire ends. The United Nations sends troops and foreign powers deploy aid to the two sides of the war.
|-
|February 1979
|The [[Iranian revolution]] occurs helping to radicalize the [[Amal Movement|Shiite movement]] in Lebanon.
|-
|July 1980
|[[Bashir Gemayel]], leader of the [[Kataeb]] militia, unites all the Christian militias by force, putting in place the political party, [[Lebanese Forces]].
|-
|Summer, 1982
|The [[1982 Lebanon War]] occurs as well as the [[Siege of Beirut]]. [[Bashir Gemayel]] is elected president on 23 August and assassinated 14 September. Soon after [[Sabra and Shatila massacre|the Sabra and Shatila massacre]] occurs. The Israelis withdraw. [[Amin Gemayel]] is elected president.
|-
|September 14, 1982
|[[Bachir Gemayel|Bashir Gemayel]] was assassinated 22 days after getting [[August 1982 Lebanese presidential election|elected]].
|-
|April 1983
|[[1983 United States embassy bombing|1983 United States embassy bombing occurs.]]
|-
|Summer 1983
|The [[Mountain War (Lebanon)|Mountain War]] begins.
|-
|October 1983
|[[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|1983 Beirut barracks bombing occurs.]]
|-
|February 1984
|The Lebanese army, who controlled Beirut since the Israeli withdrawal, were accused of partisanship with the Lebanese forces, mass arrests, etc. They were expelled from West Beirut following their defeat in the [[February 6 Intifada]].
The [[Amal Party]] and the [[Druze]] [[Progressive Socialist Party]] take control of West Beirut. The multi-nationals withdraw from Lebanon.
|-
|February 1985
|The Israelis withdraw from Sidon but remain in the south. Armed resistance to Israeli occupation intensifies. Especially from [[Hezbollah]].
The [[War of the Camps]] arises.
|-
|March 1985
|Assassination attempt on Hezbollah leader, [[Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah]].
|-
|June, December 1987
|[[Rashid Karami]] is assassinated on 1 June 1987. The [[First Intifada]] begins and the anger toward Israel in Lebanon increases. There are hundreds of Lebanese and Palestinians [[Israel Prison Service|imprisoned by Israel]].
|-
|September 1988
|[[Amin Gemayel]]'s presidential term expires and he appoints the commander of the army, [[General Michel Aoun]] as interim prime minister.
|-
|14 March 1989
|General Aoun declares war on the Syrian presence in Lebanon. After seven months of shelling a ceasefire is negotiated by the Arab League.
|-
|October–November 1989
|The [[Taif Agreement]] occurs. [[René Moawad]] is elected president and is assassinated 17 days later. [[Elias Hrawi]] is then elected. General Aoun denounces the legitimacy of these presidencies and a new commander of the army is appointed.
|-
|30 January 1990
|Heavy fighting begins between the Lebanese army still under General Aoun's control and the Lebanese Forces. As well as fighting between Amal and Hezbollah and continued resistance to Israeli occupation and Israeli reprisal raids.
|-
|13 October 1990
|General Aoun is forced out of the presidential palace and goes into exile. The [[October 13 massacre]] occurs. [[Selim Hoss]] assumes command of the country except for the part still occupied by Israel. The armed forces are reunited under a central command.
|-
|24 December 1990
|A [[National Reconciliation (Lebanon)|National Reconciliation]] is formed under the leadership of [[Omar Karami]]. The [[Taif Agreement]] is for the first time being put into practice.
|-
|26 August 1991
|Parliament passes the law of [[Amnesty|General Amnesty]].
|-
|Summer 1992
|The [[1992 Lebanese general election|first parliamentary elections in twenty years take place]].
|}
==First phase (1975–1977)==
===Sectarian violence and massacres===
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2020}}
Throughout the spring of 1975, minor clashes in Lebanon had been building up towards all-out conflict, with the [[Lebanese National Movement]] (LNM) pitted against the [[Kataeb Party|Phalange]], and the ever-weaker national government wavering between the need to maintain order and cater to its constituency. On the morning of 13 April 1975, unidentified gunmen in a speeding car fired on a church in the Christian [[East Beirut]] suburb of Ain el-Rummaneh, killing four people, including two [[Maronite]] Phalangists. Hours later, Phalangists led by the [[Bashir Gemayel|Gemayels]] killed 30 [[Palestinians]] traveling in Ain el-Rummaneh. Citywide clashes erupted in response to this "[[Bus Massacre]]". The [[Battle of the Hotels]] began in October 1975, and lasted until March in 1976.
On 6 December 1975, a day later known as [[Black Saturday (Lebanon)|Black Saturday]], the killings of four [[Kataeb Party|Phalange]] members led Phalange to quickly and temporarily set up [[roadblock]]s throughout [[Beirut]] at which identification cards were inspected for religious affiliation. Many Palestinians or Lebanese Muslims passing through the roadblocks were killed immediately. Additionally, Phalange members took hostages and attacked Muslims in East Beirut. Muslim and Palestinian militias retaliated with force, increasing the total death count to between 200 and 600 civilians and militiamen. After this point, all-out fighting began between the militias.
On 18 January 1976 an estimated 1,000–1,500 people were killed by Maronite forces in the [[Karantina Massacre]], followed two days later by a [[Damour massacre|retaliatory strike on Damour]] by Palestinian militias. These two massacres prompted a mass exodus of Muslims and Christians, as people fearing retribution fled to areas under the control of their own sect. The ethnic and religious layout of the residential areas of the capital encouraged this process, and East and [[Beirut|West Beirut]] were increasingly transformed into what was in effect Christian and Muslim Beirut. Also, the number of Maronite [[leftist]]s who had allied with the LNM, and Muslim conservatives with the government, dropped sharply, as the war revealed itself as an utterly sectarian conflict. Another effect of the massacres was to bring in [[Yassir Arafat]]'s well-armed [[Fatah]] and thereby the [[Palestine Liberation Organisation]] on the side of the LNM, as Palestinian sentiment was by now completely hostile to the Maronite forces.
===1976 Syrian invasion===
{{main|Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War}}
{{See also|Syrian occupation of Lebanon}}
[[File:Civil war Lebanon map 1976a.gif|thumb|upright|Power balance in Lebanon, 1976:<br/>Dark Green – controlled by Syria;<br/>Purple – controlled by Maronite groups;<br/>Light Green – controlled by Palestinian militias]]
On 22 January 1976, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad brokered a truce between the two sides, while covertly beginning to move Syrian troops into Lebanon under the guise of the [[Palestine Liberation Army]] in order to bring the PLO back under Syrian influence and prevent the disintegration of Lebanon.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Syrian Occupation of Lebanon|last = Nisan|first = Mordechai|pages = 52–53}}</ref> Despite this, the violence continued to escalate. In March 1976, Lebanese President Suleiman Frangieh requested that Syria formally intervene. Days later, Assad sent a message to the United States asking them not to interfere if he were to send troops into Lebanon.
On 8 May 1976, Elias Sarkis, who was supported by Syria, defeated Frangieh in a presidential election held by the Lebanese Parliament. However, Frangieh refused to step down.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Ford Presidency: A History|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_8oeucRr0Z0C|publisher = McFarland|year= 2014|isbn = 978-0786452996|first = Andrew Downer|last = Crain|pages = 142–144}}</ref> On 1 June 1976, 12,000 regular Syrian troops entered Lebanon and began conducting operations against Palestinian and leftist militias.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Use of Force: The Practice of States Since World War II|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ASPds6gT1CsC|publisher = Penn State Press|year= 1997|isbn = 0271043016|first = Arthur Mark|last = Weisburd}}</ref> This technically put Syria on the same side as [[Israel]], as Israel had already begun to supply Maronite forces with arms, tanks, and military advisers in May 1976.<ref>Charles D. Smith, ''Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict'', p. 354.</ref> Syria had its own political and territorial interests in Lebanon, which harbored cells of Sunni [[Islamists]] and anti-Ba'athist [[Muslim Brotherhood]].
