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{{Short description|Exonym used to describe Indigenous people from the circumpolar region}}
{{italicize title}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Eskimo
| image =
| caption =
| population = 194,447{{when|date=October 2024}}
| popplace = Russia<br />- Chukotka Autonomous Okrug<br />- Sakha (Yakutia)<br /> <hr /> United States<br />- Alaska<br /><hr />Canada<br />- Newfoundland and Labrador<br />- Northwest Territories <br />- Nunavut<br />- Quebec<br />- Yukon (formerly)<br /> <hr /> Greenland
| langs = [[Inuit languages|Inuit]], [[Sirenik language|Sirenik]], and [[Yupik languages|Yupik]]<br>
Non-native European languages:<br>[[English language|English]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[French language|French]], and [[Russian language|Russian]]
| rels = [[Alaska Native religion]], [[Inuit religion]], [[Shamanism among Alaska Natives|Shamanism]], [[Animism]]<br />[[Christianity]] ([[Russian Orthodox Church]], [[Orthodox Church in America]], [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], [[Anglican Church of Canada]], [[Church of Denmark]])
| related = [[Aleut]], [[Alaskan Creole people|Alaskan Creoles]]
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
}}
'''''Eskimo''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛ|s|k|ɪ|m|oʊ}}) is a controversial [[Endonym and exonym|exonym]] that refers to two closely related [[Indigenous peoples]]: [[Inuit]] (including the Alaska Native [[Iñupiat]], the Canadian Inuit, and the [[Greenlandic Inuit]]) and the [[Yupik peoples|Yupik]] (or [[Siberian Yupik|Yuit]]) of eastern Siberia and Alaska. A related third group, [[Aleuts]], who inhabit the [[Aleutian Islands]], are generally excluded from the definition of ''Eskimo''. The three groups share a relatively recent common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to the family of [[Eskaleut languages]]. These [[circumpolar peoples]] have traditionally inhabited the Arctic and [[subarctic]] regions from eastern [[Siberia]] (Russia) to [[Alaska]] (United States), [[Northern Canada]], [[Nunavik]], [[Nunatsiavut]], and [[Greenland]].
Some Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and other individuals consider the term ''Eskimo'', which is of a disputed etymology,<ref name="Company2005">{{cite book |editor=Houghton Mifflin Company |author=Houghton Mifflin Company |date=2005 |title=The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |pages=170– |isbn=978-0-618-60499-9 |oclc=496983776 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xb6ie6PqYhwC&pg=PA170 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> to be pejorative or even offensive.<ref name="Patrick 2013 p. 2">{{cite book |last=Patrick |first=D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |title=Language, Politics, and Social Interaction in an Inuit Community |publisher=[[De Gruyter]]|year=2013 |isbn=978-3-11-089770-8 |series=Language, Power and Social Process |page=2 |access-date=November 5, 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Dorais2010" /> ''Eskimo'' continues to be used within a historical, linguistic, archaeological, and cultural context. The governments in Canada<ref name="publications">{{Cite web |date=June 8, 2020 |title=Words First An Evolving Terminology Relating to Aboriginal Peoples in Canada Communications Branch Indian and Northern Affairs Canada October 2002 |url=http://www.publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/R2-236-2002E.pdf |quote=The term "Eskimo", applied to Inuit by European explorers, is no longer used in Canada.}}</ref><ref name="aboriginal-heritage">{{cite web |date=15 October 2013 |title=Inuit |url=https://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/aboriginal-heritage/inuit/Pages/introduction.aspx |publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=MacDonald-Dupuis |first=Natasha |date=December 16, 2015 |title=The Little-Known History of How the Canadian Government Made Inuit Wear 'Eskimo Tags' |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/the-little-known-history-of-how-the-canadian-government-made-inuit-wear-eskimo-tags/}}</ref> and the United States<ref>{{Cite news |date=May 24, 2016 |title=Obama signs measure to get rid of the word 'Eskimo' in federal laws |url=https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/2016/05/23/obama-signs-measure-to-get-rid-of-the-word-eskimo-in-federal-laws/ |access-date=July 14, 2020 |work=[[Anchorage Daily News]] |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Meng |first=Grace |date=May 20, 2016 |title=H.R.4238 – 114th Congress (2015–2016): To amend the Department of Energy Organization Act and the Local Public Works Capital Development and Investment Act of 1976 to modernize terms relating to minorities. |url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/4238 |access-date=July 14, 2020 |website=congress.gov}}</ref> have made moves to cease using the term ''Eskimo'' in official documents, but it has not been eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology.<ref>{{cite journal |date=30 January 2020|title=Indian Entities Recognized by and Eligible To Receive Services From the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/01/30/2020-01707/indian-entities-recognized-by-and-eligible-to-receive-services-from-the-united-states-bureau-of |journal=Federal Register |volume=85 |issue=20 |pages=5462–5467}}</ref> Canada officially uses the term ''Inuit'' to describe the [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|indigenous Canadian people]] who are living in the country's northern sectors and who are not [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] or [[Métis]].<ref name="publications" /><ref name="aboriginal-heritage" /><ref name="defe1">{{cite web |date=June 30, 2021 |title=Aboriginal rights and freedoms not affected by Charter |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-12.html |website=[[Constitution Act, 1982]] |publisher=[[Department of Justice (Canada)]] |quote=[T]his Charter of certain rights and freedoms shall not be construed so as to abrogate or derogate from any aboriginal, treaty or other rights or freedoms that pertain to the aboriginal peoples of Canada.}}</ref><ref name="s35">{{cite web |date=June 30, 2021 |title=Rights of the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada |url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-13.html?txthl=inuit#s-35 |website=Constitution Act, 1982 |publisher=[[Department of Justice (Canada)]] |quote=In this Act, aboriginal peoples of Canada includes the Indian, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada.}}</ref> The United States government legally uses ''[[Alaska Natives|Alaska Native]]''<ref name=":0" /> for enrolled Yupik and Inuit tribal members, and also for non-Eskimos including Aleut, [[Tlingit]], [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Eyak]], and [[Tsimshian]], in addition to at least nine [[Alaskan Athabaskans|northern Athabaskan/Dene]] peoples.<ref name="Who is an American Indian or Alaska Native?">{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://www.bia.gov/frequently-asked-questions |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior]], [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]}}</ref> Other non-enrolled individuals also claim Eskimo/Aleut descent, making it the world's "most widespread aboriginal group".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Race Relations In The USA and Diversity News |url=https://www.usaonrace.com/sticky-wicket-questions/1462/is-the-term-eskimo-a-racial-or-ethnic-insult.htmlIs |website=www.usaonrace.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 28, 2014 |title=Ancient DNA Sheds New Light on Arctic's Earliest People |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/140828-arctic-migration-genome-genetics-dna-eskimos-inuit-dorset |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309202653/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/140828-arctic-migration-genome-genetics-dna-eskimos-inuit-dorset |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |website=Culture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Eskimos |url=https://www.factmonster.com/eskimos |website=FactMonster}}</ref>
There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik, the majority of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar homeland. Of these, 53,785 (2010) live in the United States, 70,545 (2021) in Canada, 51,730 (2021) in Greenland and 1,657 (2021) in Russia. In addition, 16,730 people living in Denmark were born in Greenland.<ref name="statscan">{{cite web |date=September 21, 2022 |title=Indigenous peoples – 2021 Census promotional material |url=https://www.statcan.gc.ca/en/census/census-engagement/community-supporter/indigenous-peoples |access-date=July 20, 2024 |website=Statistics Canada |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref><ref name="CIAworld">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/greenland/ |title=Greenland |access-date=April 3, 2021 |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |work=[[The World Factbook]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf |title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author= |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn_popul |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124160257/http://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn_popul |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 24, 2020 |title=Всероссийская перепись населения 2020 года |lang=ru |website= |publisher= |date= |access-date=July 17, 2023 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.statistikbanken.dk/BEF5G People born in Greenland and living in Denmark 1. January by time] [[Statistics Denmark]]</ref> The [[Inuit Circumpolar Council]], a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO), claims to represent 180,000 people.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/ |title=Inuit Circumpolar Council – United Voice of the Arctic}}</ref>
In the Eskaleut [[language family]], the Eskimo or Eskimoan branch has an Inuit language sub-branch, and a sub-branch of four [[Yupik languages]]. Two Yupik languages are used in the [[Russian Far East]] as well as on [[St. Lawrence Island]], and two in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and western [[Southcentral Alaska]]. The extinct [[Sirenik language]] also belongs to the Eskimoan branch.
