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{{About|the Canadian province|the province's capital city|Quebec City|the historical province|Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|other uses}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
<!--READ BEFORE CHANGING THE LEAD: the opening paragraph is the result of much discussion and consensus. Please address any changes to the talk page before making them.-->
{{very long|date=June 2024|words=14,769}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=July 2014}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox province or territory of Canada
|name=Quebec<!--usual form in English; See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(use_English) -->
|settlement_type=[[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
|other_name={{native_name|fr|Québec}}
|Label_map=yes
|image_map=Quebec in Canada 2.svg
|motto={{native phrase|fr|[[Je me souviens]]}}<br />'I remember'
|image_shield=Coat of arms of Quebec.svg
|image_flag=Flag of Quebec.svg
|coordinates={{Coord|52|N|72|W|type:adm1st_scale:30000000_region:CA-QC|notes=<ref>{{Cite cgndb|EFGGK|Quebec}}</ref>|display=inline,title}}
|Former=Canada East
|AdmittanceDate=July 1, 1867
|AdmittanceOrder=1st, with [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Ontario]]
|largest_metro=[[Greater Montreal]]
|largest_city=[[Montreal]]
|CapCoord={{Coord|46|48|50|N|071|12|29|W|type:city_region:CA-QC_source:http://www4.rncan.gc.ca/search-place-names/unique/EHTWR|display=inline|name=Quebec City}}
|capital=[[Quebec City]]
|PremierParty=[[Coalition Avenir Quebec|CAQ]]
|Premier=[[François Legault]]
|government_type = Parliamentary [[constitutional monarchy]]
|Viceroy=[[Manon Jeannotte]]
|ViceroyType=Lieutenant Governor
|Legislature=National Assembly of Quebec
|SenateSeats=24
|HouseSeats=78
|PercentWater=11.5
|area_water_km2=176928
|area_land_km2=1365129
|area_total_km2=1542057
|area_rank=2nd
|population_rank=[[Population of Canada by province and territory|2nd]]
|pop_est_ref=<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 18, 2025 |title=Population estimates, quarterly |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230928010937/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 |archive-date=September 28, 2023 |access-date=June 19, 2025 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>
|pop_est_as_of=Q2 2025
|population_est=9110616<!-- Latest StatCan quarterly estimate only. -->
|population_as_of=[[2021 Canadian census|2021]]
|population_ref=<ref name="StatCan2021">{{cite web |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101 |title=Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]] |date=February 9, 2022 |access-date=February 9, 2022}}</ref>
|population_total=8501840<!--2021 StatCan federal census population only per [[WP:CANPOP]]. Do not update until 2026 census population released. Use "Population_est" below for latest StatCan quarterly estimate.-->
|Density_km2=6.5<ref name="StatCan2021" />
|population_demonym=in English: Quebecer, Quebecker, Québécois <br />in French: {{lang|fr|[[Québécois people|Québécois]]}} ([[masculine gender|m]]), {{lang|fr|Québécoise}} ([[feminine gender|f]])<ref name="Oxford Guide">{{cite book|title=Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage|isbn=0-19-541619-8|page=335|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|last1=Fee|first1=Margery|last2=McAlpine|first2=Janice}}</ref>
|official_lang=[[Quebec French|French]]<ref name=language>{{cite web|url=http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/english/charter/index.html|title=Status of the French language|publisher=Government of Quebec|access-date=November 10, 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514153402/http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/english/charter/index.html|archive-date=May 14, 2011}}</ref>
| GDP_per_capita_rank=9th
| GDP_per_capita=C$63,651
| GDP_rank=2nd
| GDP_year=2022
| GDP_total=C$552.737 billion<ref>{{cite web|url=https://statistique.quebec.ca/en/document/main-economic-indicators-quebec-and-canada/tableau/quarterly-indicators-quebec-and-canada|title=Quarterly indicators, Québec and Canada|publisher=Institut de la Statistique du Québec|date=September 20, 2023}}</ref>
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI = 0.916<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sub-national HDI - Subnational HDI - Global Data Lab|url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/CAN/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0&years=2019}}</ref>—<span style="color:#090">Very high</span>
| HDI_rank = [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by Human Development Index|9th]]
| utc_offset1=−05:00|timezone1=[[Eastern Time Zone]] for most of the province<ref>See [[Time in Canada]]</ref>
| utc_offset1_DST=−04:00
| PostalAbbreviation=QC<ref>{{cite web|title=Canada Postal Codes|url=https://postalcodes.azinfoportal.com/canada/|website=postalcodes.azinfoportal.com|access-date=April 6, 2024}}{{Dead link|date=July 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| website = {{URL|https://www.quebec.ca/|quebec.ca}}
}}
'''Quebec'''{{efn|Pronunciation varies in English:<!-- The EPD citation also applies to the pronunciations outside this footnote --> {{IPAc-en|k|(|w|)|ɪ|ˈ|b|ɛ|k}} {{respell|k(w)ih|BEK}}, {{IPAc-en|k|ɛ|ˈ|b|ɛ|k}} {{respell|keh|BEK}}, {{IPAc-en|k|eɪ|ˈ|b|ɛ|k}} {{respell|kay|BEK}};<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Barber |editor1-first=Katherine |title=The Canadian Oxford Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195418163 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195418163.001.0001/m_en_ca0056346 |chapter=Quebec|year=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite EPD|18|Quebec}}</ref>}} ({{Langx|fr|Québec}}{{efn |{{IPA|fr|kebɛk|FR-Québec.ogg}}<ref name="EFname2">According to the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]], {{lang|fr|Québec}} (with the [[acute accent]]) is the official name in [[Canadian French]] and ''Quebec'' (without the accent) is the province's official name in [[Canadian English]] {{cite web|url=http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/place-names/useful-material-translators/9232 |title=Geographical Names of pan-Canadian significance|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918231551/https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/place-names/useful-material-translators/9232|archive-date=September 18, 2015|publisher=Natural Resources Canada}}</ref>}}) is [[Canada]]'s [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by area|largest province by area]].{{efn|The territory of [[Nunavut]] is larger.}} Located in [[Central Canada]], the province shares borders with the provinces of [[Ontario]] to the west, [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] to the northeast, [[New Brunswick]] to the southeast and a coastal border with the territory of [[Nunavut]]. In the south, it shares a border with the [[United States]].{{efn|Quebec borders the states of [[Vermont]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Maine]].}} Quebec has a population of around 8 million, making it Canada's [[Population of Canada by province and territory|second-most populous province]].
Between 1534 and 1763, what is now Quebec was the [[List of French possessions and colonies|French colony]] of [[Canada (New France)|Canada]] and was the most developed colony in [[New France]]. Following the [[Seven Years' War]], Canada became a [[Territorial evolution of the British Empire#List of territories that were once a part of the British Empire|British colony]], first as the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] (1763–1791), then [[Lower Canada]] (1791–1841), and lastly part of the [[Province of Canada]] (1841–1867) as a result of the [[Lower Canada Rebellion]]. It was [[Canadian Confederation|confederated]] with Ontario, [[Nova Scotia]], and New Brunswick in 1867. [[Grande Noirceur|Until the early 1960s]], the [[Catholic Church in Canada|Catholic Church]] played a large role in the social and cultural institutions in Quebec. However, the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s to 1980s increased the role of the Government of Quebec in {{lang|fr|[[État québécois|l'État québécois]]}} (the public authority of Quebec).