Since January, the Tel al-Zaatar refugee camp in East Beirut had been under siege by Maronite Christian militias. On 12 August 1976, supported by Syria, Maronite forces managed to overwhelm the Palestinian and leftist militias defending the camp. The Christian militia massacred 1,000–1,500 civilians,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=September 2013|title=Lebanon's Legacy of Political Violence: A Mapping of Serious Violations of International Human Rights and Humanitarian Law in Lebanon, 1975–2008|url=https://www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Report-Lebanon-Mapping-2013-EN_0.pdf|journal=International Center for Transitional Justice Report|access-date=15 October 2015}}</ref> which unleashed heavy criticism against Syria from the [[Arab world]].
On 19 October 1976, the Battle of Aishiya took place, when a combined force of [[PLO]] and a Communist militia attacked Aishiya, an isolated Maronite village in a mostly Muslim area. The Artillery Corps of the Israel Defense Forces fired 24 shells (66 kilograms of TNT each) from US-made 175-millimeter field artillery units at the attackers, repelling their first attempt. However, the PLO and Communists returned at night, when low visibility made Israeli artillery far less effective. The Maronite population of the village fled. They returned in 1982.
In October 1976, Syria accepted the proposal of the [[Arab League]] summit in [[Riyadh]]. This gave Syria a mandate to keep 40,000 troops in Lebanon as the bulk of an [[Arab Deterrent Force]] charged with disentangling the combatants and restoring calm. Other Arab nations were also part of the ADF, but they lost interest relatively soon, and Syria was again left in sole control, now with the ADF as a diplomatic shield against international criticism. The Civil War was officially paused at this point, and an uneasy quiet settled over Beirut and most of the rest of Lebanon. In the south, however, the climate began to deteriorate as a consequence of the gradual return of PLO combatants, who had been required to vacate central Lebanon under the terms of the Riyadh Accords.
During 1975–1977, 60,000 people were killed.<ref>Taylo, Charles Lewis. ''The World Handbook of Political and Social Indicators''.</ref>
===Uneasy quiet===
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2014}}
[[File:Green Line, Beirut 1982.jpg|thumb|The [[Green Line (Lebanon)|Green Line]] that separated West and East Beirut, 1982]]
The nation was now effectively divided, with southern Lebanon and the western half of Beirut becoming bases for the PLO and Muslim-based militias, and the Christians in control of East Beirut and the Christian section of [[Mount Lebanon]]. The main confrontation line in divided Beirut was known as the [[Green Line (Lebanon)|Green Line]].
In East Beirut, in 1976, Maronite leaders of the [[National Liberal Party (Lebanon)|National Liberal Party]] (NLP), the [[Kataeb Party]] and the [[Lebanese Renewal Party]] joined in the [[Lebanese Front]], a political counterpoint to the LNM. Their militias—the [[Tigers Militia (Lebanon)|Tigers]], [[Kataeb Regulatory Forces]] (KRF) and [[Guardians of the Cedars]]—entered a loose coalition known as the [[Lebanese Forces]], to form a military wing for the Lebanese Front. From the very beginning, the Kataeb and its Regulatory Forces' militia, under the leadership of [[Bashir Gemayel]], dominated the LF. In 1977–80, through absorbing or destroying smaller militias, he both consolidated control and strengthened the LF into the dominant Maronite force.
In March the same year, [[Lebanese National Movement]] leader [[Kamal Jumblatt]] was assassinated. The murder was widely blamed on the Syrian government. While Jumblatt's role as leader of the [[Druze]] [[Progressive Socialist Party]] was filled surprisingly smoothly by his son, [[Walid Jumblatt]], the LNM disintegrated after his death. Although the anti-government pact of leftists, Shi'a, Sunni, Palestinians and Druze would stick together for some time more, their wildly divergent interests tore at opposition unity. Sensing the opportunity, [[Hafez al-Assad]] immediately began splitting up both the Maronite and Muslim coalitions in a game of divide and conquer.
==Second phase (1977–1982)==
===Hundred Days' War===
{{More citations needed section|date=August 2020}}
The [[Hundred Days' War]] was a sub-conflict within the Lebanese Civil War, which occurred in the Lebanese capital [[Beirut]] between February and April 1978.
The only political person who remained in East Beirut Achrafiyeh throughout was president Camille Chamoun, who refused to leave. It was fought between the Maronite forces and the Syrian troops of the [[Arab Deterrent Force]] (ADF). The Syrian troops shelled the Christian Beirut area of Achrafiyeh for 100 days. The conflict resulted in [[Syrian Army]]'s expulsion from East Beirut and the end of [[Arab Deterrent Force]]'s task in Lebanon and revealed the true intentions of the Syrians in Lebanon. The conflict resulted in 160 dead and 400 injured.{{Citation needed|reason=source needed for the exact number|date=April 2014}}
===1978 Israeli invasion===
[[File:Lebanon, Al Yatun 7-16 (1981).jpg|thumb|[[UNIFIL]] base, 1981]]
PLO attacks from Lebanon into Israel in 1977 and 1978 escalated tensions between the countries. On 11 March 1978, eleven Fatah fighters landed on a beach in northern Israel and proceeded to hijack two buses full of passengers on the Haifa–Tel-Aviv road, shooting at passing vehicles in what became known as the [[Coastal Road massacre]]. They killed 37 and wounded 76 Israelis before being killed in a firefight with Israeli forces.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1977-1979/133%20Statement%20to%20the%20press%20by%20Prime%20Minister%20Begin "133 Statement to the press by Prime Minister Begin on the massacre of Israelis on the Haifa – Tel Aviv Road – 12 March 1978"], Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 1977–79</ref> Israel invaded Lebanon four days later in [[Operation Litani]]. The [[Israeli Army]] occupied most of the area south of the [[Litani River]]. The [[UN Security Council]] passed [[UN Security Council Resolution 425|Resolution 425]] calling for immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the [[UN Interim Force in Lebanon]] (UNIFIL), charged with attempting to establish peace.
===Israel's "Security Zone" in Lebanon===
[[File:BlueLine.jpg|thumb|left|The Blue Line demarcation line between Lebanon and Israel, established by the UN after the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 1978]]
Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, but retained control of the southern region by managing a {{convert|12|mi|km|0|adj=on}} wide security zone along the border. These positions were held by the [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA), a Christian-Shi'a militia under the leadership of Major [[Saad Haddad]] backed by Israel. The Israeli Prime Minister, [[Likud]]'s [[Menachem Begin]], compared the plight of the Christian minority in southern Lebanon (then about 5% of the population in SLA territory) to that of European Jews during World War II.<ref>Smith, op. cit., 355.</ref> The PLO routinely [[Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon|attacked]] Israel during the period of the cease-fire, with over 270 documented attacks.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} People in Galilee regularly had to leave their homes during these shellings. Documents captured in PLO headquarters after the invasion showed they had come from Lebanon.<ref>Jillian Becker, ''The PLO'', (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984), pp. 202, 279.</ref> Arafat refused to condemn these attacks on the grounds that the cease-fire was only relevant to Lebanon.<ref>Smith, op. cit., p. 376.</ref>
Between June and August 1979 the IDF increased its artillery bombardments and air strikes on targets in Southern Lebanon resulting in the killing of around forty people and a mass exodus of civilians.<ref>[[Middle East International]] No 101, 8 June 1979; pp. 12–14 mass exodus. No 103, 6 July 1979; pp. 12–13 24 June at least twenty killed or wounded. No 106, 17 August 1979; pp. 11–13 3 August commando raid kills between seven and ten. No 107, 31 August 1979; pp. 12–14 21 August eleven killed, 24 August eight killed.</ref> On 27 June four [[Syrian Air Force|Syrian]] planes were shot down over Southern Lebanon. One of them reportedly hit by Palestinian ground fire.<ref>Middle East International No 103, 6 July 1979; [[Helena Cobban]] pp. 2–3, pp. 12–13 Palestinian ground fire.</ref>
In April 1980 the presence of UNIFIL soldiers in the buffer zone led to the [[At Tiri incident]].