== <span id="Terminology"></span>Nomenclature ==
=== Etymology ===
{{Further|Native American name controversy}}
[[File:Inuit conf map.png|260px|thumb|Map of the [[Inuit Circumpolar Council]] of Eskimo peoples, showing the [[Yupik peoples|Yupik]] ([[Yup'ik]], [[Siberian Yupik]]) and [[Inuit]] ([[Iñupiat]], [[Inuvialuit]], [[Nunavut]], [[Nunavik]], [[Nunatsiavut]], [[Greenlandic Inuit]])]]
A variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origin of the word ''Eskimo''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Donna |last=Patrick |date=June 10, 2013 |title=Language, Politics, and Social Interaction in an Inuit Community |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |pages=2– |isbn=978-3-11-089770-8 |oclc=1091560161 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HWYjAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Hobson2004">{{cite book |editor-first=Archie |editor-last=Hobson |date=2004 |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Difficult Words |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=160– |isbn=978-0-19-517328-4 |oclc=250009148 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vm_mNJiflwgC&pg=PA160 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="BackhouseHistory1999">{{cite book |first1=Constance |last1=Backhouse |author2=Osgoode Society for Canadian Legal History |date=January 1, 1999 |title=Colour-coded: A Legal History of Racism in Canada, 1900-1950 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |pages=27– |isbn=978-0-8020-8286-2 |oclc=247186607 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BZlsTAH7GWIC&pg=PA27 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Steckley2008">{{cite book |first=John |last=Steckley |date=1 January 2008 |title=White Lies about the Inuit |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |pages=21– |isbn=978-1-55111-875-8 |oclc=1077854782 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i-osjdNH3g8C&pg=PA21 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="McElroy 2007 p. 8">{{cite book |last=McElroy |first=A. |title=Nunavut Generations: Change and Continuity in Canadian Inuit Communities |publisher=[[Waveland Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4786-0961-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-WkbAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |access-date=November 5, 2021 |page=8 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="Dorais2010">{{cite book |first=Louis-Jacques |last=Dorais |date=2010 |title=Language of the Inuit: Syntax, Semantics, and Society in the Arctic |publisher=[[McGill-Queen's Press]] - MQUP |pages=297– |isbn=978-0-7735-3646-3 |oclc=1048661404 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gkfdQpHUdh4C&pg=PA297 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> According to Smithsonian linguist [[Ives Goddard]], etymologically the word derives from the [[Innu-aimun]] (Montagnais) word {{lang|moe|ayas̆kimew}}, meaning 'a person who laces a [[snowshoe]]',<ref name="ENBR" /><ref name="kaplannew">{{Cite web |title=Inuit or Eskimo: Which name to use? |publisher=[[Alaska Native Language Center]], [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]] |url=https://uaf.edu/anlc/research-and-resources/resources/resources/inuit_or_eskimo.php |access-date=December 3, 2022 |website=www.uaf.edu |first=Lawrence |last=Kaplan |archive-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230133641/https://uaf.edu/anlc/research-and-resources/resources/resources/inuit_or_eskimo.php |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Goddard">{{cite book |first=R. H. Ives |last=Goddard |chapter=Synonymy |editor=David Damas |title=Handbook of North American Indians: Volume 5 Arctic |___location=[[Washington, DC]] |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |year=1985 |isbn=978-0874741858 |pages=5–7 }}</ref> and is related to ''[[husky]]'' (a breed of dog).<ref>{{Cite web |title=American Eskimo Dog Dog Breed Information |url=https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/american-eskimo-dog/ |access-date=2025-05-26 |website=American Kennel Club |language=en}}</ref> The word {{lang|moe|assime·w}} means 'she laces a snowshoe' in Innu, and [[Innu language]] speakers refer to the neighbouring [[Mi'kmaq]] people using words that sound like ''eskimo''.<ref name="goddard">{{cite book |last=Goddard |first=Ives |chapter=Synonymy |editor=William C. Sturtevant |title=Handbook of North American Indians: Volume 5 Arctic |___location=[[Washington, DC]] |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |year=1984 |pages=5–7 }} Cited in Campbell 1997</ref><ref name="campbell">{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |year=1997 |title=American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America |page=394 |___location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] }}</ref> This interpretation is generally confirmed by more recent academic sources.<ref>{{cite book |last=Holst |first=Jan Henrik |date=May 10, 2022 |editor1-last=Danler |editor1-first=Paul |editor2-last=Harjus |editor2-first=Jannis |title=Las Lenguas De Las Americas - the Languages of the Americas |publisher=Logos Verlag Berlin |pages=13–26 |chapter=A Survey of Eskimo-Aleut Languages |isbn=978-3-8325-5279-4}}</ref>
In 1978, [[José Mailhot]], a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a paper suggesting that ''Eskimo'' meant 'people who speak a different language'.<ref name="mailhot1">{{cite journal |last=Mailhot |first=José |author-link=José Mailhot |year=1978 |title=L'étymologie de «Esquimau» revue et corrigée |journal=Études Inuit/Inuit Studies |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=59–70 }}</ref><ref name="creeml" /> French traders who encountered the [[Innu]] (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their word for the more western peoples and spelled it as {{lang|fr|Esquimau}} or {{lang|fr|Esquimaux}} in a transliteration.<ref name="EII" />
Some people consider ''Eskimo'' offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean<ref name="creeml">{{cite web |url=http://www.nisto.com/cree/mail/cree-1997-11.txt |title=Cree Mailing List Digest November 1997 |access-date=2012-06-13 |archive-date=2012-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120620033446/http://nisto.com/cree/mail/cree-1997-11.txt}}</ref><ref name="mailhot">{{cite journal |last=Mailhot |first=José |author-link=José Mailhot |title=L'etymologie de "esquimau" revue et corrigée |language=fr |trans-title=The etymology of "eskimo" revised and corrected |journal=Études/Inuit/Studies |volume=2 |issue=2 |year=1978}}</ref><ref name="igoddard">{{cite book |last=Goddard |first=Ives |author-link=Ives Goddard |title=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=5 (Arctic) |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-16-004580-6}}</ref> 'eaters of raw meat' in [[Algonquian languages]] common to people along the Atlantic coast.<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="natlang">{{cite web|url=http://www.native-languages.org/iaq23.htm |title=Setting the Record Straight About Native Languages: What Does "Eskimo" Mean In Cree? |publisher=Native-languages.org |access-date=2012-06-13}}</ref><ref name="bartlebyeskimo">{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/24/E0212400.html |title=Eskimo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010412155403/http://www.bartleby.com/61/24/E0212400.html |archive-date=2001-04-12 |publisher=Bartleby |work=American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition, 2000 |access-date=January 13, 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> An unnamed [[Cree]] speaker suggested the original word that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been {{lang|cr|askamiciw}} (meaning 'he eats it raw'); Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as {{lang|cr|askipiw}} (meaning 'eats something raw').<ref name="publications" /><ref name="natlang" /><ref name="bartlebyeskimo" /><ref name="stern1">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UHTsUmt1PEC |title=Historical Dictionary of the Inuit |first=Pamela R. |last=Stern |access-date=June 13, 2012 |isbn=978-0-8108-6556-3 |date=July 27, 2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="ostg1">{{cite web |first1=Robert |last1=Peroni |first2=Birgit |last2=Veith |url=http://www.ostgroenland-hilfe.de/en/projekt.html |title=Ostgroenland-Hilfe Project |publisher=Ostgroenland-hilfe.de |access-date=June 13, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318173645/http://www.ostgroenland-hilfe.de/en/projekt.html |archive-date=March 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite dictionary |entry=Eskimo |dictionary=Oxford Dictionary |via=Lexico.com |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/eskimo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210154048/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/eskimo |archive-date=February 10, 2021 |access-date=December 19, 2020 |language=en}}</ref> Regardless, the term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik.<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="natlang" /><ref name="NPR">{{Cite news |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/04/24/475129558/why-you-probably-shouldnt-say-eskimo |title=Why You Probably Shouldn't Say 'Eskimo' |first=Rebecca |last=Hersher |date=April 24, 2016 |newspaper=[[NPR]]}}</ref><ref name="global">{{Cite news |last=Purdy |first=Chris |date=November 27, 2015 |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/2366689/expert-says-meat-eater-name-eskimo-an-offensive-term-placed-on-inuit/ |title=Expert says 'meat-eater' name Eskimo an offensive term placed on Inuit |work=[[Global News]] }}</ref>
One of the first printed uses of the French word {{lang|fr|Esquimaux}} comes from [[Samuel Hearne]]'s ''A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772'' first published in 1795.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38404/38404-h/38404-h.htm |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean, by Samuel Hearne. |via=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref>
===
[[File:Кожаный панцирь.jpg|thumb|[[Laminar armour]] from hardened leather reinforced by wood and bones worn by [[Indigenous peoples of Siberia|native Siberians]] and Eskimos]]
[[File:Koryak armor.jpeg|thumb|[[Lamellar armour]] worn by [[Indigenous peoples of Siberia|native Siberians]]]]
The term ''Eskimo'' is still used by people to encompass Inuit and Yupik, as well as other Indigenous or Alaska Native and Siberian peoples.<ref name="ENBR" /><ref name="NPR" /><ref name="mweb">{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Eskimo |title=Eskimo: Websters Dictionary |access-date=April 1, 2021}}</ref> In the 21st century, usage in North America has declined.<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="global" /> Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit.