The [[Government of Quebec]] functions within the context of a [[Westminster system]] and is both a [[liberal democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]]. The [[Premier of Quebec]] acts as [[head of government]]. [[Quebec sovereignty movement|Independence debates]] have played a large role in [[Quebec politics]]. Quebec society's [[Social order|cohesion]] and [[Distinct society|specificity]] is based on three of its unique [[Statutory law|statutory]] documents: the ''[[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]]'', the ''[[Charter of the French Language]]'', and the ''[[Civil Code of Quebec]]''. Furthermore, unlike elsewhere in Canada, [[Quebec law|law in Quebec]] is mixed: [[private law]] is exercised under a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil-law]] system, while [[public law]] is exercised under a [[Common law|common-law]] system.
Quebec's [[List of countries and territories where French is an official language|official language]] is French; [[Quebec French|Québécois French]] is the regional [[Variety (linguistics)|variety]]. Quebec is the only [[Francophone Canadians|Francophone-majority]] province of Canada and represents the only major [[Francophone]] centre in the [[Americas]] other than [[Haiti]]. The [[economy of Quebec]] is mainly supported by its large service sector and varied industrial sector. For exports, it leans on the key industries of [[aeronautics]], [[Hydro-Québec|hydroelectricity]], mining, [[Pharmaceutical industry|pharmaceuticals]], aluminum, wood, and paper. Quebec is well known for producing [[maple syrup]], for [[Comedy in Quebec|its comedy]], and for making [[Ice hockey|hockey]] one of the most [[Ice hockey in Canada|popular sports in Canada]]. It is also renowned its distinct [[Culture of Quebec|culture]]; the province produces [[Quebec literature|literature]], [[Music of Quebec|music]], [[Cinema of Quebec|films]], [[List of French-language Canadian television series|TV shows]], [[List of festivals in Quebec|festivals]], and more.
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Etymology==
The name ''Québec'' comes from an [[Algonquin language|Algonquin]] word meaning 'narrow passage' or 'strait'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/origins-canadas-geographical-names/origin-names-canada-and-its-provinces-and-territories/9224|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|title=Origin of the names of Canada and its provinces and territories|date=March 27, 2020}}</ref> The name originally referred to the area around [[Quebec City]] where the [[Saint Lawrence River]] narrows to a cliff-lined gap. Early variations in the spelling included ''Québecq'' and ''Kébec''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Afable |first1=Patricia O. |first2=Madison S. |last2=Beeler |date=1996 |chapter=Place Names |title=Languages |editor-first=Ives |editor-last=Goddard |volume=17 |series=Handbook of North American Indians |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |page=191}}</ref> French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] chose the name ''Québec'' in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the [[administrative seat]] for [[New France]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2001|website=Canada: A People's History |title=The birth of Quebec|publisher=Canadian Broadcast Corporation|url=https://www.cbc.ca/history/EPCONTENTSE1EP2CH4PA4LE.html|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Quebec}}
{{For timeline}}
=== Indigenous peoples and European expeditions (pre-1608) ===
{{Main|Peopling of the Americas|Indigenous peoples in Quebec|Exploration of North America}}
[[File:Jacques_Cartier_1851-1852.jpg|left|thumb|upright=.8|A depiction of [[Jacques Cartier]] by [[Théophile Hamel]], 1844]]
The [[Paleo-Indians]], theorized to have migrated from Asia to America between 20,000 and 14,000 years ago, were the first people to establish themselves on the lands of Quebec, arriving after the [[Laurentide Ice Sheet]] melted roughly 11,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book| first1 = Jacques | last1 = Lacoursière | first2 = Jean | last2 = Provencher | first3 = Denis | last3 = Vaugeois | title = Canada-Quebec 1534–2000: historical summary |editor = Septentrion | year = 2000| publisher = Septentrion | isbn = 2-89448-156-X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bering Land Bridge |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/bering-land-bridge/ |website=National Geographic |access-date=December 21, 2021 |archive-date=December 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221202344/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/bering-land-bridge/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> From them, many [[Ethnic groups|ethnocultural groups]] emerged. By the European explorations of the 1500s, there were eleven [[Indigenous peoples in Quebec|Indigenous peoples]]: the [[Inuit]] and ten [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]]{{snd}} the [[Abenaki]]s, [[Algonquin people|Algonquin]]s (or Anichinabés), [[Atikamekw]], [[Cree]], [[Wyandot people|Huron-Wyandot]], [[Maliseet]], [[Miꞌkmaq]]s, [[Iroquois]], [[Innu]] and [[Naskapi]]s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.quebec.ca/gouv/portrait-quebec/premieres-nations-inuits/profil-des-nations |title = The Amerindians and {{sic|nolink=yes|Inuits}} of Quebec: 11 contemporary nations | publisher = Secretariat for Native Affairs | year = 2001 |page = 28 | isbn = 2-550-38480-6}}</ref> Algonquians organized into seven political entities and lived nomadic lives based on hunting, gathering, and fishing.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hx98AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|title=Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere|publisher=North American Book Dist LLC|year=2009|isbn=978-1-878592-73-6|volume=8|pages=91–97}}</ref> Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals along the coasts of Hudson and Ungava Bays.<ref name="Marsh19882">{{cite book|first=James H.|last=Marsh|url=https://archive.org/details/canadianencyclop04mars/page/2211|title=The Canadian encyclopedia|publisher=Hurtig Publishers|year=1988|isbn=978-0-88830-330-1|volume=4|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadianencyclop04mars/page/2211 2211]}}</ref>
In the 15th century, the [[Fall of Constantinople|Byzantine Empire fell]], prompting Western Europeans to search for new [[Sea lane|sea routes]] to the [[Far East]].{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=47}} As such, around 1522–23, [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]] persuaded [[King Francis I of France]] to commission an expedition to find a western route to [[Cathay]] (China) via a [[Northwest Passage]]. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name ''New France'' for northeast North America.{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=50}} In his first expedition ordered from the Kingdom of France, [[Jacques Cartier]] became the first European explorer to discover and map Quebec when he landed in [[Gaspé, Quebec|Gaspé]] on July 24, 1534.{{sfn |Riendeau|2007| p=36}} In the second expedition, in 1535, Cartier explored the lands of [[Stadacona]] and named the village and its surrounding territories ''[[Canada (New France)|Canada]]'' (from {{lang|iro|kanata}}, 'village' in [[Iroquoian language|Iroquois]]). Cartier returned to France with about 10 [[St. Lawrence Iroquoians]], including Chief [[Donnacona]]. In 1540, Donnacona told the legend of the [[Kingdom of Saguenay]] to the King, inspiring him to order a third expedition, this time led by [[Jean-François de La Rocque de Roberval]]; it was unsuccessful in its goal of finding the kingdom.{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=51}}
After these expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the [[Italian Wars]] and religious wars.<ref>{{cite book|first=Marcel |last=Trudel |title=Histoire de la [[Nouvelle-France]] : les vaines tentatives 1524–1603 |publisher=Fides |year=1963 |page=307}}</ref> Around 1580, the rise of the [[fur trade]] reignited French interest; New France became a [[Factory (trading post)|colonial trading post]].<ref name=mathieu>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/nouvelle-france|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Nouvelle-France|last=Mathieu|first=Jacques|date=September 4, 2013}}</ref> In 1603, [[Samuel de Champlain]] travelled to the Saint Lawrence River and, on Pointe Saint-Mathieu, established a [[defence pact]] with the Innu, Maliseet and Micmacs, that would be "a decisive factor in the maintenance of a French colonial enterprise in America despite an enormous numerical disadvantage vis-à-vis the British".<ref name="Litalien20042">{{cite book|first=Raymonde|last=Litalien|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2VAMDgy3YQC&pg=PA312|title=Champlain: The Birth of French America|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7735-7256-0|pages=312–314}}</ref> Thus also began French military support to the [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]] and Huron peoples against Iroquois attacks; these became known as the [[Beaver Wars|Iroquois Wars]] and lasted from the early 1600s to the early 1700s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/iroquois-wars|publisher=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Iroquois Wars|access-date=July 10, 2021}}</ref>
===New France (1608–1763)===
{{Main|Canada (New France)|New France}}
[[File:Three_chiefs_of_the_Huron.jpg|left|thumb|Three Huron-Wyandot chiefs from [[Wendake, Quebec|Wendake]]. New France had largely peaceful relations with the Indigenous people, such as their allies the Huron. After the [[Beaver Wars|defeat of the Huron]] by their mutual enemy, the [[Iroquois]], many fled from Ontario to Quebec.]]