===Day of the Long Knives===
The [[Safra massacre]], known as the ''Day of the Long Knives'', occurred in the [[coast]]al town Safra (north of [[Beirut]]) on 7 July 1980, as part of [[Bashir Gemayel]]'s effort to consolidate all the Maronite fighters under his leadership in the [[Lebanese Forces]]. The [[Phalangist]] forces launched a surprise attack on the [[Tigers Militia (Lebanon)|Tigers Militia]], which claimed the lives of 83 people, most of whom were normal citizens and not from the militia.{{Citation needed|reason=source to the exact number|date=April 2014}}
===Battle of Zahleh===
{{See also|Battle of Zahle}}
The first six months of 1981 brought Lebanon some of the worst violence since 1976. In the South, there was an increase in clashes between Haddad's rebel militia and [[UNIFIL]]. This followed an agreement reached in [[Damascus]] between Lebanese President [[Élias Sarkis]] and [[United Nations]] officials on the deployment of [[Lebanese army]] soldiers into areas where UNIFIL forces where stationed. The agreement, which was reached in early March, was rejected by Haddad. On 16 March three [[Nigerian Army|Nigerian]] soldiers serving with UNIFIL were killed by artillery fire from Haddad's forces.<ref>Middle East International No 147, 10 April 1981; [[Jim Muir]] p. 2. The Damascus agreement, worst fighting in Beirut since 1976, UNIFIL casualties</ref>
Another factor was political activity in Israel ahead of elections in June which Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] and his [[Likud]] party were expected to lose. Begin publicly acknowledged that Israel had an alliance with [[Bashir Gemayel]]'s [[Phalange]] militia and would intervene if the [[Syrian Army]] attacked them. Defence Minister [[Rafael Eitan]] visited [[Jounieh]] on several occasions. In South Lebanon there were regular [[Israel Air Force|airstrikes]] around [[Nabatieh]] and [[Beaufort Castle, Lebanon|Beaufort Castle]]. On the night of 9 April [[Israel Defence Force|IDF commandos]] raided five different [[Palestine Liberation Organisation|PLO]] positions in the South.<ref>Middle East International No 148, 24 April 1981; Jim Muir p. 3. Events in South, Begin, US blocked Israeli intervention, commando raids</ref><ref>Middle East International No 149, 8 May 1981; [[John Bulloch (journalist)|John Bulloch]] pp. 6–7. Rafael Eitan</ref>
In Beirut sniper fire across the [[Green Line (Lebanon)|Green Line]] between East and West Beirut increased, climaxing in April with lengthy artillery exchanges. The main combatants were elements of the Lebanese Army and the Syrian [[Arab Deterrent Force|ADF]].<ref>Middle East International No 151, 5 June 1981; John Cooley p. 2. “factions slaughtering each other”.</ref>
Across the [[Mount Sannine|mountains]] in [[Zahleh]], the [[Lebanese Melkite Christians|Christian]] town on the Western edge of the [[Beqaa Valley]], the [[Phalangist]] militia had become dominant and were reinforcing outposts with artillery as well as opening a new road to the coast and their heartland. In early April clashes escalated around the town and the Syrian Army imposed a siege. There were also outbreaks of fighting in neighbouring [[Baalbek]].<ref>Middle East International No 147, 10 April 1981; Jim Muir p. 2. fighting in Baalbek</ref>
Meanwhile, in the South, on 19 April, Haddad's militia shelled [[Sidon]], killing sixteen civilians. Some reports stated that the attack was in response to a request from [[Bashir Gemayel]] in order to relieve the Syrian pressure on the Phalangists in Zahleh.<ref>Middle East International No 148, 24 April 1981; Jim Muir p. 3. Sidon atrocity</ref><ref>Middle East International No 149, 8 May 1981; John Bulloch pp. 6–7. Bashir Gemayil</ref> On 27 April Syrian troops launched an offensive against the Phalagists' mountain outposts. The following day the [[Israeli Air Force]] shot down two Syrian helicopters near Zahleh. Despite this intervention the Syrians were able to take control of the mountain road and tighten the siege of the town. In response to the Israeli action the Syrians moved antiaircraft [[Surface-to-air missile|Sam 6]] missiles into the Northern Beqaa.<ref>Middle East International No 149, 8 May 1981; Jim Muir p. 2. No record of number of Syrians killed in helicopters</ref> In Israel the missiles became a political issue. On 27 May Israeli commandos attacked a [[PFLP-GC]] missile site near [[Damour]], South of Beirut. Four Libyan technicians were killed. Two Syrian soldiers were also killed when their truck and a civilian car were destroyed.<ref>Middle East International No 151, 5 June 1981; Jim Muir pp. 2–3. Damour</ref>
Begin later revealed that the United States was informed in advance of the raid. In early July the Syrians ended the three month long siege of Zahleh. The Phalangists' power in the town had been reduced but their alliance with Israel remained intact.<ref>Middle East International No 153, 5 July 1981; Jim Muir pp. 4–5</ref> The planned deployment of Government troops into [[Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon|the South]] was abandoned.
On 17 July 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed multi-story apartment buildings in Beirut that contained offices of PLO associated groups. The Lebanese delegate to the United Nations Security Council claimed that 300 civilians had been killed and 800 wounded. The bombing led to worldwide condemnation, and a temporary embargo on the export of U.S. aircraft to Israel.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Bombing of Beirut|journal=Journal of Palestine Studies|volume=11|issue=1|year=1981|pages=218–225|doi=10.1525/jps.1981.11.1.00p0366x}}</ref>
In August 1981, defense minister [[Ariel Sharon]] began to draw up plans to attack PLO military infrastructure in West Beirut, where PLO headquarters and command bunkers were located.<ref>Smith, op. cit., p. 377.</ref>
==Third phase (1982–1984)==
===1982 Israeli invasion===
{{Main|1982 Lebanon War}}
[[File:Civil war Lebanon map 1983a.gif|thumb|upright|The power balance in Lebanon, 1983:<br/>Green – controlled by Syria;<br/>Purple – controlled Maronite groups,<br/>Yellow – controlled by Israel,<br/>Blue – controlled by the United Nations]]
====Pretext====
On 3 June 1982, the [[Abu Nidal Organization]], a splinter group of [[Fatah]], attempted to assassinate Israeli ambassador [[Shlomo Argov]] in London. Israel carried out a retaliatory aerial attack on PLO and PFLP targets in West Beirut that led to over 100 casualties.<ref name="autogenerated1">Smith, op. cit., p. 378.</ref> The PLO responded by launching a counterattack from Lebanon with rockets and artillery, which constituted a clear violation of the ceasefire.