In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term ''Eskimo'' is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term ''Inuit''{{hsp}}<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="stern1" /><ref name="ostg1" /><ref name="ahdinuit">Usage note, [https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Inuit "Inuit"], ''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'': Fourth Edition, 2000</ref> or terms specific to a particular group or community.<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="Waite2013">{{cite book |first=Maurice |last=Waite |title=Pocket Oxford English Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xqKcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA305 |year=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |___location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-966615-7 |page=305 |quote=Some people regard the word Eskimo as offensive, and the peoples inhabiting the regions of northern Canada and parts of Greenland and Alaska prefer to call themselves Inuit |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="SvartvikLeech2016">{{cite book |first1=Jan |last1=Svartvik |first2=Geoffrey |last2=Leech |title=English – One Tongue, Many Voices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtl6DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA97 |year=2016 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] UK |isbn=978-1-137-16007-2 |page=97 |quote=Today, the term "Eskimo" is viewed as the "non preferred term". Some Inuit find the term offensive or derogatory. |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/2016/05/23/obama-signs-measure-to-get-rid-of-the-word-eskimo-in-federal-laws/ |title=Obama signs measure to get rid of the word 'Eskimo' in federal laws |date=May 24, 2016}}</ref> This has resulted in a trend whereby some non-Indigenous people believe that they should use ''Inuit'' even for Yupik who are non-[[Inuit]].<ref name="kaplannew" />
[[Greenlandic Inuit]] generally refer to themselves as Greenlanders ({{lang|kl|Kalaallit}} or {{lang|da-GL|Grønlændere}}) and speak the [[Greenlandic language]] and Danish.<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="ethno">[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal "Inuktitut, Greenlandic".] ''Ethnologue''. Retrieved 6 Aug 2012.</ref> Greenlandic Inuit belong to three groups: the [[Kalaallit]] of west Greenland, who speak [[West Greenlandic|Kalaallisut]];<ref name="ethno" /> the [[Tunumiit]] of [[Tunu]] (east Greenland), who speak [[Tunumiit language|Tunumiit oraasiat]] ("East Greenlandic"); and the [[Inughuit]] of north Greenland, who speak [[Inuktun]].
The word ''Eskimo'' is a racially charged term in Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/north/eskimo-pie-name-change-1.5620201 |title=Eskimo Pie owner to change ice cream's name, acknowledging derogatory term |date=June 19, 2020 |publisher=[[CBC News]] |access-date=September 25, 2020 |quote=The U.S. owner of Eskimo Pie ice cream will change the product's brand name and marketing, it told Reuters on Friday, becoming the latest company to rethink racially charged brand imagery amid a broad debate on racial injustice.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/sports/football/cfl/edmonton-eskimos-team-name-july8-1.5641937 |title=Edmonton CFL team heeds sponsors' calls, accelerates review of potential name change |date=July 8, 2020 |publisher=[[CBC News]] |access-date=September 25, 2020 |quote=Edmonton's team has seen repeated calls for a name change in the past, and faces renewed criticism as sports teams in Canada, the United States and elsewhere are urged to remove outdated and sometimes racist names and images.}}</ref> In Canada's Central Arctic, {{lang|ik|Inuinnaq}} is the preferred term,<ref name="translate">{{cite book |last1=Ohokak |first1=G. |first2=M. |last2=Kadlun |first3=B. |last3=Harnum |title=Inuinnaqtun-English Dictionary |publisher=Kitikmeot Heritage Society}}</ref> and in the eastern Canadian Arctic {{lang|iu|Inuit}}. The language is often called ''[[Inuktitut]]'', though other local designations are also used.
[[Section 25 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Section 25]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-15.html |title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms |work=[[Department of Justice Canada]] |access-date=August 30, 2012}}</ref> of the ''[[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]'' and [[Section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982|section 35]]<ref name="defe">{{cite web |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Const/page-16.html |title=Rights of the Aboriginal Peoples of Canada |work=[[Department of Justice Canada]] |access-date=August 30, 2012}}</ref> of the ''[[Constitution Act, 1982|Constitution Act]]'' of 1982 recognized Inuit as a distinctive group of [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]. Although ''Inuit'' can be applied to all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term ''Eskimo'' is still used because it includes both [[Iñupiat]] (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and [[Yupik peoples|Yupik]], who are not.<ref name="kaplannew" />
The term ''[[Alaska Natives|Alaska Native]]'' is inclusive of (and under U.S. and Alaskan law, as well as the linguistic and cultural legacy of Alaska, refers to) all Indigenous peoples of Alaska,<ref name="Company2005"/> including not only the Iñupiat (Alaskan Inuit) and the Yupik, but also groups such as the Aleut, who share a recent ancestor, as well as the largely unrelated<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2012/jul/native-american-populations-descend-three-key-migrations |title=Native American populations descend from three key migrations |date=July 12, 2012 |website=UCL News |publisher=[[University College London]] |access-date=December 12, 2018}}</ref> [[indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast]] and the [[Alaskan Athabaskans]], such as the [[Eyak people]]. The term ''Alaska Native'' has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the United States as a result of the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]] of 1971. It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating outside the state. As a result, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska.<ref name="Stern2013">{{cite book |first=Pamela R. |last=Stern |title=Historical Dictionary of the Inuit |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVsrAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |date=2013 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7912-6 |page=2 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref name="ENBR">{{Cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Eskimo-people |entry=Eskimo |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |title=Inuit | Definition, History, Culture, & Facts | Britannica |date=28 April 2023 }}</ref> Alternative terms, such as ''Inuit-Yupik'', have been proposed,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Holton |first1=Gary |year=2018 |chapter=Place naming strategies in Inuit-Yupik and Dene languages in Alaska |editor1-first=Kenneth L. |editor1-last=Pratt |editor2-first=Scott |editor2-last=Heyes |title=Language, memory and landscape: Experiences from the boreal forest to the tundra |pages=1–27 |___location=Calgary |publisher=[[University of Calgary Press]]}}</ref> but none has gained widespread acceptance. Early 21st century population estimates registered more than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia.<ref name="ENBR" />
=== Inuit Circumpolar Council ===
In 1977, the [[Inuit Circumpolar Council|Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] (ICC) meeting in Barrow, Alaska (now [[Utqiaġvik, Alaska]]), officially adopted ''Inuit'' as a designation for all circumpolar Native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term. They voted to replace the word ''Eskimo'' with ''Inuit''.<ref name="MacKenzie 2014 p. 60">{{cite book |last=MacKenzie |first=S. |title=Films on Ice: Cinemas of the Arctic |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |series=Traditions in World Cinema |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-7486-9418-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXAxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 |access-date=5 Nov 2021 |page=60 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all.<ref name="kaplannew" /><ref name="EII">{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaskan-natives.com/2166/eskimo-inuit-inupiaq-terms-thing/|title=Eskimo, Inuit, and Inupiaq: Do these terms mean the same thing?}}</ref> As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term ''Eskimo'' with {{lang|iu|Inuit}} ({{lang|iu|Inuk}} in singular).