In 1608, Samuel de Champlain<ref>{{cite DCB |last=Trudel |first=Marcel |author-link=Marcel Trudel |title=Samuel de Champlain |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/champlain_samuel_de_1E.html |volume=1}}</ref> returned to the region as head of an exploration party. On July 3, 1608, with the support of King [[Henri IV|Henry IV]], he founded the [[Habitation de Québec]] (now Quebec City) and made it the capital of New France and its regions.<ref name=mathieu /> The settlement was built as a permanent fur trading outpost, where First Nations traded furs for French goods, such as metal objects, guns, alcohol, and clothing.<ref name="LeaMilward20012">{{cite book|first1=David |last1=Lea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7WayaUhkUEC&pg=PA43|title=A Political Chronology of the Americas|first2=Colette |last2=Milward|first3=Annamarie |last3=Rowe |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-85743-118-6|page=43}}</ref> Missionary groups arrived in New France after the founding of Quebec City. [[Coureurs des bois]] and [[Catholic missions|Catholic missionaries]] used river [[canoe]]s to explore the interior and establish fur trading forts.<ref name="Poulter20102">{{cite book|first=Gillian |last=Poulter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwJeuNYb4bIC&pg=PA33|title=Becoming Native in a Foreign Land: Sport, Visual Culture, and Identity in Montreal, 1840–85|publisher=UBC Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-7748-1642-7|page=33}}</ref><ref name="Chartrand2013b2">{{cite book|first=Rene |last=Chartrand|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ihSrWOl-zsIC&pg=PA1736|title=French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Quebec, Montreal, Louisbourg and New Orleans|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4728-0317-7}}</ref>
The [[Compagnie des Cent-Associés]], which had been granted a royal mandate to manage New France in 1627, introduced the [[Custom of Paris in New France|Custom of Paris]] and the [[Seigneurial system of New France|seigneurial system]], and forbade settlement by anyone other than Catholics.<ref name="Harris19842">{{cite book|first=Richard |last=Cole Harris|url=https://archive.org/details/seigneurialsyste0000harr_b4j9|title=The Seigneurial System in Early Canada: A Geographical Study|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|year=1984|isbn=978-0-7735-0434-9|pages=[https://archive.org/details/seigneurialsyste0000harr_b4j9/page/105 105]–109|url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1629, [[surrender of Quebec|Quebec City surrendered]], without battle, to English [[privateer]]s during the [[Anglo-French War (1627–29)|Anglo-French War]]; in 1632, the English king agreed to return it with the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1632)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]]. [[Trois-Rivières]] was founded at de Champlain's request in 1634.<ref>{{cite web |title=Trois-Rivières {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/trois-rivieres |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref> [[Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve|Paul de Chomedey de Maisonneuve]] founded [[Fort Ville-Marie|Ville-Marie]] (now Montreal) in 1642.
In 1663, the Company of New France ceded Canada to [[King Louis XIV]], who made New France into a royal province of France.<ref name=rois>{{cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/fr/patrimoine-canadien/services/famille-royale/rois-reines.html#c13|title=Rois et reines du Canada|date=August 11, 2017|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref> New France was now a [[First French colonial empire|true colony]] administered by the [[Sovereign Council of New France]] from Quebec City. A [[Governor of New France|governor-general]], governed Canada and its administrative dependencies: Acadia, [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]] and Plaisance.<ref name="Hayes20082">{{cite book|first=Derek|last=Hayes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hrkq7t_4080C&pg=PA33|title=Canada: An Illustrated History|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|year=2008|isbn=978-1-55365-259-5|page=33}}</ref> The French settlers were mostly farmers and known as "[[Canadiens]]" or "[[Habitants]]". Though there was little immigration,<ref name="Preston20092">{{cite book|first=David L.|last=Preston|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43|title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7|page=43}}</ref> the colony grew because of the Habitants' high birth rates.<ref name="Powell20092">{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA203|title=Encyclopedia of North American Immigration|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-1-4381-1012-7|page=203}}</ref><ref name="McIlwraithMuller20012">{{cite book|first1=Thomas F.|last1=McIlwraith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fa--xLT_dRYC&pg=PA72|title=North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent|first2=Edward K.|last2=Muller|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|year=2001|isbn=978-1-4616-3960-2|page=72}}</ref> In 1665, the [[Régiment de Carignan-Salières|Carignan-Salières regiment]] developed the string of fortifications known as the "Valley of Forts" to protect against Iroquois invasions and brought with them 1,200 new men.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ameriquefrancaise.org/fr/article-357/Fortifications_au_Qu%C3%A9bec,_un_patrimoine_arch%C3%A9ologique.html#.YOPFkugSg2w|publisher= Amerique francaise|title=Fortifications au Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> To redress the gender imbalance and boost population growth, King Louis XIV sponsored the passage of approximately 800 young French women ([[les filles du roi|King's Daughters]]) to the colony.<ref name=rois /> In 1666, intendant [[Jean Talon]] organized the first census and counted 3,215 Habitants. Talon enacted policies to diversify agriculture and encourage births, which, in 1672, had increased the population to 6,700.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histoire-du-quebec.ca/recensement-canada/|title=Premier recensement au Canada (Nouvelle-France)|date=March 2, 2014 |publisher=Histoire du Quebec|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref>
New France's territory grew to extend from [[Hudson Bay]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and would encompass the [[Great Lakes]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.museedelhistoire.ca/musee-virtuel-de-la-nouvelle-france/les-explorateurs/rene-robert-cavelier-de-la-salle-1670-1687/|publisher=Canadian Museum of History|title=René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle 1670-1687|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref> In the early 1700s, [[Louis-Hector de Callière|Governor Callières]] concluded the [[Great Peace of Montreal]], which not only confirmed the alliance between the Algonquian and New France, but definitively ended the Iroquois Wars.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Beaver_Wars|publisher=Ohio History Central|title=Beaver Wars|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref> From 1688 onwards, the fierce competition between the French and British to control North America's interior and monopolize fur trade pitted New France and its Indigenous allies against the Iroquois and English in four successive wars called the [[French and Indian Wars]] by Americans, and the Intercolonial Wars in Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/King-Williams-War|title=King William's War|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref> The first three were [[King William's War]] (1688–1697), [[Queen Anne's War]] (1702–1713), and [[King George's War]] (1744–1748). In 1713, following the [[Peace of Utrecht]], the [[Philippe II, Duke of Orléans|Duke of Orléans]] ceded Acadia and [[Placentia Bay|Plaisance Bay]] to Great Britain, but retained [[Isle Saint-Jean|Île Saint-Jean]], and [[Île-Royale (New France)|Île-Royale]] where the [[Fortress of Louisbourg]] was subsequently erected. These losses were significant since Plaisance Bay was the primary communication route between New France and France, and Acadia contained 5,000 [[Acadian people|Acadians]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaties-of-Utrecht|title=Treaties of Utrecht |website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref>{{sfn|Charpentier|Durocher|Laville|Linteau|1985|p=115}} In the [[siege of Louisbourg (1745)]], the British were victorious, but returned the city to France after war concessions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/louisbourg|title=Louisbourg|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|last=Moore|first=Christopher|date=March 2, 2017}}</ref>
[[Image:Montcalm leading his troops at the Plains of Abraham.jpg|thumb|Montcalm leading his troops into battle. Watercolour by [[Charles William Jefferys]].]]