Meanwhile, on 5 June, the [[UN Security Council]] unanimously passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 508|Resolution 508]] calling for "all the parties to the conflict to cease immediately and simultaneously all military activities within Lebanon and across the Lebanese-Israeli border and no later than 0600 hours local time on Sunday, 6 June 1982".<ref>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/UN/unres508.html "United Nations Security Council Resolution 508"], ''[[Jewish Virtual Library]]''</ref>
====Israeli alliance with Christian militias====
[[File:Israeli troops in south Lebanon (1982).jpg|thumb|Israeli troops in South Lebanon, June 1982]]
Israel launched Operation Peace for Galilee on 6 June 1982, attacking PLO bases in Lebanon. Israeli forces quickly drove {{convert|25|mi|km|0}} into Lebanon, moving into East Beirut with the tacit support of Maronite leaders and militia. When the Israeli cabinet convened to authorize the invasion, Sharon described it as a plan to advance 40 kilometers into Lebanon, demolish PLO strongholds, and establish an expanded security zone that would put northern Israel out of range of PLO rockets.<ref>[http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/lebanon/res509.htm "United Nations Security Council Resolution 509"], ''[[Global Policy Forum]]''</ref>
Israeli chief of staff [[Rafael Eitan]] and Sharon had already ordered the invading forces to head straight for Beirut, in accord with Sharon's plan from September 1981. The UN Security Council passed a further resolution on 6 June 1982, [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 509]] demanding that Israel withdraw to the internationally recognized boundaries of Lebanon.<ref>[http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/lebanon/res509.htm "United Nations Security Council Resolution 509"], ''[[Global Policy Forum]]''</ref> On 8 June 1982, the United States vetoed a proposed resolution demanding that Israel withdraw.<ref>"[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ac89a782537a6d500525653100617a17?OpenDocument United Nations Security Council Draft Resolution of 8 June 1982 (Spain)]. ''United Nations''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051225063112/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ac89a782537a6d500525653100617a17?OpenDocument|date=25 December 2005}}.</ref>
====Siege of Beirut====
[[File:Lebanon PLO ammunition stadium 1982.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of the stadium used as an ammunition supply site for the PLO after Israeli airstrikes in 1982]]
By 15 June 1982, Israeli units were entrenched outside Beirut. The United States called for PLO withdrawal from Lebanon, and Sharon began to order bombing raids of West Beirut, targeting some 16,000 PLO ''[[fedayeen]]'' who had retreated into fortified positions. Meanwhile, Arafat attempted through negotiations to salvage politically what was clearly a disaster for the PLO, an attempt which eventually succeeded once the multinational force arrived to evacuate the PLO.
====Ceasefire negotiations by the United Nations====
On 26 June, a UN Security Council resolution was proposed that "demands the immediate withdrawal of the Israeli forces engaged round Beirut, to a distance of 10 kilometers from the periphery of that city, as a first step towards the complete withdrawal of Israeli forces from Lebanon, and the simultaneous withdrawal of the Palestinian armed forces from Beirut, which shall retire to the existing camps".<ref>[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/d441628eb0b68ad205256531005fa3eb?OpenDocument "United Nations Security Council Revised Draft Resolution of 25 June 1982 (France)"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051225063149/http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/d441628eb0b68ad205256531005fa3eb?OpenDocument |date=25 December 2005 }}, ''United Nations''</ref>
The United States vetoed the resolution because it was "a transparent attempt to preserve the PLO as a viable political force".<ref>''[[New York Times]]'', 27 June 1982, cited in Chomsky, op. cit., p. 198</ref> However, President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] made an impassioned plea to Prime Minister Begin to end the siege. Begin called back within minutes informing the President that he had given the order to end the attack.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ontheissues.org/Celeb/Ronald_Reagan_War_+_Peace.htm |title=Ronald Reagan on War & Peace |publisher=Ontheissues.org |access-date=23 February 2012}}</ref>
Amid escalating violence and civilian casualties, [[Philip Habib]] was sent to restore order, which he accomplished on 12 August on the heels of IDF's intensive, day-long bombardment of West Beirut. The Habib-negotiated truce called for the withdrawal of both Israeli and PLO elements, as well as a multinational force composed of [[U.S. Marine]]s along with French and Italian units that would ensure the departure of the PLO and protect defenseless civilians.
===International intervention===
{{Main|Multinational Force in Lebanon}}
[[File:Navy Amphibian, Beirut 1982.jpg|thumb|US Navy Amphibian arriving in Beirut, 1982]]
On 21 August 1982, the first troops of a multinational force landed in Beirut to oversee the PLO withdrawal from Lebanon. U.S. mediation resulted in the evacuation of Syrian troops and PLO fighters from Beirut. The agreement provided for the deployment of a multinational force composed of [[United States Marines|U.S. Marines]] along with French, Italian and British units. However, Israel reported that some 2,000 PLO militants were hiding in Palestinian [[refugee camp]]s on the outskirts of Beirut.
[[Bachir Gemayel]] was elected president on 23 August. He was assassinated on 14 September by [[Habib Tanious Shartouni]], affiliated to the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party]].
===Sabra and Shatila massacre===
{{main|Sabra and Shatila massacre}}
On 16–18 September 1982, Lebanese Phalangists, allied with the Israeli Defense Force, killed between 460 and 3,500 Lebanese and Palestinian Shiite civilians in the Shatila refugee camp and the adjacent Sabra neighborhood of Beirut.<ref name="Lebanon War 282">{{cite book|last1=Schiff|first1=Ze'ev|last2=Ya'ari|first2=Ehud|title=Israel's Lebanon War|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=1985|isbn=978-0671602161|page=[https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa00zeev/page/282 282]|url=https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa00zeev/page/282}}</ref> The Israelis had ordered their Phalangist allies to clear out PLO fighters. Soldiers loyal to Phalangist leader [[Elie Hobeika]] began slaughtering civilians, while Israeli forces blocked exits from Sabra and Shatila and illuminated the area with flares. IDF officials failed to act to stop the killings, and prevented the escapees from fleeing the Phalangists and aided them later by lighting the camps during night at their request.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/jan/25/israelandthepalestinians.lebanon |title=Obituary: Elie Hobeika | World news | The Guardian | Mostyn, Trevor, Friday 25 January 2002 |date=25 January 2002 |publisher=guardian.co.uk|access-date=16 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Beware of small states: Lebanon, battleground of the Middle East|last=Hirst|first=David|publisher=Nation Books|year=2010|page=157|quote=The carnage began immediately. It was to continue without interruption till Saturday noon. Night brought no respite; the Phalangist liaison officer asked for illumination and the Israelis duly obliged with flares, first from mortars and then from planes.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=From Beirut to Jerusalem|last=Friedman|first=Thomas|publisher=Macmillan|year=1995|page=[https://archive.org/details/frombeiruttojeru00frie/page/161 161]|isbn=978-0385413725|quote=From there, small units of Phalangist militiamen, roughly 150 men each, were sent into Sabra and Shatila, which the Israeli army kept illuminated through the night with flares.|url=https://archive.org/details/frombeiruttojeru00frie/page/161}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Palestinian Liberation Organisation: people, power, and politics|url=https://archive.org/details/palestinianliber00hele|url-access=registration|last=Cobban|first=Helena|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0521272162|page=[https://archive.org/details/palestinianliber00hele/page/4 4]|quote=and while Israeli troops fired a stream of flares over the Palestinian refugee camps in the Sabra and Shatila districts of West Beirut, the Israeli's Christian Lebanese allies carried out a massacre of innocents there which was to shock the whole world.}}</ref>
Ten days later, the Israeli government set up the [[Kahan Commission]] to investigate the circumstances of the Sabra and Shatila massacre.<ref>{{cite book|last= Schiff|first= Ze'ev|author-link= Ze'ev Schiff|author2= Ehud Ya'ari|title= Israel's Lebanon War|publisher= [[Simon & Schuster]]|year= 1984|page= [https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/284 284]|isbn= 0671479911|url= https://archive.org/details/israelslebanonwa0000schi/page/284}}</ref> In 1983, the commission published its findings that then-Defense Minister Ariel Sharon was personally responsible for the massacre and should resign. Under pressure, Sharon resigned as defense minister but remained in the government as a [[minister without portfolio]].<ref>Chomsky, op. cit., 406.</ref>
===May 17 Agreement===
On 17 May 1983, Lebanon's [[Amine Gemayel]], Israel, and the United States signed [[17 May Agreement|an agreement]]<ref>[http://www.lebanese-forces.org/lebanon/agreements/may17.htm "17 May Agreement"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060524151224/http://www.lebanese-forces.org/lebanon/agreements/may17.htm |date=24 May 2006 }}, ''[[Lebanese Armed Forces]]''</ref> on Israeli withdrawal conditioned on the departure of Syrian troops, reportedly after the US and Israel exerted severe pressure on Gemayel. The agreement stated that "the state of war between Israel and Lebanon has been terminated and no longer exists". The agreement in effect amounted to a peace agreement with Israel, and was seen by many Lebanese Muslims as an attempt for Israel to gain a permanent hold on the Lebanese South.<ref>"[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/030584/840305003.html Israel and South Lebanon]." ''[[Washington Report on Middle East Affairs]]''. 5 March 1984. p. 3.</ref>
The 17 May Agreement was widely portrayed in the Arab world as an imposed surrender. Amine Gemayel was accused of acting as a [[Quisling]] President. Tensions in Lebanon hardened considerably. Syria strongly opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress.
