Chinese civilization: Difference between revisions

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:''This article is on the geographic and cultural entity. For other meanings, see [[China (disambiguation)]].''

'''Chinese civilization''' may refer to:

* The country [[China]]

* [[Chinese culture]]

* [[Greater China]]

* [[History of China]]

* [[Zhonghua minzu]]

==See also==

'''China''' ([[Traditional Chinese]]: 中國, [[Simplified Chinese]]: 中国, [[Hanyu Pinyin]]: Zhōngguó, [[Wade-Giles]]: Chung-kuo) is a [[country]] in [[continent]]al [[East Asia]] with some outer territories in [[Central Asia]] and offshore [[island]]s in the [[Pacific Ocean]] that since 1949 has been divided ''de facto'' between the [[People's Republic of China]] (governing [[mainland China]] and numerous other islands, [[Hong Kong]] since [[1997]], [[Macao]] since [[1999]]) and the [[Republic of China]] (governing [[Taiwan]] Province and several outlying islands of [[Fukien]] ''or Fuchien'' Province).

* [[Sinosphere]]

* [[Adoption of Chinese literary culture]]

{{disambiguation}}

[[Image:Great Wall of China.jpeg|thumb|250px|The [[Great Wall of China]] was erected in the 3rd century BC to guard the unprotected northern border, and has been rebuilt several times since.]]

China is the world's oldest continuous civilization, with a history characterized by repeated divisions and reunifications amid alternating periods of peace and war, and violent [[Chinese dynasty|dynastic]] change. Power was generally concentrated in the hands of the [[Chinese emperor|emperor]], but sometimes shifted to powerful officials or regional warlords. The country's territorial extent varied according to its shifting fortunes. For many centuries, most notably from the [[7th century|7th]] through the [[14th century|14th centuries]], China stood as the world's most advanced civilization and as East Asia's dominant cultural influence. During the 19th and early 20th centuries the country was too weak to repel European [[colonialism]] and [[Japan]]ese invasion, while at the same time suffering internal conflicts which led to its continuing division. A [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] victory in the [[Chinese Civil War]] established the People's Republic of China in the mainland while the [[Kuomintang|Nationalists]] held out in Taiwan.

The country's [[population]] of over one billion people makes up a fifth of the world's population and is overwhelmingly of the [[Han Chinese]] ethnicity. Their language, [[Chinese language|Chinese]], is divided into many [[Chinese spoken language|spoken variations]]. Their language is spoken and used today in modern society and in many countries across Europe and America.

==Terminology==

:''Main article: [[China in world languages]]''

=== "Zhongguo" ===

The Chinese call their country ''Zhongguo'', which is usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "Central Country". The term has not been used consistently throughout Chinese history, however, and clearly has cultural and political connotations. During the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], it was used only to describe the relatively culturally advanced states of the [[Yellow River]] valley, to the exclusion of states such as [[Chu (state)|Chu]] and [[Qin (state)|Qin]]. Later it came to include areas farther south, including the [[Yangzi River]] and [[Pearl River]] systems. By the [[Tang Dynasty]] it even included "barbarian" regimes such as the [[Xianbei]] and [[Xiongnu]].

During the [[Han Dynasty]] and before, ''Zhongguo'' had three distinctive meanings:

# The area around the capital or imperial ___domain. The ''[[Book of Poetry]]'' explicitly gives this definition.

# Territories under the direct authority of central authorities. The ''[[Historical Records]]'' states: "Eight mountains are famed in the empire. Three are with the Man and Yi barbarians. Five are in ''Zhongguo''."

# The area now called the [[North China Plain]]. The ''[[Sanguo Zhi]]'' records the following monologue: "If we can lead the host of [[Wu]] and [[Yue]] (the area of southern [[Jiangsu]] and northern [[Zhejiang]]) to oppose ''Zhongguo'', then we should break off relations with them soon." In this sense, the term is synonomous with ''Xia'' (夏) and ''Hua'' (華).