The last of the four French and Indian Wars was the [[Seven Years' War]] ("The War of the [[Conquest of New France|Conquest]]" in Quebec) and lasted from 1754 to 1763.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Seven Years' War|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/seven-years-war/|date=March 24, 2021|last=Eccles|first=WJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Canadian National Battlefields Commission|title=The Siege of Québec: An episode of the Seven Years' War|url=http://bataille.ccbn-nbc.gc.ca/en/guerre-de-sept-ans/contexte.php|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110726113932/http://bataille.ccbn-nbc.gc.ca/en/guerre-de-sept-ans/contexte.php|archive-date=July 26, 2011|access-date=July 5, 2011}}</ref> In 1754, tensions escalated for control of the [[Ohio Valley]], as authorities in New France became more aggressive in efforts to expel British traders and colonists.<ref>O'Meara, pp. 15–19</ref> In 1754, [[George Washington]] launched a surprise attack on a group of sleeping Canadien soldiers, known as the [[Battle of Jumonville Glen]], the first battle of the war. In 1755, Governor [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Charles Lawrence]] and Officer [[Robert Monckton]] ordered the forceful [[expulsion of the Acadians]]. In 1758, on Île-Royale, British General James Wolfe [[Siege of Louisbourg (1758)|besieged and captured]] the Fortress of Louisbourg.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/fra/nouvelles/communiques-de-presse/Pages/2013/acquisition-documents-historiques-louisbourg.aspx|title=ARCHIVÉE - Le gouvernement du Canada fait l'acquisition de documents historiques importants concernant le siège de Louisbourg de 1758|date=December 6, 2013|publisher=Library and Archives Canada}}</ref> This allowed him to control access to the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] through the [[Cabot Strait]]. In 1759, he besieged Quebec for three months from [[Île d'Orléans]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patrimoine-culturel.gouv.qc.ca/rpcq/detail.do?methode=consulter&id=25650&type=pge|publisher=Gouvernement du Quebec|title=Siège de Québec par Wolfe|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref> Then, Wolfe stormed Quebec and fought against [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm|Montcalm]] for control of the city in the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]]. After a British victory, the [[Steward (office)|king's lieutenant]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Nicolas Roch de Ramezay|Lord of Ramezay]] concluded the [[Articles of Capitulation of Quebec]]. During the spring of 1760, the [[François Gaston de Lévis|Chevalier de Lévis]] besieged Quebec City and forced the British to entrench themselves during the [[Battle of Sainte-Foy]]. However, loss of French vessels sent to resupply New France after the fall of Quebec City during the [[Battle of Restigouche]] marked the end of France's efforts to retake the colony. [[Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial|Governor Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial]] signed the [[Articles of Capitulation of Montreal]] on September 8, 1760.
While awaiting the results of the Seven Years' War in Europe, New France was put under a [[British military regime in New France|British military regime]] led by Governor [[James Murray (British Army officer, born 1721)|James Murray]].<ref name="britannica murray">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Murray-British-soldier-and-official|title=James Murray: British soldier and official|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref> In 1762, Commander [[Jeffery Amherst]] ended the French presence in Newfoundland at the [[Battle of Signal Hill]]. France secretly ceded the western part of Louisiana and the [[Mississippi River Delta]] to Spain via the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)|Treaty of Fontainebleau]]. On February 10, 1763, the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] concluded the war. France ceded its North American possessions to Great Britain.{{sfn |Hunter|1999| pp=505–506}} Thus, France had put an end to New France and abandoned the remaining 60,000 Canadiens, who sided with the Catholic [[clergy]] in refusing to take an oath to the [[British Crown]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Treaty-of-Paris-1763|title=Treaty of Paris - 1763|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref> The rupture from France would provoke a transformation within the [[French Canadians|descendants of the Canadiens]] that would eventually result in the birth of a new [[nation]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/haf/1958-v12-n2-haf2023/301901ar.pdf|title=Les Canadiens apres la conquete|journal=Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française|first=Michel|last=Brunet|year=1958|volume=12}}</ref>
===British North America (1763–1867)===
{{Main|Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Lower Canada|Canada East}}
[[File:Province_of_Quebec_1774.gif|thumb|The [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]] in 1774]]
After the British acquired Canada in 1763, the British government established a constitution for the newly acquired territory, under the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763|Royal Proclamation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.assnat.qc.ca/fr/patrimoine/lexique/proclamation-royale-(1763).html#:~:text=Le%2010%20f%C3%A9vrier%201763%2C%20en,France%20et%20par%20l'Espagne.|publisher=Government of Quebec|title=Proclamation royale (1763)|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref> The Canadiens were subordinated to the government of the [[First British Empire|British Empire]] and circumscribed to a region of the [[St. Lawrence River|St. Lawrence Valley]] and [[Anticosti Island]] called the [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]]. With unrest growing in their southern colonies, the British were worried that the Canadiens might support what would become the [[American Revolution]]. To secure allegiance to the British crown, Governor [[James Murray (Quebec governor)|James Murray]] and later Governor [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]] promoted the need for accommodations, resulting in the enactment of the [[Quebec Act]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Quebec Act, 1774|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|last=Dagenais|first=Maxime|date=May 11, 2020|url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/quebec-act}}</ref> of 1774. This act allowed Canadiens to regain their [[Law in Quebec|civil customs]], return to the seigneural system, regain certain rights including use of French, and reappropriate their old territories: Labrador, the Great Lakes, the Ohio Valley, [[Illinois Country]] and the [[Indian Territory]].<ref name="Geographers19682">{{cite book|author=Canadian Association of Geographers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=voYOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA33|title=Canada: a Geographical Interpretation|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1968|isbn=9780458906000|page=33}}</ref>
As early as 1774, the [[Continental Congress]] of the separatist [[Thirteen Colonies]] attempted to rally the Canadiens to its cause. However, [[Continental Army|its military troops]] failed to defeat the British counteroffensive during its [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|Invasion of Quebec]] in 1775. Most Canadiens remained neutral, though some regiments allied themselves with the Americans in the [[Saratoga campaign]] of 1777. When the British recognized the independence of the rebel colonies at the signing of the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] of 1783, it conceded Illinois and the Ohio Valley to the newly formed United States and denoted the 45th parallel as its border, drastically reducing Quebec's size.
Some [[United Empire Loyalists]] from the US migrated to Quebec and populated various regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histoire-du-quebec.ca/loyalistes/|title=Loyalistes au Bas-Canada|date=March 2, 2014 |publisher=Histoire du Quebec|access-date=July 5, 2021}}</ref> Dissatisfied with the legal rights under the French seigneurial régime which applied in Quebec, and wanting to use the British legal system to which they were accustomed, the Loyalists protested to British authorities until the [[Constitutional Act 1791|Constitutional Act]] of 1791 was enacted, dividing the Province of Quebec into two distinct colonies starting from the [[Ottawa River]]: [[Upper Canada]] to the west (predominantly Anglo-Protestant) and [[Lower Canada]] to the east (Franco-Catholic). Lower Canada's lands consisted of the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River, Labrador and Anticosti Island, with the territory extending north to [[Rupert's Land]], and south, east and west to the borders with the US, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. The creation of Upper and Lower Canada allowed Loyalists to live under British laws and institutions, while Canadiens could maintain their French civil law and Catholic religion. Governor Haldimand drew Loyalists away from Quebec City and Montreal by offering free land on the north shore of Lake Ontario to anyone willing to swear allegiance to George III. During the [[War of 1812]], [[Charles de Salaberry|Charles-Michel de Salaberry]] became a hero by leading the Canadian troops to victory at the [[Battle of the Chateauguay]]. This loss caused the Americans to abandon the Saint Lawrence Campaign, their major strategic effort to conquer Canada.