===Mountain War===
In August 1983, Israel withdrew from the [[Chouf District]] in southeast of Beirut, removing the buffer between the Druze and the Maronite militias, and triggering another round of brutal fighting, the [[Mountain War (Lebanon)|Mountain War]]. Israel did not intervene. By September 1983, the Druze had gained control over most of the Chouf, and Israeli forces had pulled out from all but the southern security zone.
In September 1983, following the Israeli withdrawal and the ensuing battles between the Lebanese Army and opposing factions for control of key terrain during the Mountain War, the Reagan White House approved the use of naval gunfire to subdue Druze and Syrian positions in order to give support to and protect the Lebanese Army, which was under severe duress.<ref name="Geraghty64">Geraghty, Timothy J. 2009. ''Peacekeepers at War: Beirut 1983 – The Marine Commander Tells His Story'', with forward from [[Alfred M. Gray Jr.]] Potomac Books. {{ISBN|978-1597974257}}. pp. 64–72.</ref>
===Iranian involvement and founding of Hezbollah===
In 1982, the Islamic Republic of Iran established a base in the Syrian-controlled Bekaa Valley in Lebanon. From that base, the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) "founded, financed, trained and equipped [[Hezbollah]] to operate as a proxy army" for Iran.<ref name="Geraghty165">Geraghty, Timothy J. 2009. ''Peacekeepers at War: Beirut 1983 – The Marine Commander Tells His Story'', with forward from [[Alfred M. Gray Jr.]] Potomac Books. {{ISBN|978-1597974257}}. pp. 165–166.</ref> The IRGC organized Hezbollah by drafting members from [[Shi'a]] groups resisting the Israeli occupation and from the main Shi'a movement, [[Nabih Berri]]'s [[Amal Movement]]. The group found inspiration for its revolutionary [[Islamism]] in the [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979. With Iranian sponsorship and a large pool of disaffected Shi'a refugees from which to draw support, Hezbollah quickly grew into a strong, armed force.
==== Suicide bombings against Americans and Europeans in Lebanon ====
[[File:Beirutbarr.jpg|thumb|Picture of the [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing]]]]
On 18 April 1983, a [[April 1983 US Embassy bombing|suicide bombing attack at the U.S. Embassy]] in West Beirut killed 63, beginning a series of attacks against U.S. and Western interests in Lebanon.
On 23 October 1983, a devastating Iranian-sponsored suicide bombing [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|targeted the barracks]] of U.S. and French forces in Beirut, killing 241 American and 58 French servicemen.<ref name=Geraghty165/><ref>Weekly Standard 25 November 2013 [https://web.archive.org/web/20131117165336/http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/secret-history-hezbollah_767144.html?nopager=1 secret history Hezbollah]</ref> On 18 January 1984, American University of Beirut President [[Malcolm H. Kerr]] was murdered.
Anti-U.S. attacks continued even after U.S. forces withdrew, including a [[1984 United States embassy annex bombing|bombing of the U.S. embassy annex]] in East Beirut on 20 September 1984, which killed 24, including 2 U.S. servicemen.
On 1 July 1985, following the hijacking of a [[TWA Flight 847|TWA]] aeroplane which eventually landed at [[Beirut airport]], President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] issued a ban on all flights to and from Lebanon.<ref>Middle East International No 499, 28 April 1995; Fida Nasrallah p. 20</ref> The ban was lifted after 12 years.
===February 6 Intifada===
{{main|February 6 Intifada}}
The ''February 6 uprising in West Beirut'' or the ''February 6 Intifada'', was a battle where the parties of West Beirut, led by the [[Amal Movement]], decisively defeated the [[Military of Lebanon|Lebanese Army]]. The day started with the defection of many Muslim and Druze units to the militias, which was a major blow to the government and caused the army to virtually collapse.<ref name="dailystart2004">Young, Michael. 7 February 2004. "[https://www.dailystar.com.lb/Opinion/Commentary/2004/Feb-07/92262-remembering-the-uprising-of-feb-6-1984.ashx Remembering the uprising of Feb. 6, 1984]". ''The Daily Star''.</ref>
==== U.S. disengagement from Lebanon ====
Following the uprising, the U.S. Marines' position in Lebanon became untenable, and they were looking ready to withdraw. Syria and Muslim groups had gained the upper hand, and stepped up pressure on Gemayel. On 5 March 1984, the Lebanese Government canceled the 17 May Agreement, and the Marines departed a few weeks later.
==Fourth phase (1984–1990)==
===War of the Camps===
[[File:USS New Jersey firing in Beirut, 1984.jpg|thumb|{{USS|New Jersey|BB-62|6}} fires a salvo against targets in the [[Chouf District|Shouf]], 9 January 1984.]]