The ICC charter defines ''Inuit'' as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, [[Inuvialuit]] (Canada), [[Kalaallit]] (Greenland) and Yupik (Russia)".<ref name="ICCcharter">{{cite web |url=https://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/icc-international/icc-charter/ |title=ICC Charter |date=3 January 2019 |publisher=[[Inuit Circumpolar Council]] |access-date=April 3, 2021}}</ref> Despite the ICC's 1977 decision to adopt the term ''Inuit'', this has not been accepted by all or even most Yupik people.<ref name="MacKenzie 2014 p. 60" />
In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use ''Inuit'' and ''Paleo-Inuit'' instead of ''Eskimo'' or ''Paleo-Eskimo''.<ref name="ICC2010-01">{{cite web |author=Inuit Circumpolar Council |title=On the use of the term Inuit in scientific and other circles |type=Resolution 2010-01 |url=https://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/iccexcouncilresolutiononterminuit.pdf |date=2010}}</ref>
==== Academic response ====
In a 2015 commentary in the journal ''[[Arctic (journal)|Arctic]]'', Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued fellow Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and use ''Paleo-Inuit'' instead of ''Paleo-Eskimo''.<ref name="Friesen, 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Friesen |first1=T. Max |title=On the Naming of Arctic Archaeological Traditions: The Case for Paleo-Inuit |journal=[[Arctic (journal)|Arctic]] |date=2015 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=iii–iv |doi=10.14430/arctic4504 |doi-access=free |hdl=10515/sy5sj1b75 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and ''Arctic'' editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In the Canadian context, continued use of any term that incorporates ''Eskimo'' is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners."
Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., [[Dorset culture|Dorset]] and [[Groswater Bay#Legacy|Groswater]]) and agreed with Frieson in using the ''Inuit tradition'' to replace ''Neo-Eskimo'', although they noted replacement for ''Palaeoeskimo'' was still an open question and discussed ''Paleo-Inuit'', ''Arctic Small Tool Tradition'', and ''pre-Inuit'', as well as Inuktitut loanwords like {{lang|iu|Tuniit}} and {{lang|iu|Sivullirmiut}}, as possibilities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hodgetts |first1=Lisa |last2=Wells |first2=Patricia |title=Priscilla Renouf Remembered: An Introduction to the Special Issue with a Note on Renaming the Palaeoeskimo Tradition |journal=Arctic |date=2016 |volume=69 |issue=5 |doi=10.14430/arctic4678 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the ''[[Journal of Anthropological Archaeology]]'' that there is a "clear need" to replace the terms ''Neo-Eskimo'' and ''Paleo-Eskimo'', citing the ICC resolution, but finding a consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is difficult, since [[Alaska Natives]] do not use the word ''Inuit'' to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicable only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada like ''Paleo Inuit'' and ''Ancestral Inuit'' would not be acceptable.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Braymer-Hayes |first1=Katelyn |last2=Anderson |first2=Shelby L. |last3=Alix |first3=Claire |last4=Darwent |first4=Christyann M. |last5=Darwent |first5=John |last6=Mason |first6=Owen K. |last7=Norman |first7=Lauren Y.E. |title=Studying pre-colonial gendered use of space in the Arctic: Spatial analysis of ceramics in Northwestern Alaska |journal=[[Journal of Anthropological Archaeology]] |date=2020 |volume=58 |article-number=101165 |doi=10.1016/j.jaa.2020.101165 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
American linguist [[Lenore Grenoble]] has also explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used ''Inuit–Yupik'' instead of ''Eskimo'' with regards to the language branch.<ref name="Grenoble, 2016">{{cite book |last=Grenoble |first=Lenore A. |author-link=Lenore Grenoble |editor1-last=Day |editor1-first=Delyn |editor2-last=Rewi |editor2-first=Poia |editor2-link=Poia Rewi |editor3-last=Higgins |editor3-first=Rawinia |editor3-link=Rawinia Higgins |title=The Journeys of Besieged Languages |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars |isbn=978-1-4438-9943-7 |page=284 |chapter=Kalaallisut: The Language of Greenland}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Grenoble |first1=Lenore A. |editor1-last=Hinton |editor1-first=Leanne |editor2-last=Huss |editor2-first=Leena |editor3-last=Roche |editor3-first=Gerald |title=The Routledge Handbook of Language Revitalization |date=2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |doi=10.4324/9781315561271 |page=353 |chapter=Arctic Indigenous Languages: Vitality and Revitalization |hdl=10072/380836 |isbn=978-1-315-56127-1|s2cid=150673555 }}</ref>
== History ==
Genetic evidence suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves. While the great majority of indigenous American peoples can be traced to a single early migration of [[Paleo-Indians]], the [[Na-Dené]], [[Inuit]] and [[Alaska Natives|Indigenous Alaskan]] populations exhibit admixture from [[Genetic history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas|distinct populations]] that migrated into America at a later date and are closely linked to the peoples of far northeastern Asia (e.g. [[Chukchi people|Chukchi]]), and only more remotely to the majority indigenous American type. For modern [[Eskimo–Aleut]] speakers, this later ancestral component makes up almost half of their genomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmc=3615710 |year=2012 |last1=Reich |first1=D. |last2=Patterson |first2=N. |last3=Campbell |first3=D. |last4=Tandon |first4=A.|last5=Mazieres |first5=S. |last6=Ray |first6=N. |last7=Parra |first7=M. V. |last8=Rojas |first8=W. |last9=Duque |first9=C. |last10=Mesa |first10=N. |last11=García |first11=L. F. |last12=Triana |first12=O. |last13=Blair |first13=S. |last14=Maestre |first14=A. |last15=Dib |first15=J. C. |last16=Bravi |first16=C. M. |last17=Bailliet |first17=G. |last18=Corach |first18=D. |last19=Hünemeier |first19=T. |last20=Bortolini |first20=M. C. |last21=Salzano |first21=F. M. |last22=Petzl-Erler |first22=M. L. |last23=Acuña-Alonzo |first23=V. |last24=Aguilar-Salinas |first24=C. |last25=Canizales-Quinteros |first25=S. |last26=Tusié-Luna |first26=T. |last27=Riba |first27=L. |last28=Rodríguez-Cruz |first28=M. |last29=Lopez-Alarcón |first29=M. |last30=Coral-Vazquez |first30=R. |display-authors=3 |title=Reconstructing Native American Population History |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=488 |issue=7411 |pages=370–374 |doi=10.1038/nature11258 |pmid=22801491 |bibcode=2012Natur.488..370R}}</ref> The ancient [[Paleo-Eskimo]] population was genetically distinct from the modern circumpolar populations, but eventually derives from the same far northeastern Asian cluster.<ref name="Raghavan et al 2014"/> It is understood that some or all of these ancient people migrated across the [[Chukchi Sea]] to North America during the pre-neolithic era, somewhere around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.<ref name="Flegontov et al 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Flegontov |first1=Pavel |last2=Altinişik |first2=N. Ezgi |last3=Changmai |first3=Piya |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Bolnick |first6=Deborah A. |last7=Candilio |first7=Francesca |last8=Flegontova |first8=Olga |last9=Jeong |first9=Choongwon |last10=Harper |first10=Thomas K. |last11=Keating |first11=Denise |last12=Kennett |first12=Douglas J. |last13=Kim |first13=Alexander M. |first27=Stephan |last27=Schiffels |first26=David |last26=Reich |first25=Johannes |last25=Krause |first24=Ron |last24=Pinhasi |last23=O'Rourke |last15=Olalde |first18=Pontus |first15=Iñigo |last14=Lamnidis |first16=Jennifer |last17=Sattler |first17=Robert A. |last18=Skoglund |last19=Vajda |first22=M. Geoffrey |first19=Edward J. |last20=Vasilyev |first20=Sergey |last21=Veselovskaya |first21=Elizaveta |last22=Hayes |last16=Raff |display-authors=3 |date=13 October 2017 |title=Paleo-Eskimo genetic legacy across North America |journal=bioRxiv |doi=10.1101/203018 |hdl-access=free |first14=Thiseas C. |first23=Dennis H. |hdl=21.11116/0000-0004-5D08-C |s2cid=90288469}}</ref> It is believed that ancestors of the [[Aleut]] people inhabited the [[Aleutian Islands|Aleutian Chain]] 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dunne |first1=J. A. |last2=Maschner |first2=H. |last3=Betts |first3=M. W. |last4=Huntly |first4=N. |last5=Russell |first5=R. |last6=Williams |first6=R. J. |last7=Wood |first7=S. A. |display-authors=3 |year=2016 |title=The roles and impacts of human hunter-gatherers in North Pacific marine food webs |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=6 |article-number=21179 |bibcode=2016NatSR...621179D |doi=10.1038/srep21179 |pmc=4756680 |pmid=26884149}}</ref>
[[File:Dorset_longhouse.jpg|thumb|Stone remains of a [[Dorset culture]] longhouse near [[Cambridge Bay]], [[Nunavut]]]]