[[File:Saint-Eustache-Patriotes.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Saint-Eustache]] was the final battle of the Lower Canada Rebellion.<ref name=rebellion />]]
Gradually, the [[Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada]], who represented the people, came into conflict with the superior authority of [[the Crown]] and [[Legislative Council of Lower Canada|its appointed representatives]]. Starting in 1791, the government of Lower Canada was criticized and contested by the [[Parti canadien]]. In 1834, the Parti canadien presented its [[Ninety-Two Resolutions|92 resolutions]], political demands which expressed loss of confidence in the [[British monarchy]]. Discontentment intensified throughout the [[List of the public meetings held in Lower Canada between May and November 1837|public meetings]] of 1837, and the [[Lower Canada Rebellion]] began in 1837.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/patriotes|title=Patriotes|website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|last=Roy|first=Fernande|date=March 4, 2015}}</ref> In 1837, [[Louis-Joseph Papineau]] and [[Robert Nelson (insurrectionist)|Robert Nelson]] led residents of Lower Canada to form an armed group called the [[Patriotes]]. They made a [[Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada|Declaration of Independence]] in 1838, guaranteeing rights and equality for all citizens without discrimination.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nelson, Robert|date=February 1838|title=Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Lower_Canada|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107082359/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_of_Lower_Canada|archive-date=November 7, 2011|access-date=February 21, 2010|work=Wikisource}}</ref> Their actions resulted in rebellions in both Lower and [[Upper Canada Rebellion|Upper Canada]]. The Patriotes were victorious in their first battle, the [[Battle of Saint-Denis (1837)|Battle of Saint-Denis]]. However, they were unorganized and badly equipped, leading to their loss against the British army in the [[Battle of Saint-Charles]], and defeat in the [[Battle of Saint-Eustache]].<ref name=rebellion>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/rebellion-du-bas-canada|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|title=Rébellion du Bas-Canada (La guerre des patriotes)|last=Buckner|first=Phillip|date=July 23, 2020}}</ref>
In response to the rebellions, [[John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham|Lord Durham]] was asked to undertake a study and prepare a [[Report on the Affairs of British North America|report]] offering a solution to the British Parliament.<ref name="durham2">{{cite web|last=Ouellet |first=Fernand|title=Lambton, John George, 1st Earl of Durham|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=37606&PHPSESSID=qj23a0tmehl1lulfrlfrhk0c53|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805103634/http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?BioId=37606&PHPSESSID=qj23a0tmehl1lulfrlfrhk0c53|archive-date=August 5, 2011|access-date=July 12, 2011|work=Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online}}</ref> Durham recommended that Canadiens be [[Cultural assimilation|culturally assimilated]], with English as their only official language. To do this, the British passed the ''[[Act of Union 1840]]'', which merged Upper Canada and Lower Canada into a single colony: the [[Province of Canada]]. Lower Canada became the francophone and densely populated [[Canada East]], and Upper Canada became the anglophone and sparsely populated [[Canada West]]. This union, unsurprisingly, was the main source of political instability until 1867. Despite their population gap, Canada East and Canada West obtained an identical number of seats in the [[Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada]], which created representation problems. In the beginning, Canada East was underrepresented because of its superior population size. Over time, however, massive immigration from the British Isles to Canada West occurred. Since the two regions continued to have equal representation, this meant it was now Canada West that was under-represented. The representation issues were called into question by debates on [[Representation (politics)|"Representation by Population"]]. Around this period, the [[English Canadians|British population]] appropriated the term "Canadian" to refer to themselves, referring to Canada, their place of residence. The French population, who had thus far been "the Canadians", began to be identified with their [[ethnic community]] under the name "[[French Canadian]]" as they were a "French of Canada".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ijcs/2008-n37-ijcs3714/040800ar.pdf |title=The Only Canadians: Canada's French and the British Connection |language=fr |access-date=22 August 2023}}</ref>
As access to new lands remained problematic because they were still monopolized by the [[Château Clique|Clique du Château]], an exodus of Canadiens towards [[New England]] began and went on for the next hundred years. This phenomenon is known as the [[Grande Hémorragie]] and threatened the survival of the Canadien nation. The massive British immigration ordered from London that followed the failed rebellion, compounded this. To combat it, the Church adopted the [[La Revanche des berceaux|revenge of the cradle]] policy. In 1844, the capital of the Province of Canada was moved from [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]] to Montreal.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Musée Pointe-à-Callière |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCWs7opCrUI |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211213/uCWs7opCrUI |archive-date=December 13, 2021 |url-status=live|title=Montréal, une capitale, un parlement (1844-1849) | date=March 11, 2016 |language=fr |via=YouTube |access-date=September 12, 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> During Ireland's [[Great Potato Famine]] (1845–1852), nearly 100,000 Irish refugees passed through [[Grosse-Île, Quebec|Grosse-Île]]'s quarantine station, with many settling in Quebec and integrating into French-Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parks Canada Agency |first=Government of Canada |date=2023-04-05 |title=1847: A tragic year at Grosse Île |url=https://parks.canada.ca/lhn-nhs/qc/grosseile/culture/histoire-history/1847 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=parks.canada.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Les racines irlandaises du Québec - Quartier Libre |url=https://quartierlibre.ca/les-racines-irlandaises-du-quebec/ |access-date=2025-01-24 |language=fr-FR}}</ref>
Political unrest came to a head in 1849, when English Canadian rioters [[Burning of the Parliament Buildings in Montreal|set fire to the Parliament Building in Montreal]] following the enactment of the ''[[Rebellion Losses Bill]],'' a law that compensated French Canadians whose properties were destroyed during the rebellions of 1837–1838.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://histoire-du-quebec.ca/incendie-parlement-1849/|title=Émeute du 25 avril 1849 : Incendie du Parlement|date=March 2, 2014 |publisher=Histoire du Quebec|access-date=July 5, 2021 |language=fr}}</ref> This bill, resulting from the [[Robert Baldwin|Baldwin]]-[[Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine|La Fontaine]] coalition and Lord Elgin's advice, was important as it established the notion of [[responsible government]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/loi-dindemnisation-pour-le-bas-canada|encyclopedia=L'Encyclopédie canadienne|title=Loi d'indemnisation pour le Bas-Canada|last=Mills|first=David|date=March 4, 2015 |language=fr}}</ref> In 1854, the seigneurial system was abolished, the [[Grand Trunk Railway]] was built and the [[Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty]] was implemented. In 1866, the ''[[Civil Code of Lower Canada]]'' was adopted.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/grand-trunk-railway-of-canada |title=Grand Trunk Railway of Canada |language=fr|first=James|last=Marsh|date=June 3, 2015 |encyclopedia=L'Encyclopédie canadienne}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/canadianamerican-reciprocity-treaty-of-1855-to-1866/43B9931704F67904DABB6474B5475F46 |title=The Canadian-American Reciprocity Treaty of 1855 to 1866 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |date=2011 |last1=Officer |first1=Lawrence H. |last2=Smith |first2=Lawrence B. |volume=28 |issue=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.ameriquefrancaise.org/fr/article-404/R%C3%A9gime_seigneurial_au_Qu%C3%A9bec__.html#.YOPNsOgSg2w |title=Régime seigneurial au Québec |language=fr |encyclopedia=Encyclopédie du Patrimoine Culturel de l'Amérique Française|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>
===Traditional Quebec (1867–1960)===
[[File:George-Etienne Cartier.jpg|thumb|upright|[[George-Étienne Cartier]], co-premier from [[Canada East]] and a Father of Confederation]]
In 1864, negotiations began for [[Canadian Confederation]] between the Province of Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia at the [[Charlottetown Conference]] and [[Quebec Conference, 1864|Quebec Conference]].