Between 1985 and 1989, sectarian conflict worsened as various efforts at national reconciliation failed. Heavy fighting took place in the [[War of the Camps]] of 1985–86 as a Syrian-backed coalition headed by the Amal militia sought to rout the PLO from their Lebanese strongholds. Many Palestinians died, and [[Shatila refugee camp|Sabra and Shatila]] and [[Bourj el-Barajneh]] [[refugee camp]]s were largely destroyed.<ref>(Fisk, 609)</ref>
On 8 March 1985, a [[1985 Beirut car bombing|car bomb]] exploded in Bir al-Abid, south Beirut, killing 80 and injuring over 400.<ref>Middle East International No 265, 20 December 1985; [[Jim Muir]] p. 16.</ref>
On 8 August 1985, a summit was held in Damascus with President [[Amin Gemayel]], Prime Minister [[Rachid Karami]] and Syrian President [[Hafez al-Assad]] attempting to end the fighting between Christian and Druze militias. There followed a series of car bombs in Beirut which were seen as intended to thwart any agreement. On 14 August a car exploded in a Christian district control by the [[Lebanese Forces]]. On 17 August another exploded beside a supermarket, also in a district under LF control. 55 people were killed. Two days later two car bombs went off in a Druze and a Shi'ite district of Beirut. The following day another car bomb exploded in Tripoli. An unknown group, the "Black Brigades", claimed responsibility.<ref>Middle East International No 257, 23 August 1985; [[Jim Muir]] pp. 6–7.</ref>
The violence escalated with extensive artillery exchanges. It is estimated that in two weeks 300 people were killed.<ref>Middle East International No 258, 13 September 1985; [[Jim Muir]] pp. 8–9.</ref> On 15 September, fighting broke out in Tripoli between Alawite and Sunni militias. 200,000 people fled the city. The harbour district was heavily bombarded. The arrival of the Syrian army a week later ended the violence which left 500 killed.<ref>Middle East International No 259, 27 September 1985; [[Jim Muir]] pp. 7–8.</ref><ref>''Middle East International'' No. 260, 11 October 1985; [[Jim Muir]] p. 11.</ref>
In late December 1985 an agreement was reached between the Syrians and their Lebanese allies to stabilise the situation in Lebanon. It was opposed by President [[Amin Gemayel]] and the [[Kataeb Party|Phalangist Party]]. On 15 January 1986 the pro-Syrian leader of the [[Lebanese Forces]], [[Elie Hobeika]], was overthrown. On 21 January, a car bomb killed 20 people in Furn ash-Shebbak, East Beirut. Over the next 10 days a further 5 smaller explosions occurred close to Phalagist targets.<ref>''Middle East International'' No. 268, 7 February 1986; [[Jim Muir]] p. 6.</ref>
In April 1986, following American airstrikes on [[1986 United States bombing of Libya|Libya]], three western hostages were executed and a new round of [[Lebanon hostage crisis|hostage taking]] started.<ref>''Middle East International'' No. 284, 2 May 1986; [[Jim Muir]] pp. 13–14.</ref>
Major combat returned to Beirut in 1987, when Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal, eventually drawing further Syrian intervention. On 22 February 1987, eight thousand [[Syrian army|Syrian soldiers]] entered West Beirut to separate the rival militias. In the [[Shia]] district twenty-three men and four women were taken from a place of worship and shot and bayoneted to death. A crowd of fifty thousand attended their funeral with calls for revenge. [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] issued a [[fatwa]] forbidding attacks on Syrian forces.<ref>[[Odd Karsten Tveit|Tveit, Odd Karsten]] (2010) ''Goodbye Lebanon. Israel's First Defeat''. Rimal Publication. Translated by Peter Scott-Hansen. {{ISBN|978-9963715039}} p. 164</ref>
===War of Brothers===
In 1988, [[War of Brothers|Violent confrontations flared up again]] in Shiite areas between [[Amal Movement|Amal]] and [[Hezbollah]]. In early May, Hezbollah launched a large-scale attack on Amal positions in the southern Beirut suburbs of [[Dahieh]], and by May 11 seized 80% of the suburbs, emerging for the first time as a strong force in the capital.
On 2 January 1989, clashes erupted in Iqlim al-Tuffah in [[Southern Lebanon]] between the two sides without any significant territorial changes. Clashes re-erupted in December 1989 in Iqlim al-Tuffah, in which more than 3,500 Amal and Palestinian fighters clashed with 2,000 Hezbollah fighters in the region.
Most of the fighting toned down by December 28. Minor skirmishes took place later in 1990, but completely stopped by November 1990.
===Iraqi support for Christian anti-Shia factions===
Meanwhile, Prime Minister [[Rashid Karami]], head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on 1 June 1987. The assassination was accused on Samir Geagea in coordination with the Lebanese army, but the charge could not be proven. President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, [[Military of Lebanon|Lebanese Armed Forces]] Commanding General [[Michel Aoun]], as acting Prime Minister, contravening the [[National Pact]].<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/iraq/keyplayers/saddam081290.htm "Doctrine, Dreams Drive Saddam Hussein"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 12 August 1990</ref>
Conflict in this period was exacerbated by increasing [[Iraq]]i involvement, as Saddam Hussein searched for proxy battlefields for the [[Iran–Iraq War]]. To counter Iran's influence through Amal and Hezbollah, Iraq backed Maronite groups. [[Saddam Hussein]] helped Aoun and the Lebanese Forces led by Samir Geagea between 1988 and 1990.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/iraq/keyplayers/saddam081290.htm "Doctrine, Dreams Drive Saddam Hussein"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 12 August 1990</ref>
Muslim groups rejected the violation of the National Pact and pledged support to [[Selim al-Hoss]], a Sunni who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Maronite military government in East Beirut and a civilian government in West Beirut.
On 8 March 1989 Aoun started the blockade of illegal ports of Muslim militias. This touched off bloody exchanges of artillery fire that lasted for half a year.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/23/world/the-ordeal-for-lebanon-14-years-and-7-months.html | title=The Ordeal for Lebanon: 14 Years and 7 Months | date=23 November 1989 | newspaper=The New York Times | access-date=20 August 2016 }}</ref> Six days later he launched what he termed a [[War of Liberation (1989–1990)|"war of liberation"]] against the Syrians and their Lebanese [[Lebanese Forces|militia]] allies. As a result, Syrian pressure on his Lebanese Army and militia pockets in East Beirut grew. Still, Aoun persisted in the "war of liberation", denouncing the government of [[Hafez al-Assad]] and claiming that he fought for Lebanon's independence.
While he seems to have had significant Maronite support for this, he was still perceived as a sectarian leader among others by the Muslim population, who distrusted his agenda. He was also plagued by the challenge to his legitimacy put forth by the Syrian-backed West Beirut government of [[Selim al-Hoss]]. Militarily, this war did not achieve its goal, and instead caused considerable damage to East Beirut and provoked massive emigration among the Christian population.
===Taif Agreement of 1989===
The Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the fighting. In January 1989, a committee appointed by the [[Arab League]], chaired by [[Kuwait]] and including [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Algeria]], and [[Morocco]], began to formulate solutions to the conflict. This led to a meeting of Lebanese parliamentarians in [[Ta'if]], [[Saudi Arabia]], where they agreed to the national reconciliation accord in October. The agreement provided a large role for Syria in Lebanese affairs. Returning to Lebanon, they ratified the agreement on 4 November and elected [[Rene Mouawad]] as president the following day. Military leader Michel Aoun in East Beirut refused to accept Mouawad, and denounced the Taif Agreement.
Mouawad was assassinated 17 days later in a [[car bomb]]ing in Beirut on 22 November as his motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremonies. He was succeeded by [[Elias Hrawi]], who remained in office until 1998. Aoun again refused to accept the election, and dissolved Parliament.
===Infighting in East Beirut===
{{main|October 13 massacre}}
On 16 January 1990, General Aoun ordered all Lebanese media to cease using terms like "President" or "Minister" to describe Hrawi and other participants in the Taif government. The [[Lebanese Forces]] (LF), led by [[Samir Geagea]], which had grown into a rival power broker in the Christian East Beirut, responded by suspending all its broadcasts. Tension with the LF grew, as Aoun feared that the militia was planning to link up with the Hrawi administration.
On 31 January 1990, Lebanese Army forces loyal to Aoun attacked the LF positions in East Beirut, after Aoun had stated that it was in the national interest for the government to "unify the weapons", i.e. that the LF must submit to his authority as acting head of state. The fighting continued until 8 March when Aoun announced a unilateral ceasefire and called for negotiations. During this period East Beirut saw levels of destruction and casualties that it had not experienced during the entire 15 years of civil war. Aoun's forces had made no significant inroads on the areas under Geagea's control.<ref>''Middle East International'' No. 369, 16 February 1990; No. 370 2 March 1990; No. 371, 16 March 1990; [[Jim Muir]] pp. 5–6; pp. 6–8; pp. 9–10</ref>
In August 1990, the Lebanese Parliament, which did not heed Aoun's order to dissolve, and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Taif. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was for the first time divided equally between Christians and Muslims.
As [[Saddam Hussein]] focused his attention on Kuwait, Iraqi supplies to Aoun dwindled.
William Harris claims that the Syrian operation could not take place until Syria had reached an agreement with the United States, that in exchange for support against the [[Iraq]]i
===Lebanon's amnesty law and Hezbollah's hegemony===
In March
Some violence still occurred.