The earliest positively identified [[Paleo-Eskimo]] cultures ([[Early Paleo-Eskimo]]) date to 5,000 years ago.<ref name="Raghavan et al 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Raghavan |first1=Maanasa |last2=DeGiorgio |first2=Michael |last3=Albrechtsen |first3=Anders |last4=Moltke |first4=Ida |last5=Skoglund |first5=Pontus |last6=Korneliussen |first6=Thorfinn S. |last7=Grønnow |first7=Bjarne |last8=Appelt |first8=Martin |last9=Gulløv |first9=Hans Christian |last10=Friesen |first10=T. Max |last11=Fitzhugh |first11=William |display-authors=3 |date=29 August 2014 |title=The genetic prehistory of the New World Arctic |journal=[[Science (journal) |Science]] |volume=345 |issue=6200 |doi=10.1126/science.1255832 |pmid=25170159 |doi-access=free |last14=Olsen |last44=Kivisild |first47=Finn C. |last47=Nielsen |first46=Michael H. |last46=Crawford |first45=Richard |last45=Villems |first44=Toomas |last42=Götherström |first43=Ludovic |last43=Orlando |first42=Anders |first48=Jørgen |first41=Victor A. |last41=Spitsyn |first40=Joan |last40=Coltrain |first39=M. Geoffrey |last48=Dissing |first50=Morten |last49=Heinemeier |first54=M. Thomas P. |s2cid=353853 |last12=Malmström |first12=Helena |last13=Rasmussen |first56=Eske |last56=Willerslev |first55=Rasmus |last55=Nielsen |last54=Gilbert |first49=Jan |first53=Mattias |last53=Jakobsson |first52=Dennis H. |last52=O'Rourke |first51=Carlos |last51=Bustamante |first38=Hans |last50=Meldgaard |last39=Hayes |last38=Lange |first14=Jesper |last20=Renouf |first24=Kate |last24=Britton |first23=Marta |last23=Mirazón Lahr |first22=Niels |last22=Lynnerup |first21=Jerome |last21=Cybulski |first20=M. A. Priscilla |first19=Vaughan |first25=Rick |last19=Grimes |first18=Thomas |last18=Stafford |first17=Simon M. |last17=Fahrni |first16=Benjamin T. |last16=Fuller |first15=Linea |last15=Melchior |last25=Knecht |last26=Arneborg |first37=Claus |first32=Vibha |last37=Andreasen |first36=Kirill |last36=Dneprovsky |first35=Tracey |last35=Pierre |first34=Elza |last34=Khusnutdinova |first33=Thomas V. O. |last33=Hansen |last32=Raghavan |first26=Jette |first13=Simon |last31=Rasmussen |first30=Yong |last30=Wang |first29=Anna-Sapfo |last29=Malaspinas |first28=Omar E. |last28=Cornejo |first27=Mait |last27=Metspalu |first31=Morten}}</ref> Several earlier indigenous peoples existed in the northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland).<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 19, 2011 |title=- Saqqaq culture chronology |url=https://natmus.dk/organisation/forskning-samling-og-bevaring/nyere-tid-og-verdens-kulturer/etnografisk-samling/arktisk-forskning/prehistory-of-greenland/saqqaq/ |publisher=[[National Museum of Denmark]]}}</ref> The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to have developed in Alaska from people related to the [[Arctic small tool tradition]] in eastern Asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier.<ref name="Cordell Lightfoot McManamon Milner 2008 p. 3-PA274">{{cite book |last1=Cordell |first1=L.S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=RA3-PA274 |title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia [4 volumes]: An Encyclopedia |last2=Lightfoot |first2=K. |last3=McManamon |first3=F. |last4=Milner |first4=G. |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-313-02189-3 |series=Non-Series |page=3-PA274 |access-date=November 7, 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with the original [[pre-Dorset]] Indigenous culture developed in Alaska. At least 4,000 years ago, the Unangan culture of the [[Aleut]] became distinct. It is not generally considered an Eskimo culture. However, there is some possibility of an Aleutian origin of the [[Dorset culture|Dorset]] people,<ref name="Raghavan et al 2014"/> who in turn are a likely ancestor of today's Inuit and Yupik.<ref name="Flegontov et al 2017"/>
Approximately 1,500 to 2,000 years ago, apparently in northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. Inuit language became distinct and, over a period of several centuries, its speakers migrated across northern Alaska, through Canada, and into Greenland. The distinct culture of the [[Thule people]] (drawing strongly from the [[Birnirk culture]]) developed in northwestern Alaska. It very quickly spread over the entire area occupied by Eskimo peoples, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them.<ref name="Greenberg Croft ProQuest (Firm) 2005 p. 379">{{cite book |last1=Greenberg |first1=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BlYTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA379 |title=Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method |last2=Croft |first2=W. |author3=ProQuest (Firm) |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |___location=Oxford |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-925771-3 |series=Oxford linguistics |page=379 |access-date=November 5, 2021 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
== Languages ==
{{Main|Eskaleut languages}}
=== Language family ===
[[File:Welcome to Barrow, Alaska.jpg|thumb|left|English ("Welcome to Barrow") and [[Inupiaq language|Iñupiaq]] (''Paġlagivsigiñ Utqiaġvigmun''), [[Utqiaġvik, Alaska]], framed by whale jawbones]]
The [[Eskaleut languages|Eskimo–Aleut]] (also known as Eskaleut or Inuit–Yupik–Unangan) family of languages includes two cognate branches: the [[Aleut language|Aleut]] (Unangan) branch and the Inuit–Yupik branch.<ref name="Lyovin Kessler Leben 2017 p. 327">{{cite book |last1=Lyovin |first1=A. |last2=Kessler |first2=B. |last3=Leben |first3=W.R. |title=An Introduction to the Languages of the World |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-19-514988-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjxuDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA327 |access-date=November 7, 2021 |page=327 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
The number of [[Grammatical case|cases]] varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case system compared to those of the Inuit–Yupik subfamily. Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages possess voiceless plosives at the [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]], [[coronal consonant|coronal]], [[Velar consonant|velar]] and [[Uvular consonant|uvular]] positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops but retained the [[Nasal consonant|nasal]]. In the Inuit–Yupik subfamily a voiceless [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] [[Lateral consonant|lateral]] [[Fricative consonant|fricative]] is also present.
The Inuit–Yupik sub-family consists of the [[Inuit languages|Inuit]] and [[Yupik languages|Yupik]] language sub-groups.<ref name="FortecueM">{{Cite book |url=https://www.alaska.edu/uapress/browse/detail/comparative-eskimo-dictionary-with-aleut-cognates.php |title=Comparative Eskimo Dictionary with Aleut Cognates |first1=Michael |last1=Fortescue |author1-link=Michael Fortescue |first2=Steven |last2=Jacobson |first3=Lawrence |last3=Kaplan |publisher=Alaska Native Language Center, [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]}}</ref> The [[Sirenik language]], which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded as a third branch of the Inuit–Yupik language family. Other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.<ref name="FortecueM"/><ref name="kaplanB">{{cite web |last=Kaplan |first=Lawrence |url=https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/resources/comparative_yupik_and_inuit.php |title=Comparative Yupik and Inuit |date=July 1, 2011 |access-date=April 3, 2021 |publisher=Alaska Native Language Center, [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]}}</ref>
Inuit languages comprise a [[dialect continuum]], or dialect chain, that stretches from [[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]] and [[Norton Sound]] in Alaska, across northern Alaska and Canada, and east to Greenland. Changes from western (Iñupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (e.g., ''kumlu'', meaning "thumb", changes to ''kuvlu'', changes to ''kublu'', changes to ''kulluk'', changes to ''kulluq'',<ref name=livingdict>{{cite web |url=http://www.livingdictionary.com/search/viewResults.jsp?language=en&searchString=thumb&languageSet=all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807154151/https://www.livingdictionary.com/search/viewResults.jsp?language=en&searchString=thumb&languageSet=all |url-status=dead |archive-date=August 7, 2022 |title=thumb |work=Asuilaak Living Dictionary |access-date=November 25, 2007}} </ref>) and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another, but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another.<ref name="kaplanB"/> [[Seward Peninsula]] dialects in western Alaska, where much of the [[Iñupiat]] culture has been in place for perhaps less than 500 years, are greatly affected by phonological influence from the Yupik languages. [[Tunumiit dialect|Eastern Greenlandic]], at the opposite end of Inuit range, has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name avoidance.<ref name="FortecueM"/><ref name="kaplanB"/>
Ethnographically, [[Greenlandic Inuit]] belong to three groups: the [[Kalaallit]] of west Greenland, who speak [[West Greenlandic|Kalaallisut]];<ref name="ethno"/> the [[Tunumiit]] of [[Tunu]] (east Greenland), who speak [[Tunumiit language|Tunumiit oraasiat]] ("East Greenlandic"), and the [[Inughuit]] of north Greenland, who speak [[Inuktun]].