After having fought as a Patriote, [[George-Étienne Cartier]] entered politics in the Province of Canada, becoming one of the co-premiers and advocate for the union of the British North American provinces. He became a leading figure at the Quebec Conference, which produced the [[Quebec Resolutions]], the foundation for Canadian Confederation.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Bibliothèque et Archives Canada |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/confederation/023001-7104-f.html|title= Résolutions de la Conférence de Québec - octobre 1864|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> Recognized as a [[Father of Confederation]], he successfully argued for the establishment of the province of Quebec, initially composed of the historic heart of the territory of the French Canadian nation and where French Canadians would most likely retain majority status.
Following the [[London Conference of 1866]], the Quebec Resolutions were implemented as the ''[[British North America Act, 1867]]'' and brought into force on July 1, 1867, creating Canada. Canada was composed of four founding provinces: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, [[Ontario]] and Quebec. These last two came from splitting the Province of Canada, and used the old borders of Lower Canada for Quebec, and Upper Canada for Ontario. On July 15, 1867, [[Pierre-Joseph-Olivier Chauveau]] became Quebec's [[List of premiers of Quebec|first premier]].
Between the late 19th and the late 20th century, Montreal was Canada's and Quebec's most populous city, including its economic and cultural centres. It was, as such, often among the first to adopt new technologies. It launched Canada's first public transit system in 1861 with horse-drawn streetcars,<ref>{{Cite web |title=BAnQ numérique |url=http://numerique.banq.qc.ca/ |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=numerique.banq.qc.ca |language=fr}}</ref> started a telephone service in 1878,<ref>{{Cite web |last=admin |date=2006-12-15 |title=premier téléphone |url=https://grandquebec.com/montreal-histoire/telephone-montreal/ |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=Voyage à travers le Québec |language=fr-FR}}</ref> and received electricity in 1885.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Les années pionnières – 1878-1897 {{!}} Histoire de l'électricité au Québec |url=https://www.hydroquebec.com/histoire-electricite-au-quebec/chronologie/annees-pionnieres.html |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=Hydro-Québec |language=fr}}</ref>
The new Dominion quickly became interested in [[expansionism]], especially westward, purchasing [[Rupert's Land]] from the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] in 1870. In 1885, it fought against the francophone métis in the [[North-West Rebellion]] and executed [[Louis Riel]], their leader. This caused several Quebec liberal and conservative MPs to form the [[Parti national]] out of anger.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Parti national |encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/parti-national |date=February 19, 2014 |language=fr}}</ref> This, in combination with the [[Manitoba Schools Question]], also helped turn the promotion and defense of the rights of French Canadians into an important concern. Gradually gaining in popularity, clerico-nationalists—who promoted the Triple Ideal of Catholicism, French, and rural life, alongside other traditional values (e.g., traditional gender roles, resistance to cultural assimilation, anti-[[progressivism]], hierarchy)— would go on to wield significant influence until the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web |title=Le nationalisme canadien-francais |url=https://www.alloprof.qc.ca/fr/eleves/bv/histoire/le-nationalisme-canadien-francais-h1401 |access-date=July 5, 2021 |publisher=Allo Prof}}</ref>
Montreal continued its expansions into new advances by introducing streetcars in 1892<ref>{{Cite web |title=1878-1897 – The Early Years {{!}} History of Electricity in Québec |url=https://www.hydroquebec.com/history-electricity-in-quebec/timeline/early-years.html |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=Hydro-Québec |language=en}}</ref> and seeing bikes and automobiles populate its roads by the 1890s and 1900s respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guillaume |date=2025-03-01 |title=Les premiers automobiles au Québec |url=https://montrealbb.ca/automobile-quebec/ |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=Chroniques anachroniques |language=fr-CA}}</ref> The Canadian Parliament, meanwhile, continued its expansions in 1898 by enacting the ''[[Quebec Boundary Extension Act, 1898]]'', which gave Quebec part of Rupert's Land.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wherrett |first=Jill |date=February 1996 |title=ABORIGINAL PEOPLES AND THE 1995 QUEBEC REFERENDUM: A SURVEY OF THE ISSUES |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp412-e.htm#B |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613195221/http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp412-e.htm#B |archive-date=June 13, 2006}}</ref>
Under the aegis of the Catholic Church and the political action of [[Henri Bourassa]], symbols of French Canadian national pride were developed, like the [[Flag of Carillon]], and "[[O Canada]]" – a patriotic song composed for [[Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day]]. Many organizations went on to consecrate the affirmation of the French-Canadian people, including the [[caisses populaires Desjardins]] in 1900, the [[Club de hockey Canadien]] in 1909, ''[[Le Devoir]]'' in 1910, the [[Congress on the French language in Canada]] in 1912, and ''[[L'Action nationale]]'' in 1917. In 1909, the Quebec government passed a law obligating wood and pulp to be transformed in Quebec, which helped slow the Grande Hémorragie by allowing Quebec to export its finished products to the US instead of its labourers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Adoption d'une loi sur l'exportation du bois |url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pages/evenements/172.html |access-date=August 4, 2021 |publisher=University of Sherbrooke |language=fr}}</ref> In 1910, [[Armand Lavergne]] passed the [[Lavergne Law]], the first language legislation in Quebec, which required the use of French alongside English on tickets, documents, bills and contracts issued by transportation and public utility companies. At this time, companies rarely recognized the majority language of Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.uottawa.ca/calc/loi-lavergne-1910-loi-amendant-code-civil-concernant-contrats-faits-compagnies-services-dutilite|title=Loi Lavergne |series=Compendium de l'aménagement linguistique au Canada (CALC) |language=fr|publisher=University of Ottawa|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> This movement may be what ensured Ontario's [[Regulation 17]] (1912-1927) was fought against until its repeal.
In 1912, the Canadian Parliament enacted the ''[[Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912]]'', which gave Quebec its final extension: another part of Rupert's Land called the [[District of Ungava]].<ref name="Morantz20022">{{cite book |author=Toby Elaine Morantz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLPxHz4tHUUC&pg=PA133 |title=The White Man's Gonna Getcha: The Colonial Challenge to the Crees in Québec |year=2002 |publisher=McGill-Queens |isbn=978-0-7735-2299-2 |page=133}}</ref> Quebec's borders now met the [[Hudson Strait]] and vaguely interlapped with [[Dominion of Newfoundland|Labrador]]'s.