During the period of division after the fall of the Han Dynasty, the term ''Zhongguo'' was subjected to transformation as a result of the surge of nomadic peoples from the northern frontier. This was doubly so after the loss of the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese civilization, to these peoples. For example, the Xianbei called their [[Northern Wei]] regime ''Zhongguo'', contrasting it with the [[Southern Dynasties]], which they called the ''Yi'' (夷), meaning "barbarian". The southern dynasties, for their part, recently exiled from the north, called the Northern Wei ''Lu'' (虏), meaning "criminal" or "prisoner". In this way ''Zhongguo'' came to represent political legitimacy. It was used in this manner from the tenth century onwards by the competing dynasties of [[Liao Dynasty|Liao]], [[Jin Dynasty|Jin]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]]. The term ''Zhongguo'' came to be related to geographic, cultural and political identity and less to ethnic origin.

The Republic of China and later People's Republic of China have used ''Zhongguo'' to mean all the territories and peoples within their political control. Thus it is asserted that all 56 recognized ethnic groups are ''Zhongguo ren'' (中國人), or ''Zhongguo'' people. Their histories are collectively the history of ''Zhongguo''.

=== "China" ===

The [[English language|English]] [[word]] "China" and [[prefix]] "Sino-" probably came from "[[Qin Dynasty|Qin]]" (pronounced halfway between "Chin" and "Tsin"). Others believe that ''China'' may have been derived from the Chinese word for tea (''cha'') or silk (Chinese ''si'', [[Latin]] ''seres''). In any circumstance, the word ''China'' passed through many languages along the [[Silk Road]] before it finally reached Europe. The Western "China", transliterated to [[Shina (word)|Shina]] (支那) has also been used by [[Japan]]ese since the nineteenth century, and has since evolved into a derogatory term.

The term "China" can narrowly mean [[China proper]], or, more usually and inclusively, China proper and [[Manchuria]], [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Tibet]], and [[Xinjiang]]; the boundaries between these regions do not necessarily follow [[political divisions of China|provincial boundaries]]. In many contexts, "China" is commonly used to refer to the People's Republic of China or mainland China, while "Taiwan" is used to refer to the Republic of China. Sometimes informally, especially in the English and Chinese business world, "the [[Greater China]] region" (大中華地區) refers to China.

[[Sinologists]] usually use "Chinese" in a more restricted sense, more akin to the classical usage of ''Zhongguo'', or to the meaning of the "[[Han Chinese|Han]] ethnic group", who make up the bulk of Mainland China.

==History==

''Main articles: [[History of China]], [[History of People's Republic of China]], [[History of the Republic of China]]''

China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. It became a large united country with an advanced culture at a very early stage, outpacing most of the world in areas such as [[art]] and [[science]].

Since around [[1000 BC]] China consisted of many small kingdoms. All of them were unified under one [[Emperor of China|emperor]] in [[221 BC]] by the [[Qin (state)|Qin]] state, ushering in the [[Qin Dynasty]]. Over the course of centuries, China underwent periods of unity and disunity, order and disorder.

In the 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage over the peoples of [[Central Asia]], while simultaneously falling behind Europe technologically. This set the stage for the 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against European [[imperialism]] while simultaneously extending control into Central Asia.

In [[1912]], after a prolonged period of decline, the institution of the [[Emperor of China]] disappeared and the [[Republic of China]] was established. The following three decades were a period of disunion — the Warlord Era, the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War]], and the [[Chinese Civil War]]. The latter ended in 1949 with the [[Communist Party of China]] in control of [[Mainland China]]. The CPC established a [[communist state]]—the People's Republic of China—that laid claim to be the successor state of the Republic of China. Meanwhile, the ROC government of the [[Kuomintang]] fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as the legitimate government of all China by the [[Western bloc]] and the [[China and the United Nations|United Nations]] until the [[1970s]], when most nations and the UN switched recognition to the PRC.