The four [[Yupik languages]], by contrast, including [[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]] (Sugpiaq), [[Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]], [[Naukan Yupik language|Naukan]] (Naukanski), and [[Central Siberian Yupik language|Siberian Yupik]], are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences. They demonstrate limited mutual intelligibility.<ref name="FortecueM"/> Additionally, both Alutiiq and Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages – Siberian Yupik and Naukan Yupik – are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are similar, they have pronounced differences phonologically. Differences of vocabulary between Inuit and any one of the Yupik languages are greater than between any two Yupik languages.<ref name="kaplanB"/> Even the dialectal differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically.<ref name="kaplanB"/>
Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik and Central Yup'ik.<ref name="erudit.org">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobson |first1=Steven A. |title=History of the Naukan Yupik Eskimo dictionary with implications for a future Siberian Yupik dictionary |journal=Études/Inuit/Studies |date=13 November 2006 |volume=29 |issue=1–2 |pages=149–161 |doi=10.7202/013937ar |s2cid=128785932 |doi-access=}}</ref>
[[Image:Inuktitut dialect map.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Distribution of language variants across the Arctic]]
An overview of the Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages family is given below:
{{tree list}}
* '''Inuit–Yupik–Unangan'''
**[[Aleut language|Aleut]] or Unangan
****Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (60–80 speakers)
****Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers)
**Inuit–Yupik or Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit)
***[[Yupik languages|Yupik]]
****[[Yup'ik language|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]] (10,000 speakers)
****[[Alutiiq language|Alutiiq]] or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers)
****[[Central Siberian Yupik language|Central Siberian Yupik]] or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1,400 speakers)
****[[Naukan Yupik language|Naukan]] (700 speakers)
***[[Inuit languages|Inuit]] or Inupik (75,000 speakers)
****[[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]] (Greenland, 47,000 speakers)
*****[[West Greenlandic|Kalaallisut]] (West Greenlandic, 44,000-52,000 speakers)
*****[[Tunumiisut]] (East Greenlandic, 3,500 speakers)
****[[Inupiaq language|Iñupiaq]] (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers)
****[[Inuvialuktun]] (western Canada; together with [[Siglitun]], [[Netsilik dialect|Natsilingmiutut]], [[Inuinnaqtun]] and [[Uummarmiutun]] 765 speakers)
****[[Inuktitut]] (eastern Canada; together with [[Inuktun]] and [[Inuinnaqtun]], 30,000 speakers)
****[[Inuktun]] (Avanersuarmiutut, Thule dialect or Polar Eskimo, approximately 1,000 speakers)
***[[Sirenik language|Sirenik]] (Sirenikskiy) {{extinct}}
{{tree list/end}}
American linguist [[Lenore Grenoble]] has explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used ''Inuit–Yupik'' instead of ''Eskimo'' with regards to the language branch.<ref name="Grenoble, 2016"/>
=== Words for ''snow'' ===
{{Main|Eskimo words for snow}}
There has been a long-running linguistic debate about whether or not the speakers of the Inuit–Yupik–Unangan language group have an unusually large number of words for snow. The general modern consensus is that, in multiple Inuit–Yupik languages, there are, or have been in simultaneous usage, indeed fifty plus words for snow.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.treehugger.com/are-there-really-eskimo-words-for-snow-4862000|title = Are There Really 50 Eskimo Words for Snow?}}</ref>
== Diet ==
[[File:Walrus meat 1 1999-04-01.jpg|thumb|Sharing of frozen, aged [[walrus]] meat. Inuit are known for their practice of food sharing, where large catches of food are shared with the broader community.<ref name="Damas">{{cite journal |last1=Damas |first1=David |year=1972 |title=Central Eskimo Systems of Food Sharing |journal=[[Ethnology (journal)|Ethnology]] |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=220–240 |doi=10.2307/3773217 |jstor=3773217}}</ref>]]{{Excerpt|Inuit cuisine|paragraph=1,2|only=paragraph|hat=no}}
== Inuit ==
{{Further|Inuit|Lists of Inuit}}
{{distinguish|text=the [[Innu]], a First Nations people in eastern Quebec and Labrador}}
[[File:Eskimo fisherman's summer house, Alaska page 250.png|thumb|upright|Eskimo ([[Yup'ik]] of [[Nelson Island (Alaska)|Nelson Island]]) fisherman's summer house]]
Inuit inhabit the [[Arctic]] and northern [[Bering Sea]] coasts of Alaska in the United States, and Arctic coasts of the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], [[Quebec]], and [[Labrador]] in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, [[marine mammal]]s, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on the ice.<ref name="ENBR"/> Clothing consisted of robes made of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Edward William |title=The Eskimo about Bering Strait |publisher=U.S. G.P.O. |date=1899}}</ref> They maintain a unique [[Inuit culture]].
=== Greenland's Inuit ===
{{Main|Greenlandic Inuit}}
[[Greenlandic Inuit]] make up 90% of Greenland's population.<ref name=CIAworld/> They belong to three major groups:
* [[Kalaallit]] of west Greenland, who speak [[West Greenlandic|Kalaallisut]]
* [[Tunumiit]] of east Greenland, who speak [[Tunumiit dialect|Tunumiisut]]
* [[Inughuit]] of north Greenland, who speak [[Inuktun]] or Polar Eskimo.<ref name="ethno"/>
=== Canadian Inuit ===
{{Main|Inuit}}
Canadian Inuit live primarily in [[Inuit Nunangat]] (lit. "lands, waters and ices of the [Inuit]"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.itk.ca/maps-of-inuit-nunangat/#:~:text=The%20term%20%E2%80%9CInuit%20Nunangat%E2%80%9D%20is%20a%20Canadian%20Inuktitut%20term%20that%20includes%20land%2C%20water%2C%20and%20ice. |title=Maps of Inuit Nunangat (Inuit Regions of Canada) |publisher=Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami |access-date=14 August 2025}}</ref>), their traditional homeland although some people live in southern parts of Canada. Inuit Nunangat ranges from the Yukon–Alaska border in the west across the Arctic to northern Labrador.
The [[Inuvialuit]] live in the [[Inuvialuit Settlement Region]], the northern part of [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]], which stretches to the [[Amundsen Gulf]] and the [[Nunavut]] border and includes the western [[Arctic Archipelago|Canadian Arctic Islands]]. The land was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement.