When [[World War I]] broke out in 1914, Canada was automatically involved and many English Canadians volunteered. However, because they did not feel the same connection to the British Empire and there was no direct threat to Canada, French Canadians saw no reason to fight. By late 1916, casualties were beginning to cause reinforcement problems. After enormous difficulty in the federal government, because almost every French-speaking MP opposed conscription while almost all English-speaking MPs supported it, the ''Military Service Act'' became law on August 29, 1917.<ref name="Conscription au Canada">{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/conscription|title=Conscription au Canada|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|date=May 6, 2021}}</ref> French Canadians protested in the [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]], which led to the {{ill|Quebec riot|fr|Émeute de Québec de 1918}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.warmuseum.ca/learn/dispatches/french-canada-and-recruitment-during-the-first-world-war/#tabs|title=FRENCH CANADA AND RECRUITMENT DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR|publisher=Canadian War Museum|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>
In 1919, the [[prohibition]] of [[Liquor|spirits]] was enacted following [[1919 Quebec prohibition referendum|a provincial referendum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Les années de la prohibition |url=https://www.saq.com/fr/contenu/inspiration/reportages/annees-prohibition |website=www.saq.com |access-date=13 March 2023 |language=fr}}</ref> In 1920, Montreal hosted Canada’s first public radio broadcast.<ref>{{Cite web |title=XWA/CFCF-AM – The History of Canadian Broadcasting |url=https://broadcasting-history.ca/radio/radio-stations/quebec/quebec-montreal-laval-lanaudiere-laurentides-monteregie/xwa-cfcf-am/ |access-date=2025-07-10 |language=en-CA}}</ref> Then, in 1921, prohibition was abolished by the ''Alcoholic Beverages Act,'' which created the [[Société des alcools du Québec|SAQ]] and allowed the government to control the sale of alcohol.<ref>{{cite web |title=L'histoire de la SAQ : Société d'Alcool du Québec |url=https://chateausuau.com/fr/blog/lhistoire-de-la-saq/ |website=Chateau Suau |access-date=13 March 2023 |language=fr |date=26 February 2016}}</ref> This resulted in Quebec having the shortest and lightest prohibition in North America, as well as reaping huge profits from the sale of booze to tourists.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Prohibition in Canada |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/prohibition |access-date=2025-07-11 |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=en}}</ref> Since a clear border between northeast Quebec and south Labrador was not created with the 1912 extension, in 1927, the British [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] gathered to draw one. However, the Quebec government did not recognize the ruling, resulting in a [[Labrador boundary dispute|boundary dispute]] which [[Border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador|remains ongoing]].
In 1931, the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] was enacted, which confirmed the autonomy of the [[Dominion]]s – including Canada and its provinces – from the UK, as well as their free association in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/statut-de-westminster|title=Statut de Westminster|website=The Canadian Encyclopedia|date=April 29, 2020}}</ref> In the 1930s, Quebec's economy was affected by the [[Great Depression]] because it greatly reduced US demand for Quebec exports. Between 1929-32 the unemployment rate increased from 8% to 26%. In an attempt to remedy this, the Quebec government enacted infrastructure projects, campaigns to colonize distant regions, financial assistance to farmers, and the {{lang|fr|secours directs}} – the ancestor to Canada's [[Employment Insurance]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Alloprof aide aux devoirs |url=https://www.alloprof.qc.ca/fr/eleves/bv/histoire/la-grande-depression-h1636|access-date=July 31, 2021|publisher=Allo Prof}}</ref> The poor work opportunities in the US also finally ended the Grande Hémorragie.
[[File:Maurice Duplessis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Maurice Duplessis]], premier of Quebec from 1936 to 1939 and during the {{lang|fr|[[Grande Noirceur]]}}. He passed in 1959.]]
French Canadians remained opposed to conscription during the Second World War. When Canada declared war in September 1939, the federal government pledged not to conscript soldiers for overseas service. As the war went on, more and more English Canadians voiced support for conscription, despite firm opposition from French Canada. Following a 1942 poll that showed 73% of Quebec's residents were ''against'' conscription, while 80% or more were ''for'' conscription in every other province, the federal government passed ''Bill 80'' for overseas service. The [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]] occurred and the [[Bloc Populaire]] emerged to fight conscription.<ref name="Conscription au Canada" /> The stark differences between the values of French and English Canada popularized the expression the "[[Two Solitudes (Canadian society)|Two Solitudes]]".
In the wake of the conscription crisis, [[Maurice Duplessis]] of the [[Union Nationale (Quebec)|Union Nationale]] rose to power once more. His government emphasized clerico-nationalist values and implemented conservative policies now known as the [[Grande Noirceur]]. These included defending [[Autonomism in Quebec|provincial autonomy]], promoting Quebec's Catholic and francophone heritage, and favoring [[laissez-faire]] capitalism over the emerging [[welfare state]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=GÉLINAS|first1= Xavier |first2=Lucia |last2=Ferretti|title=Duplessis : son milieu, son époque|publisher=Septentrion|year= 2010|page=267|isbn=978-2-89448-625-2}}</ref> However, with accelerating major changes such as the appearance of television, [[Mid-20th century baby boom|baby boom]], [[Strike action|workers' conflicts]], electrification of the countryside, emergence of a [[middle class]], [[rural exodus]] and [[urbanization]], expansion of universities and bureaucracies, creation of [[Autoroutes of Quebec|motorways]], and renaissance of literature and poetry, French Canadian society began to develop new ideologies and aspirations.
===Modern Quebec (1960–present)===
[[File:Maitres chez nous 1962.jpg|upright=1.1|thumb|"{{lang|fr|Maîtres chez nous}}" was the electoral slogan of the [[Quebec Liberal Party|Liberal Party]] during the [[1962 Quebec general election|1962 election]].]]
The [[Quiet Revolution]] was an intense period of modernization, secularization and social reform, where French Canadians strongly expressed their concern and dissatisfaction with their inferior [[Socioeconomic status|socioeconomic position]], and the cultural assimilation of francophone minorities in the English-majority provinces. It resulted in the formation of the modern Québécois identity and [[Quebec nationalism]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/relations-francophones-anglophones|title=Relations francophones-anglophones|website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|date=March 4, 2015}}</ref><ref name="short history2">{{cite book|last1=Dickinson|first1=John|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofqu0000dick_z9p8|title=A Short History of Quebec|last2=Young|first2=Brian|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2003|page=[https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofqu0000dick_z9p8/page/372 372]|url-access=registration}}</ref> In 1960, [[Jean Lesage|Jean Lesage's]] Liberal Party was brought to power with a two-seat majority, having campaigned with the slogan "It's time for things to change".