==
===Post-conflict Syrian occupation===
The post-war occupation of the country by [[Syria]]n Arab Republic was particularly politically disadvantageous to the Maronite population, as most of their leadership was driven into [[exile]], or had been assassinated or jailed.<ref name="Baroudi and Tabar 2009">Baroudi and Tabar 2009</ref>
In 2005, the assassination of [[Rafik Hariri]] sparked the [[Cedar Revolution]] leading to Syrian military withdrawal from the country. Contemporary political alliances in Lebanon reflect the alliances of the Civil War as well as contemporary geopolitics. The [[March 14 Alliance]] brings together Maronite-dominated parties (Lebanese Forces, Kataeb, National Liberal Party, National Bloc, Independence Movement) and Sunni-dominated parties (Future Movement, Islamic Group) whereas the [[March 8 Alliance]] is led by the Shia-dominated Hezbollah and Amal parties, as well as assorted Maronite- and Sunni-dominated parties, the SSNP, Ba'athist and Nasserist parties. The [[Syrian civil war]] is also having a significant impact on contemporary political life.
===Long-term effects===
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Beirut- building from before civil war.jpeg|thumb|War-damaged buildings still standing in Beirut, 2006]]
Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the [[Lebanese Armed Forces]] (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. Following the cease-fire which ended 12 July [[2006 Lebanon War|2006 Israeli-Lebanese conflict]], the army has for the first time in over three decades moved to occupy and control the southern areas of Lebanon.
[[File:Le Centre-Ville et les Marina tours.JPG|thumb|Since 1990, Lebanon has undergone a thorough re-constructive process, in which the Downtown of Beirut was fully restructured according to international standards]]
==
It is estimated that around 150,000 people were killed,<ref>''The New York Times'' (2012). [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/12/world/middleeast/after-2-decades-scars-of-lebanons-civil-war-block-path-to-dialogue.html "After 2 Decades, Scars of Lebanon's Civil War Block Path to Dialogue"].</ref> and another 100,000 permanently handicapped. In 1989, [[Associated Press|AP]] reported 150,000 dead over fourteen and a half years. [[Reuters]] gave a figure of 140,000. These figures, equating to 200 killed/week for fourteen years, are much higher than official figures of 35–40,000 dead.<ref>Middle East International No 361, 20 October 1989; G.H. Jansen p. 4</ref>
Approximately 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes. Perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently.
=== Landmines and forced disappearances ===
Thousands of [[land mine]]s remain buried in the previously contested areas. Some [[Lebanon hostage crisis|Western hostages kidnapped]] during the mid-1980s were held until June 1992.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} Lebanese victims of kidnapping and wartime "disappeared" number in the tens of thousands.<ref>[[Rageh Omaar|"The Rageh Omaar Report"]], ''Lebanon: What lies beneath'', [[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]], 2010</ref>
In the 15 years of strife, there were at least 3,641 car bombs, which left 4,386 people dead and thousands more injured.<ref>{{cite magazine| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975156,00.html?| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308163340/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975156,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=8 March 2008| magazine=Time | title=Lebanon: The Terrible Tally of Death | date=23 March 1992 | access-date=7 May 2010}}</ref>
== "Lebanonization" ==
[[Lebanonization]] is a pejorative political term, first used by Israeli president [[Shimon Peres]] in 1983, referring to Israeli minimization of its presence in Lebanon following the [[1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon]], meaning the process of a country degenerating into a [[civil war]] or [[failed state]] in reference to the civil war.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Setrakian |first1=Lara |title=Beirut in Baghdad: Is the 'Lebanonization' of Iraq complete? |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2010/08/24/beirut-in-baghdad-is-the-lebanonization-of-iraq-complete/ |journal=Foreign Policy|date=24 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bresnahan |first1=John |title=Crocker: Iran is pushing for the 'Lebanonization' of Iraq |language=en |work=Politico |url=https://www.politico.com/blogs/politico-now/2008/04/crocker-iran-is-pushing-for-the-lebanonization-of-iraq-007602 |access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rezaei |first1=Farhad |title=Iran's Foreign Policy After the Nuclear Agreement: Politics of Normalizers and Traditionalists |date=2018 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3319767895 |pages=113–140 |language=en |chapter=Iran and Iraq: The Lebanonization Project in the Balance}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Stephen S. |date=26 April 1991 |title=Worse Than Being Lebanonized |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1991/04/26/worse-than-being-lebanonized/fba831e2-8be0-4282-851c-d83f5430f141/ |access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rabil |first1=Robert G. |title=Religion, National Identity, and Confessional Politics in Lebanon: The Challenge of Islamism |date=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US |isbn=978-0230339255 |pages=59–81 |language=en |chapter=The Islamists and the Political System: Al-Infitah and Lebanonization}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Upadhyay |first1=P. K. |date=2009 |title=Islamization versus Talibanization: Is Pakistan Drifting Towards 'Lebanonization'? |journal=Strategic Analysis |volume=33 |issue=6 |pages=805–808 |doi=10.1080/09700160903255749|s2cid=155023087 }}</ref>
==In popular culture==
* The British [[synthpop]] band [[The Human League]] released [[The Lebanon (song)|"The Lebanon"]], a track about the Lebanese Civil war, and in particular the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]], in April 1984.
* English rock band [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]]{{'}} 1986 song "[[Domino (Genesis song)|Domino]]" describes the experiences of a man observing the war from a hotel room in Beirut; the titular dominoes act as metaphors for bombs falling on the Lebanese capital.<ref name="Cunningham 2022">{{cite news |last1=Cunningham |first1=Mark |title=Genesis The Last Domino? Tour |url=https://plsn.com/archives/february-2022/genesis-the-last-domino-tour/ |access-date=1 October 2024 |work=PLSN |date=4 February 2022 |ref=Cunningham 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130203016/https://plsn.com/archives/february-2022/genesis-the-last-domino-tour/ |archive-date=30 January 2023}}</ref>
* The [[Argentina|Argentinean]] [[New wave music|rock/new wave]] band [[:es:GIT|GIT]] wrote and recorded a song, in 1986, called "Buenas noches, Beirut" ("Good Night, Beirut"), about the Lebanese Civil War, include on their third eponymous studio album.
* ''[[Out of Life]]'' by Maroun Baghdadi, from 1991, was awarded the [[Jury Prize (Cannes Film Festival)|Jury Prize]] at the [[1991 Cannes Film Festival]].<ref name="festival-cannes.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.festival-cannes.com/en/archives/ficheFilm/id/74/year/1991.html |title=Festival de Cannes: Out of Life |access-date=9 August 2009|work=festival-cannes.com}}</ref>
* In 2009, [[Saleh Barakat]] curated "The Road to Peace" exhibition at [[Beirut Art Center]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://beirutartcenter.org/exhibitions.php?exhibid=34&statusid=3 |title= The Road to Peace: Paintings in Times of War, 1975–1991 |year= 2009 |publisher= Beirut Art Center |access-date= 20 January 2012 |archive-date= 24 October 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111024213906/http://beirutartcenter.org/exhibitions.php?exhibid=34&statusid=3 |url-status= dead }}</ref> The exhibition featured paintings, photographs, drawings, prints and sculptures by Lebanese artists during the war. Its title comes from a series of prints by [[Aref Rayess]] that depict Lebanese survivors of war.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/07/arts/design/07center.html |title= Face of War Pervades New Beirut Art Center |author= Patrick Healy|date=6 July 2009 |work=The New York Times |access-date=20 January 2012}}</ref>
* ''[[Waltz with Bashir]]'', a movie from 2008 that deals with the 1982 Israeli intervention and the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]].