The majority of Inuit live in Nunavut (a [[Provinces and territories of Canada|territory of Canada]]), [[Nunavik]] (the northern part of [[Quebec]]) and in [[Nunatsiavut]] (Inuit settlement region in [[Labrador]]).<ref name=statscan/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://indigenouspeoplesatlasofcanada.ca/article/inuit-nunangat/ |title=Inuit Nunangat |access-date=April 3, 2021 |publisher=[[Canadian Geographic]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itk.ca/inuit-nunangat-map/ |title=Map of Inuit Nunangat |date=April 4, 2019 |access-date=April 3, 2021 |publisher=[[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://irc.inuvialuit.com/about-irc/inuvialuit-final-agreement |title=Inuvialuit Final Agreement |date=21 November 2016 |access-date=April 2, 2021 |publisher=Inuvialuit Regional Corporation}}</ref>
=== Alaska's Iñupiat ===
{{Main|Iñupiat}}
[[File:Inupiat Family from Noatak, Alaska, 1929, Edward S. Curtis (restored).jpg|thumb|An [[Iñupiat]] family from [[Noatak, Alaska]], 1929]]
The Iñupiat are Inuit of Alaska's [[Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska|Northwest Arctic]] and [[North Slope Borough, Alaska|North Slope]] boroughs and the [[Bering Strait]]s region, including the Seward Peninsula.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://csalateral.org/issue/7-2/indigenous-cosmopolitanism-alaska-native-heritage-center-tyquiengco/attachment/ic_lateral2-3/|title=IC_Lateral2|journal=Lateral|year=2018}}</ref> [[Utqiaġvik]], the northernmost city in the United States, is above the [[Arctic Circle]] and in the Iñupiat region. Their language is known as [[Inupiaq language|Iñupiaq]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.alaskanativelanguages.org/inupiaq |title=Inupiatun |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=n.d. |website=Alaska Native Languages |publisher=Alaska Humanities Forum |access-date=May 8, 2021 |quote=Iñupiaq/Inupiaq is spoken by the Iñupiat/Inupiat on the Seward Peninsula, the Northwest Arctic and the North Slope of Alaska and in Western Canada. |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510143606/https://www.alaskanativelanguages.org/inupiaq |url-status=dead }}</ref> Their current communities include 34 villages across ''Iñupiat Nunaŋat'' (Iñupiaq lands) including seven [[List of Alaska Native tribal entities|Alaskan villages]] in the [[North Slope Borough, Alaska|North Slope Borough]], affiliated with the [[Arctic Slope Regional Corporation]]; eleven villages in [[Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska|Northwest Arctic Borough]]; and sixteen villages affiliated with the [[Bering Straits Regional Corporation]].<ref name=medicine>[http://www.nnlm.nlm.nih.gov/archive/20061109155450/inupiaq.html "Inupiaq (Inupiat)—Alaska Native Cultural Profile."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821193420/http://www.nnlm.nlm.nih.gov/archive/20061109155450/inupiaq.html |date=2014-08-21 }} ''National Network of Libraries of Medicine.'' Retrieved 4 Dec 2013.</ref>
== Yupik ==
{{Main|Yupik peoples}}
[[File:AlutiiqDancer.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Alutiiq]] dancer during the biennial "Celebration" cultural event]]
The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who live along the coast of western Alaska, especially on the [[Yukon River|Yukon]]-[[Kuskokwim River|Kuskokwim]] delta and along the Kuskokwim River ([[Yup'ik|Central Alaskan Yup'ik]]); in southern Alaska (the [[Alutiiq]]); and along the eastern coast of [[Chukchi Peninsula|Chukotka]] in the Russian Far East and [[St. Lawrence Island]] in western Alaska (the [[Siberian Yupik]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Facts for Kids: Yup'ik People (Yupik) |url=http://www.bigorrin.org/yupik_kids.htm |access-date=June 20, 2020 |website=www.bigorrin.org}}</ref> The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of [[marine mammal]]s, especially [[Pinniped|seals]], [[walrus]], and [[whale]]s.<ref>"Yupik". (2008). In ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved January 13, 2008, from: [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/655025/Yupik Encyclopædia Britannica Online] Retrieved August 30, 2012.</ref>
=== Alutiiq ===
{{Excerpt|Alutiiq|paragraph=1,2}}
The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the [[Bethel, Alaska]] area. But, it is considered a distinct language with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the [[Alaska Peninsula]] and on [[Kodiak Island]], and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern [[Kenai Peninsula]] and in [[Prince William Sound]]. Residents of [[Nanwalek, Alaska|Nanwalek]], located on southern part of the Kenai Peninsula near [[Seldovia, Alaska|Seldovia]], speak what they call Sugpiaq. They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately 3,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://alutiiqmuseum.org/learn/the-alutiiq-sugpiaq-people/language/906-language-loss-revitalization |title=Language Loss & Revitalization |website=alutiiqmuseum.org |language=en-gb |access-date=June 12, 2018}}</ref>
=== Central Alaskan Yup'ik ===
{{Main|Yup'ik}}
''Yup'ik'', with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Central Alaskan [[Yup'ik language]], who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern [[Norton Sound]] to the north side of [[Bristol Bay]], on the [[Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta]], and on [[Nelson Island (Alaska)|Nelson Island]]. The use of the apostrophe in the name ''Yup'ik'' is a written convention to denote the long pronunciation of the ''p'' sound; but it is spoken the same in other [[Yupik languages]]. Of all the [[Alaska Native languages]], Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about 10,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 still speaking the language. The five dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik include General Central Yup'ik, and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, and Nunivak dialects. In the latter two dialects, both the language and the people are called ''Cup'ik''.<ref name="centralyup'ik">{{cite web |publisher=Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks. |url=https://uaf.edu/anlc/languages/centralakyupik.php |title=Central Alaskan Yup'ik |access-date=April 3, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411035617/https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/centralakyupik.php}}</ref>
===Siberian Yupik===
{{Main|Siberian Yupik}}
[[File:FMIB 37576 Siberian Eskimos aboard the steamer bowhead, showing their furs to trade after indulging in a lunch of whale blubber.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Siberian Yupik]] aboard the steamer ''Bowhead'']]
Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea coast of the [[Chukchi Peninsula]] in Siberia in the Russian Far East<ref name="kaplanB"/> and in the villages of [[Gambell, Alaska|Gambell]] and [[Savoonga, Alaska|Savoonga]] on St. Lawrence Island in Alaska.<ref name="siberianyupik">{{cite web|url=https://uaf.edu/anlc/languages/siberianyupik.php|title=Siberian Yupik|publisher=Alaska Native Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks|access-date=April 3, 2021|archive-date=May 8, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508075538/https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/languages/siberianyupik.php}}</ref> The Central Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Island is nearly identical. About 1,050 of a total Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language. It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned as a first language by children.<ref name="siberianyupik"/>
===Naukan===
{{Main|Naukan people|Naukan Yupik language}}
About 70 of 400 Naukan people still speak Naukanski. The Naukan originate on the Chukot Peninsula in [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]] in Siberia.<ref name="kaplanB"/> Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates back to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo.<ref name="erudit.org"/>
==Sireniki==
{{Main|Sirenik Eskimos}}
[[File:Model of an Ice Scoop, 1900-1930, 36.83.jpg|thumb|left|Model of an ice scoop, Alaska Native, 1900–1930, [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]
Some speakers of Siberian Yupik languages used to speak a divergent Inuit–Yupik variant in the past, before they underwent a [[language shift]]. These former speakers of the [[Sirenik language]] inhabited the settlements of [[Sireniki]], <!--This is the correct spelling as per the source. Please don't use AWB to change it. Thanks.-->Imtuk, and some small villages stretching to the west from Sireniki along south-eastern coasts of Chukchi Peninsula.<ref name=VES>[http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf Vakhtin 1998]: 162</ref> They lived in neighborhoods with Siberian Yupik and [[Chukchi people]]s.