See also:

*[[Timeline of Chinese history]]

*[[Dynasties in Chinese history]]

*[[History of Hong Kong]]

*[[History of Macau]]

*[[History of Taiwan]]

== Politics ==

''Main article: [[Politics of Imperial China]], [[Politics of the People's Republic of China]], [[Politics of the Republic of China]]''

<!--mention pre Qin governments-->

After the [[Qin Empire]] unification, China experienced about 13 more dynasties, many of which continued the extensive system of kingdoms, principalities, dukedoms, earldoms, and marquisates. However, ultimately, the [[Emperor of China|emperor]] had the centralized authority. The emperor also consulted civil and martial ministers, especially the [[prime minister]]. Sometimes political power, however, fell into the hands of the officials, [[eunuch]]s, or relatives.

Political relations with dependencies (tributary kingdoms) were maintained by international marriages, military aids, and gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below for examples).

The historical [[capitals of China]] were mostly in the east. The four most commonly designated capitals are [[Nanjing]], [[Beijing]], [[Chang'an]] (today [[Xi'an]]), and [[Luoyang]]. Official languages once included [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Mongolian language|Mongol]], and [[Manchu language|Manchu]].

<!--mention republican and communist governments-->

In 1912, the Republic of China attempted to establish itself as a representative democracy, but immediately collapsed into a one-party dictatorship under the Nationalist Party. It was able to transform itself into a functioning multi-party representative democracy only after the Communists took control of the mainland in 1949 and the ROC moved to Taiwan. Meanwhile, the People's Republic of China has continued to operate as a totalitarian one-party state to the present.

See also:

*[[Chinese sovereign]]

*[[Chinese law]]

== Territory ==

[[image:Smaller map of China.png|thumb|250px|Areas currently controlled by the PRC and ROC]]

During the [[Zhou Dynasty]], China was originally the region around the [[Yellow River]]. Since then, the territory expanded outward in all directions, and was largest during the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]], [[Yuan Dynasty|Yuan]], and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties. From the Chinese point of view, the "Chinese" Empire included parts of modern far eastern [[Russia]] and [[Central Asia]] during the strongest periods of the Yuan, although China was merely one of many territories of the [[Mongol Empire]].

Along with provincial administrators, some foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to the Emperor of China and the Emperor returned compliments to them. The Chinese ostensibly saw that barbarians attached themselves to the virtue of the Emperor, while the foreign governments sometimes had different perspectives. Since the end of the 19th century, China has tried to interpret this relationship as suzerainty-dependency based on Western international law.

The [[Qing Empire]] reduced the territorial value of the [[Great Wall of China]] as a barrier of [[China proper]]. In 1683 after the surrender of the [[Kingdom of Tungning]] established by [[Koxinga]], [[Taiwan]] became a part of the Qing Empire, originally as one [[prefecture]], then two. Taiwan was subsequently ceded to [[Japan]] after the [[first Sino-Japanese War]] in 1895. At the end of the [[second Sino-Japanese War]] in 1945, Japan relinquished the sovereignty of the island in [[San Francisco Peace Treaty]]. Since then, the [[Political status of Taiwan|sovereignty of Taiwan]] has been under dispute between the PRC, ROC and [[Taiwan independence|Taiwan independence supporters]].

Top-level political divisions of China have altered as the administration changed. Top levels included [[circuit (political division)|circuit]]s and [[province of China|province]]s. Below that, there have been [[prefecture of China|prefecture]]s, [[subprefecture]]s, [[department (political division)|department]]s, [[commanderies]], [[district of China|district]]s, and [[county of China|counties]]. Recent divisions also include [[prefecture-level cities]], [[county-level cities]], [[town of China|town]]s and [[township of China|township]]s.