* The 2010 Canadian film ''[[Incendies]]'' depicts the civil war and its aftermath. It is partly based on incidents in the life of the Lebanese writer [[Souha Bechara]].
* 1995 children's book, ''From Far Away'' by [[Robert Munsch]], is based on a true story of a family of asylum seekers to [[Canada]], from the perspective of a girl who does not speak English and is unfamiliar with Western culture and customs, although the conflict is not specifically indicated, it is heavily implied.
* The war is the subject of [[Nabil Kanso]]'s paintings [[The Vortices of Wrath (Lebanon 1977)|''The Vortices of Wrath'']], [[Lebanon (painting)|''Lebanon'']], [[Endless Night (painting)|''Endless Night'']], and ''[[Lebanon Summer 1982]]''.
*The 2021 Lebanese-Canadian film [[Memory Box (film)|''Memory Box'']] is based on co-director [[Joana Hadjithomas]]' notebooks and tapes made when she was a teenager in Beirut during the civil war in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Weissberg|first=Jay|date=2021-03-01|title='Memory Box' Review: A Collection of Family Artifacts Spark Links to the Past|url=https://variety.com/2021/film/reviews/memory-box-review-a-collection-of-family-artifacts-spark-links-to-the-past-1234917422/|access-date=2021-03-23|website=Variety|language=en-US}}</ref>
* ''[[Beirut (film)|Beirut]]'' is a 2018 American [[Political thriller|political thriller film]] set in 1982 during the Lebanese Civil War.
* ''Witness'' is a 2025 musical album by [[string quartet]] [[Kronos Quartet]] performing music by [[Mary Kouyoumdjian]] in which the war is the subject of several pieces, including the three piece [[Suite_(music)|suite]] named "Bombs of Beirut"<ref>{{cite web |title=Witness Album |url=https://kronosquartet.org/recordings/detail/witness/ |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bombs of Beirut composition |url=https://www.eamdc.com/psny/composers/mary-kouyoumdjian/works/bombs-of-beirut/ |website=PSNY (Project Schott New York) |publisher=Schott Music Corporation & European American Music Distributors Company (EAM) |access-date=22 May 2025}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Lebanon}}
*[[History of Lebanon]]
*[[Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon]]
*[[Israeli occupation of Lebanon]]
*[[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]]
*[[List of modern conflicts in the Middle East]]
== Explanatory notes==
{{Reflist|group="Note"}}
==References==
{{reflist|30em}}
==Further reading==
* Jean-Marc Aractingi, ''La Politique à mes trousses'' (Politics at My Heels), Editions l'Harmattan, Paris, 2006, Lebanon Chapter ({{ISBN|978-2-296-00469-6}}).
*''Al-Baath wa-Lubnân'' [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"), NY Firzli, Beirut, Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973.
*''The Iraq-Iran Conflict'', NY Firzli, Paris, EMA, 1981. {{ISBN|2-86584-002-6}}
*[[Bregman, Ahron]] (2002). ''Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-28716-2}}
*Bregman, Ahron and El-Tahri, Jihan (1998). ''The Fifty Years War: Israel and the Arabs''. London: BBC Books. Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-026827-8}}
*''The Breakdown of the State in Lebanon, 1967–1976''. [[Farid Elias Khazen|Khazen, Farid El]] (2000) ({{ISBN|0-674-08105-6}})
*''The Bullet Collection'', a book by Patricia Sarrafian Ward, is an excellent account of human experience during the Lebanese Civil War.
*''Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92''. [[O'Ballance, Edgar]] (1998) ({{ISBN|0-312-21593-2}})
*''Crossroads to Civil War: Lebanon 1958–1976''. [[Salibi, Kamal S.]] (1976) ({{ISBN|0-88206-010-4}})
*''Death of a country: The civil war in Lebanon''. [[John Bulloch (journalist)|Bulloch, John]] (1977) ({{ISBN|0-297-77288-0}})
*''Faces of Lebanon: Sects, Wars, and Global Extensions'' (Princeton Series on the Middle East) Harris, William W (1997) ({{ISBN|1-55876-115-2}})
*''[[The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians]]''. [[Noam Chomsky]] (1983, 1999) ({{ISBN|0-89608-601-1}})
*''History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2''. [[Philip Khuri Hitti|Hitti Philip K.]] (2002) ({{ISBN|1-931956-61-8}})
*''Lebanon: A Shattered Country: Myths and Realities of the Wars in Lebanon'', Revised Edition Picard, Elizabeth (2002) ({{ISBN|0-8419-1415-X}})
*''Lebanon in Crisis: Participants and Issues (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East)''. Haley P. Edward, Snider Lewis W. (1979) ({{ISBN|0-8156-2210-4}})
*''Lebanon: Fire and Embers: A History of the Lebanese Civil War'' by [[Hiro, Dilip]] (1993) ({{ISBN|0-312-09724-7}})
*''Lebanon. The Fractured Country''. [[Sir David Gilmour, 4th Baronet|Gilmour, David]] (1983) editions 1984, revised 1987. ({{ISBN|0-7474-0074-1}})
*''Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War''. [[Fisk, Robert]] (2001) ({{ISBN|0-19-280130-9}})
*''Syria and the Lebanese Crisis''. Dawisha, A. I. (1980) ({{ISBN|0-312-78203-9}})
*''Syria's Terrorist War on Lebanon and the Peace Process''. Deeb, Marius (2003) ({{ISBN|1-4039-6248-0}})
*''The War for Lebanon, 1970–1985''. [[Rabinovich, Itamar]] (1985) ({{ISBN|0-8014-9313-7}})
*''The Lebanese War 1975–1985, a bibliographical survey'', Abdallah Naaman, Maison Naaman pour la culture, Jounieh, Lebanon, 1985
*''Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict'', fourth edition, Charles D. Smith (2001) ({{ISBN|0-312-20828-6}}) (paperback)
*''Les otages libanais dans les prisons syriennes, jusqu'à quand?'' by [[Lina Murr Nehme]]
* Schulhofer-Wohl, Jonah. 2020. ''Quagmire in Civil War''. Cambridge University Press
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050208141910/http://users.ox.ac.uk/~shehadi/contents.htm Center for Lebanese Study]{{snd}}Oxford University
*[https://www.library.cornell.edu/colldev/mideast/civwr1.htm Lebanon's Forgotten Civil War]{{snd}}Washington Post Foreign Service 20 December 1999
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050305083103/http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/asia/beyrut3.shtml Pictures of Battle Scared Beirut]{{snd}}Travel Adventures.
*[http://fillip.ca/content/sans-titre-untitled sans titre/unitiled]{{snd}}in ''[[Fillip]]''
;Primary sources
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20050526230934/http://www.liberty05.com/ Lebanese civil war from 13 April 1975 to 13 October 1990 & War on Lebanon 2006 Full of pictures]}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080605031751/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907221,00.html "Another Battle of Beirut" (''Time'' magazine, 14 May 1973)]
*[http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/14/esau-49.pdf "The Palestinian Fedayeen" (Declassified CIA Report, 1971)]
*[http://ddc.aub.edu.lb/projects/pspa/conflict-resolution.html The Lebanese civil war and the Taef agreement]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070117074002/http://www.lebwar.org/gallery/ Full Lebanese War Photo System]
* [http://tyros.leb.net/lebwar/ A 15-episode documentary about the Lebanese Civil War, 1975–1990]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150414190354/http://www.aramadzounian.com/bourjhammoud Bourj Hammoud{{snd}}Ars Madzounian]
{{Lebanon topics}}
{{Middle East conflict}}
{{Arab–Israeli conflict}}
{{Iranian military interventions and supports}}
{{Israeli wars}}
{{Iran–Israel proxy conflict}}
{{List of wars involving South Yemen}}
{{Arab nationalism}}
{{Authority control}}
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