As early as in 1895, <!--This is the correct spelling as per the source. Please don't use AWB to change it. Thanks.-->Imtuk was a settlement with a mixed population of Sireniki and Ungazigmit<ref>Menovshchikov 1964: 7</ref> (the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik). Sirenik culture has been influenced by that of Chukchi, and the language shows [[Chukchi language]] influences.<ref name=linfranc>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Menovshchikov 1990]: 70</ref> Folktale [[Motif (narrative)|motifs]] also show the influence of Chuckchi culture.<ref name=rein-rape>Menovshchikov 1964: 132</ref>
The above peculiarities of this (already [[Extinct language|extinct]]) Inuit–Yupik language amounted to mutual unintelligibility even with its nearest language relatives:<ref>Menovshchikov 1964: 6–7</ref> in the past, Sireniki had to use the unrelated Chukchi language as a [[lingua franca]] for communicating with Siberian Yupik.<ref name=linfranc/>
Many words are formed from entirely different [[Root (linguistics)|root]]s from in Siberian Yupik,<ref name=diff-root>Menovshchikov 1964: 42</ref> but even the grammar has several peculiarities distinct not only among Inuit–Yupik languages, but even compared to Aleut. For example, [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual number]] is not known in Sirenik, while most [[Eskaleut languages|Inuit–Yupik–Unangan languages]] have dual,<ref name=only2>Menovshchikov 1964: 38</ref> including its neighboring Siberian Yupikax relatives.<ref name=verb2>Menovshchikov 1964: 81</ref>
Little is known about the origin of this diversity. The peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Inuit and Yupik groups,<ref>Menovshchikov 1962: 11</ref><ref>Menovshchikov 1964: 9</ref> and being in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries. The influence of the Chukchi language is clear.<ref name=linfranc/>
Because of all these factors, the classification of the Sirenik language is not settled yet:<ref name=VE3>[http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf Vakhtin 1998]: 161</ref> Sireniki language is sometimes regarded as a third branch of Inuit–Yupik (at least, its possibility is mentioned).<ref name="VE3"/><ref name=Vakh-Sir>Linguist List's description about [http://linguistlist.org/people/personal/get-personal-page2.cfm?PersonID=5548&RequestTimeout=500 Nikolai Vakhtin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071026050356/http://linguistlist.org/people/personal/get-personal-page2.cfm?PersonID=5548&RequestTimeout=500 |date=2007-10-26 }}'s book: [https://old.linguistlist.org/pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=938 ''The Old Sirinek Language: Texts, Lexicon, Grammatical Notes''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071023012755/http://linguistlist.org/pubs/books/get-book.cfm?BookID=938 |date=2007-10-23 }}. The author's untransliterated (original) name is "[http://www.eu.spb.ru/univ/rector/index.htm Н.Б. Вахтин] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910134859/http://www.eu.spb.ru/univ/rector/index.htm |date=September 10, 2007 }}".</ref><ref name=icc-ch-lan>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Языки эскимосов |title=Yazyki eskimosov |trans-title=Eskimo languages |work=ICC Chukotka |publisher=[[Inuit Circumpolar Council]] |language=ru |url=http://www.icc.hotbox.ru/yaziki.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026205006/http://www.icc.hotbox.ru/yaziki.htm |archive-date=October 26, 2014}}</ref> Sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the [[Yupik languages|Yupik]] branch.<ref name=siryup>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/subgroups/eskimo-aleut |title=Ethnologue Report for Eskimo–Aleut |publisher=Ethnologue.com |access-date=June 13, 2012}}</ref><ref name=kapyup>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Kaplan 1990]: 136</ref>
== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Alaska Native religion]]
* [[Blond Eskimos]]
* [[Disc number]]
* [[Eskimo archery]]
* [[Eskimo kinship]]
* [[Eskimo kissing]]
* [[Eskimo yo-yo]]
* [[Eskimology]]
* [[Inuit religion]]
* [[Kudlik]]
* [[Maupuk]]
* ''[[Nanook of the North]]'', 1922 documentary
* [[Saqqaq culture]]
{{Div col end}}
== Citations ==
{{reflist|30em}}
== General and cited sources ==
* {{cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Lawrence D. |chapter=The Language of the Alaskan Inuit |pages=131–158 |editor=Dirmid R. F. Collis |title=Arctic Languages. An Awakening |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |___location=Vendôme |year=1990 |isbn=92-3-102661-5 |chapter-url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Menovshchikov |first=Georgy |chapter=Contemporary Studies of the Eskimo–Aleut Languages and Dialects: A Progress Report |pages=69–76 |editor-first=Dirmid R. F. |editor-last=Collis |title=Arctic Languages. An Awakening |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |___location=Vendôme |year=1990 |isbn=92-3-102661-5 |chapter-url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf}}
* {{cite book |last=Nuttall |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LcucDSk4w3YC&dq=Eskimo%20pejorative&pg=PA580 |title=Encyclopedia of the Arctic |___location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-57958-436-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Vakhtin |first=Nikolai |chapter=Endangered Languages in Northeast Siberia: Siberian Yupik and other Languages of Chukotka |pages=159–173 |editor=Erich Kasten |title=Bicultural Education in the North: Ways of Preserving and Enhancing Indigenous Peoples' Languages and Traditional Knowledge |publisher=Waxmann Verlag |___location=Münster |year=1998 |isbn=978-3-89325-651-8 |chapter-url=http://www.siberian-studies.org/publications/PDF/bevakhtin.pdf |format=PDF |url=http://waxmann.com/index2.html?kat/651.html |access-date=April 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070413070114/http://www.waxmann.com/index2.html?kat%2F651.html |archive-date=April 13, 2007}}
* {{Cite web |title=Inuit or Eskimo: Which name to use? |url=https://www.uaf.edu/anlc/resources/inuit_or_eskimo.php |publisher=Alaska Native Language Center |access-date=November 30, 2021}}
=== Cyrillic ===
* {{cite book |last=Menovshchikov |first=Georgy |script-title=ru:Язык сиреникских эскимосов. Фонетика, очерк морфологии, тексты и словарь |title=Yazyk sirenikskikh eskimosov. Fonetika, ocherk morfologii, teksty i slovar' |trans-title=Language of Sireniki Eskimos. Phonetics, morphology, texts and vocabulary |publisher=[[Russian Academy of Sciences|Академия Наук СССР]]. Институт языкознания |___location=Moscow, Leningrad |year=1964 |language=ru}}
== Further reading ==
* [http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol5/iss2/art18/main.html Adapting to climate change: social-ecological resilience in a Canadian western arctic community. Conservation Ecology 5(2)]
* [http://www.en.copian.ca/library/research/ccl/inuit_learning/inuit_learning.pdf Canadian Council on Learning, State of Inuit Learning in Canada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034952/http://www.en.copian.ca/library/research/ccl/inuit_learning/inuit_learning.pdf |date=2017-12-01 }}
* [https://minpaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=649&item_no=1&attribute_id=18&file_no=1 Contemporary Food Sharing: A Case Study from Akulivik, PQ. Canada].
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/nam/inu/index.htm Internet Sacred Text Archive: Inuit Religion]
* [http://anthropology.uwaterloo.ca/ArcticArchStuff/Inuit.html Inuit Culture]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042524/https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/101/7/ehp.93101618.pdf Inuit Exposure to Organochlorines through the Aquatic Food Chain. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(7)]
* [http://iportal.usask.ca/action.php?sid=538872931&url=http://www3.brandonu.ca/cjns/9.2/berlo.pdf&action=go&id=276 Inuit Women and Graphic Arts: Female Creativity and Its Cultural Context. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 9(2)]{{Dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* [https://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/censr-28.pdf We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United States. Census 2000 Special Reports February 2006]
* [http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/nowell/searchterm/eskimo*/field/all/mode/any/conn/and/cosuppress/ University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Frank H. Nowell Photographs] Photographs documenting scenery, towns, businesses, mining activities, Native Americans, and Eskimos in the vicinity of Nome, Alaska from 1901 to 1909.
* [http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/alaskawcanada/searchterm/aleuts%20eskimos%20indians/field/subjec/mode/any/conn/and/cosuppress/ University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Alaska and Western Canada Collection] Images documenting Alaska and Western Canada, primarily Yukon and British Columbia, depicting scenes of the Gold Rush of 1898, city street scenes, Eskimo and Native Americans of the region, hunting and fishing, and transportation.
* [http://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/cdm/search/collection/warner/searchterm/eskimo*/field/title/mode/all/conn/and/cosuppress/ University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Arthur Churchill Warner Photographs] Includes images of Eskimos from 1898 to 1900.
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1956268/pdf/canmedaj01530-0035.pdf Inuit Myopia: an environmentally induced "epidemic"?]
==External links==
{{Wiktionary|eskimo|Eskimo}}
{{Commons category|Inuit}}
{{Commons category|Yupik}}
{{externalvideo|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4_S0rj_RtM ''Eskimo Hunters in Alaska - The Traditional Inuit Way of Life'' 1949 Documentary on Native Americans]}}
* [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1071 ''Some Psychological Aspects of the Impact of the White Man upon the Labrador Eskimo'' Manuscript] at Dartmouth College Library
* [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1184 ''The Traditional Labrador Eskimos'' (1960) Manuscript] at Dartmouth College Library
* [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1110 Victor Levine Manuscripts on origins of the Eskimos] at Dartmouth College Library
{{Ethnic slurs}}
{{Authority control}}
[[
[[Category:Algonquian ethnonyms]]
[[Category:Hunter-gatherers of the Arctic]]
[[Category:Hunter-gatherers of Asia]]
[[Category:Hunter-gatherers of the United States]]
[[Category:Hunter-gatherers of Canada]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of Siberia]]
[[Category:Modern nomads]]
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