China has historically been thought of as being composed of five regions: [[China proper]], [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Manchuria]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]]. These regions used to correspond closely to ethnic and administrative reality, but today they no longer do, and contemporary Chinese rarely (if ever) think of China as composed of these regions; instead they think in terms of provinces. The regions are separated by borders that are vague at best. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the [[Great Wall]] and the edge of the [[Tibetan plateau]]; [[Manchuria]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] are found to the north of the [[Great Wall of China]], and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between [[Inner Mongolia]] and the [[Northeast China|northeast Chinese]] provinces, or the more historic border of the [[World War II]]-era [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]]; [[Xinjiang]]'s borders correspond to today's administrative [[Xinjiang]]; and historic [[Tibet]] is conceived as occupying all of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. China proper is traditionally thought of as further comprising [[North China]] (&#21271;&#26041;) and [[South China]] (&#21335;&#26041;), the geographic boundary between which north and south is largely generalized as Huai River(&#28142;&#27827;) and Qin Mountain&#65288;&#31206;&#23725;). Manchuria, namingly, is called "Northern-Three-Province" (as its name implies, it consists of three provinces)and Inner Mongolia is usually conceived as part of North China; Xinjiang and Tibet are usually thought as the west part of China though the province of Sichuan is also put into consideration.

See also:

*[[Political divisions of China]]

*[[History of the political divisions of China]]

=== Geography ===

''Main article: [[Geography of China]]''

[[Image:Map of China (physical) (small).png|thumb|right|250px|Topographic map of China]]

China has many very different landscapes, with mostly plateaux and mountains in the west, and lower lands on the east. As a result, principal rivers flow from west to east ([[Chang Jiang]] (Yangtze), the [[Huang He]] (central-east), the [[Amur]] (northeast), etc), sometimes toward the south ([[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]], [[Mekong River]], [[Brahmaputra]], etc). All rivers empty into the [[Pacific]].

Most of China's arable lands lie along the two major rivers, the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) and the Huang He, and each are the centers around which are founded China's major, ancient civilizations.

In the east, along the shores of the [[Yellow Sea]] and the [[East China Sea]] are found extensive and densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the [[South China Sea]] is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges.

To the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, with the [[Himalaya]]s, containing the highest point [[Mount Everest]]. The northwest also has high plateaus among more arid [[desert]] landscapes such as the [[Takla-Makan]] and the [[Gobi Desert]], which has been expanding. Due to a prolonged [[drought]] and perhaps poor agricultural practices, [[dust storm|dust storms]] have become usual in the spring in China.

[[image:Giant Panda.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Giant Panda]] is native to the bamboo forests of central China.]]

During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high [[mountain]]s and deep valleys of [[Yunnan]], which separate modern China from [[Burma]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]].

The [[climate]] of China varies greatly. The northern zone (within which lies [[Beijing]]) has a climate with winters of [[Arctic]] severity. The central zone (within which [[Shanghai]] is situated) has a generally [[temperate]] climate. The southern zone (within which lies [[Guangzhou]]) has a generally [[subtropical]] climate.

The [[Palaeozoic]] formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the [[Carboniferous]] system, are [[sea|marine]], while the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Tertiary]] deposits are [[estuarine]] and [[freshwater]] or else of [[terrestrial]] origin. Groups of [[volcanic]] cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the [[Liaodong]] and [[Shandong]] Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaux.

== Demographics ==

''Main articles: [[ethnic groups in Chinese history]], [[nationalities of China]]''

Over a hundred ethnic groups have existed in China. In terms of numbers, however, the predominant ethnic group in China is the [[Han Chinese|Han]]. Throughout history, many ethnic groups have been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities or disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic groups have been [[Sinicize]]d into the [[Han Chinese|Han]], causing its population to increase dramatically. The Han, however, continue to speak several mutually unintelligible languages (see [[Chinese language]]s). The government of the [[People's Republic of China]] recognizes a total of [[list of Chinese ethnic groups|56 ethnic groups]].

China's overall population, the largest in the world, is 1.3 billion. With the global human population currently estimated at just over 6 billion, China is home to approximately 21% or one-fifth of the human species.

== Culture and religion ==

''Main articles: [[Culture of China]], [[Religion in China]]''

[[Philosophy|Philosophies]] that have had extremely consequential impact on the Chinese culture, literary or illiterate, stem from [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] (in order of appearance).

[[Image:Confucius 02.gif|right|thumb|150px|[[Confucianism|Confucian thought]] has influenced East Asian society for millenia]]

China has a diverse [[religious]] tradition. Some of the religions or belief systems associated with China include [[ancestor worship]], [[Buddhism]], [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Confucianism]], [[Islam]], and [[Taoism]].

[[Chinese literature]] has a long and prolific continuous history, in part because of the development of [[printmaking]] during the [[Song dynasty]]. Prior to that time, manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly [[Confucian]], [[Taoist]], and [[Buddhist]]) were manually written by [[ink brush]] and distributed. To comment on these works, printed or written, scholars formed numerous academies, many of which were sponsored by the empire, and some of the royalty constantly participated in the discussions. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant.

For centuries, opportunity for social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the [[imperial examination]]s. These tests required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as ''jinshi'', a highly revered and esteemed position.

Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets have been, for the most part, highly respected, and played a key role in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of lives of the common people. (See [[List of Chinese authors]], and [[List of Chinese language poets]]).

The Chinese created numerous [[musical instrument]]s, such as the [[zheng]], [[xiao]], and [[erhu]], that have spread around [[East Asia|East]] and [[Southeast Asia]], especially to its dependencies. The [[sheng (instrument)|sheng]] became the mother of several Western [[free-reed instrument]]s.

[[Chinese character]]s have had many variants and styles throughout the history of China, and were "[[Simplified Chinese character|simplified]]" in the mid-[[20th century]] on mainland China. [[Calligraphy]] is a major art-form in China, on a par with [[painting]] and [[music]].

[[Bonsai]] is a millennia-old art that spread to [[Japan]] and [[Korea]].

See also:

*[[Buddhism in China]]

*[[Islam in China]]

*[[Chinese mythology]]

*[[Chinese art]]

*[[Chinese paper art]]

*[[Chinese poetry]]

*[[Chinese painting]]

== Science and technology ==

''Main article: [[Science and technology in China]]''

In addition to the above mentioned cultural inventions, technological inventions from China include:

* [[Compass]]

* [[Printmaking]] / [[Printing Technology]]

* [[Paper]]

* Eastern [[abacus]]

* [[Gunpowder]]

* [[Crossbow]]

* [[Stirrup]]

Other areas of science:

* [[Chinese astrology]] and [[Chinese constellation|constellation]]s were often used for divination purposes.

* The main applications of [[mathematics]] in China have been [[architecture]] and [[geography]]. Also, [[&pi;]] was calculated by [[Zu Chongzhi]] to the seventh digit in the [[5th century]].

* [[Alchemy]] was [[Taoist]] [[chemistry]], very different from modern chemistry.

* Studies in [[biology]] have been extensive, and historic records are consulted even today, such as [[pharmacopoeia]]s of natural [[herbology|medicinal plant]]s.

* [[Chinese medicine|Traditional medicine]] and [[surgery]] were quite advanced at various points in world history, and in some areas are still seen as innovative. A well-known example is [[acupuncture]]. However, [[autopsy]] was unacceptable, because of the common belief that a [[corpse]] should not be violated. Nevertheless, there were several [[physician|doctors]] who increased the understanding of internal [[anatomy]] by violating this autopsy [[taboo]].

== Miscellaneous topics ==

* [[List of China-related topics]]

* [[Chinese name]]s

* [[List of Chinese proverbs]]

* [[Chinese dragon]]s

* [[Overseas Chinese]]

* [[Environment of China]]

* [[Imperialism in Asia]]

* [[Price of tea in China]]

* [[Giant panda]]s

== External links ==

*

* [http://50.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CH/CHINA.htm 1911 EB "China"]

* [http://china-netinvestor.blogspot.com/ China Internet Investor (Blog)]

* [http://www.chinapictures.org/ China Pictures]

* [http://sun.sino.uni-heidelberg.de/igcs/ Internet Guide for Chinese Studies: WWW Virtual Library]

* [http://www.asinah.net/chinaprovinces.html Provinces of China]

* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/china.htm Teaching about China]

* [http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/China/ China Directory at Open Directory Project]

* [http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Sh/Heart_16.html From the History of Religions of China]

* [http://www.numismondo.com/pm/chn/ Chinese Paper Money ]

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