This government fundamentally restructured Quebec's institutions, creating a modern welfare state through new ministries for education, social affairs, and economic development. It created the [[Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec|CDPQ]], [[Ministry of Education and Higher Education (Quebec)|Ministry of Education]], {{Lang|fr|[[Office québécois de la langue française|OQLF]]|italic=no}}, Régie des rentes and [[Investissement Québec|Société générale de financement]], and modernized the Labour Code and [[Ministry of Health and Social Services (Quebec)|Ministry of Social Affairs]]. In 1962, the government dismantled the financial syndicates of Montreal's [[Saint Jacques Street]] to weaken the grip of the English-Canadian traditional economic elites. Also in 1962, Natural Resources Minister [[René Lévesque]] led the nationalization of Quebec's private electricity companies to [[History of Hydro-Québec#1963: Second stage of state control|create a unified Hydro-Québec]]. This massive project was estimated at over $600 million for the acquisition of eleven companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Radio-Canada.ca / R D I / ZONE LIBRE |url=https://ici.radio-canada.ca/actualite/zonelibre/03-04/electricite.asp |website=ici.radio-canada.ca |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=1964 |title=Province Lending to Quebec |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1964/09/10/archives/province-lending-to-quebec.html |access-date=13 March 2023 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
The Quiet Revolution was particularly characterized by the 1962 Liberal Party's slogan "Masters in our own house", which, to the Anglo-American conglomerates that dominated the economy and natural resources, announced a collective will for freedom of the French-Canadian people.<ref>{{cite book|first=Jacques |last=Parizeau |title=La souveraineté du Québec : Hier, aujourd'hui et demain |publisher=Michel Brûlé |year=2009 |chapter=189 |isbn=9-782894-854556}}</ref> As a result of confrontations between the lower [[clergy]] and the [[laity]], state institutions began to deliver services without the assistance of the church, and many parts of [[civil society]] began to be more secular. In 1965, the [[Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/idees/515763/bilinguisme-et-biculturalisme-un-plaidoyer-en-faveur-de-la-dualite-canadienne|title=Un plaidoyer en faveur de la dualité canadienne|website=Le Devoir|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref> wrote a preliminary report underlining Quebec's distinct character, and promoted open federalism, a political attitude guaranteeing Quebec a minimum amount of consideration.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/relations-canadiennes/federalisme/quebec-fil-du-temps.asp#26|title=Le Québec au fil du temps |publisher= Secrétariat du Québec aux relations canadiennes|access-date=July 29, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.radio-canada.ca/politique/provincial_territorial/dossiers/592/|title=La Commission Laurendeau-Dunton|website=Les Archives de Radio-Canada|access-date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=March 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328195017/http://archives.radio-canada.ca/politique/provincial_territorial/dossiers/592/|url-status=dead}}</ref> To favour Quebec during its Quiet Revolution, [[Lester B. Pearson]] adopted a policy of open federalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections.musee-mccord.qc.ca/scripts/explore.php?Lang=2&tableid=11&tablename=theme&elementid=108__true&contentlong|title=Les relations Québec-Canada|publisher=Musée McCord Museum|access-date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=March 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328214905/http://collections.musee-mccord.qc.ca/scripts/explore.php?Lang=2&tableid=11&tablename=theme&elementid=108__true&contentlong|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/lester-bowles-pearson|title=Lester Bowles Pearson|website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|last=Bothwell|first=Robert|date=February 10, 2021}}</ref> In 1966, the Union Nationale was re-elected and continued on with major reforms.<ref>{{cite web |language=French |publisher=Université de Sherbrooke |title=Daniel Johnson (1915-1968): Homme politique |url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pages/biographies/131.html |access-date=January 10, 2021}}</ref>
[[File:De Gaule 13a 19670624 3543 2383.jpg|thumb|[[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]], (1890-1970), on the occasion of [[Expo 67|Expo 1967]], [[Chemin du Roy]], [[Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pérade]]]]
In 1967, René Lévesque introduced the concept of ''sovereignty-association'' in his manifesto [[An Option for Quebec|Option Quebec]], proposing political independence with economic partnership including a common currency, free trade, and joint institutions. It sparked a constitutional debate on the political future of the province by pitting [[Federalism in Quebec|federalist]] and [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignist]] doctrines against each other. The meetings of the [[Estates General of French Canada]] in 1967 marked a tipping point where relations between Quebec and other francophones of Canada ruptured. This deeply affected both parties by fracturing the pan-Canadian French-Canadian identity that had existed before then into: Quebec nationalism, and several minority francophone groups elsewhere.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 29, 2019 |title=États généraux du Canada français |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/etats-generaux-du-canada-francais |work=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne}}</ref> Also in 1967, President of France [[Charles de Gaulle]] visited Quebec, to attend [[Expo 67]]. There, he addressed a crowd of more than 100,000, making a speech ending with the exclamation: "Long live free Quebec". This declaration had a profound effect on Quebec by bolstering the burgeoning modern [[Quebec sovereignty movement]] and resulting in a diplomatic crisis between France and Canada. Following this, various civilian groups developed, sometimes confronting public authority, for example in the [[October Crisis]] of 1970.<ref name="Tetley2006AppendixD2">{{Cite book |last=Tetley |first=William |author-link=William Tetley |url=https://www.mcgill.ca/maritimelaw/crisis/ |title=The October Crisis, 1970: An Insider's View |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7735-3118-5 |chapter=Appendix D: The Crisis per se (in chronological order — October 5, 1970, to December 29, 1970) – English text |oclc=300346822 |access-date=August 22, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614020742/http://www.mcgill.ca/maritimelaw/crisis/ |archive-date=June 14, 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In 1968, [[class conflict]]s and changes in mentalities intensified.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article/123/3/773/5025397|title=Canada's '1968' and Historical Sensibilities|first=Bryan D.|last=Palmer|journal=The American Historical Review |date=June 1, 2018|volume=123 |number=3|pages=773–778|doi=10.1093/ahr/123.3.773}}.</ref> Quebec artists also started celebrating their distinct identity: [[Michel Tremblay]]'s 1968 play ''Les Belles-sœurs'' legitimized [[joual]] (working-class Quebec French) as a literary language,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Incohérer pour exister : les débuts du joual littéraire {{!}} Revue Verbatim |url=https://revueverbatim.ca/numero1/aprahamian |access-date=2025-08-03 |website=revueverbatim.ca}}</ref> singer-songwriters like [[Félix Leclerc]] and [[Gilles Vigneault]] started a new style of Quebec popular music,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Les métamorphoses de la chanson québécoise : l'ère des chansonniers et l'éclosion de la musique populaire - Le début d'un temps nouveau |url=https://www.larevolutiontranquille.ca/fr/lere-des-chansonniers.php |access-date=2025-08-03 |website=www.larevolutiontranquille.ca |language=fr-CA}}</ref> and many [[Cinema of Quebec|local films]] began to be produced.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Histoire du cinéma québécois : de 1970 à 1989 |url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/histoire-du-cinema-quebecois-1970-a-1989 |access-date=2025-08-03 |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=fr}}</ref> In 1969, the federal [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]] was passed to introduce a linguistic context conducive to Quebec's development.<ref>{{cite web |date=February 6, 2018 |title=Grandeur et misère de l'utopie bilingue au Canada |url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/idees/519398/grandeur-et-misere-de-l-utopie-bilingue-au-canada |website=Le Devoir}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Laurendeau |first=Paul |date=May 17, 2019 |title=Loi sur les langues officielles (1969) |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/langues-officielles-1969-loi-sur-les |website=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne}}</ref> In 1973, the liberal government of [[Robert Bourassa]] initiated the [[James Bay Project]] on [[La Grande River]]. In 1974, it enacted the [[Official Language Act (Quebec)|Official Language Act]], which made French the official language of Quebec. In 1975, it established the [[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]] and the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]].
[[File:René Lévesque BAnQ (restored).jpg|thumb|upright=.8|[[René Lévesque]] (1922 –1987), one of the architects of the Quiet Revolution, and the Premier of Quebec's first modern sovereignist government]]
Quebec's first modern sovereignist government, led by [[René Lévesque]], materialized when the [[Parti Québécois]] was brought to power in the [[1976 Quebec general election]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Élections québécoises de 1976|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=1976|publisher=Université de Sherbrooke|access-date=September 12, 2021|archive-date=March 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309130041/http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=1976|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Charter of the French Language]] came into force the following year, which increased the use of French. Between 1966-69, the Estates General of French Canada confirmed the [[state of Quebec]] to be the [[nation-state|nation's fundamental political milieu]] and for it to have the right to [[self-determination]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Déclaration préliminaire sur le droit d'autodétermination|date=November 24, 1967}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=États généraux du Canada français|url=http://bibnum2.banq.qc.ca/bna/actionnationale/src/1968/02/03/02/1968-02-03-02.pdf |title=Débats sur la déclaration préliminaire : Partage des opinions|via= Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec|date=November 1967}}</ref>
In the [[1980 Quebec referendum|1980 referendum]] on sovereignty-association, 40% were for and 60% were against.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 1980 Quebec Referendum |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/constitution/topics/1092-6040/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531220955/http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/constitution/topics/1092-6040/ |archive-date=May 31, 2008 |access-date=June 29, 2011 |work=Facts and results |publisher=CBC}}</ref> After the referendum, Lévesque went back to Ottawa to continue negotiating constitutional changes. On November 4, 1981, the [[Kitchen Accord]] took place. Delegations from the other nine provinces and the federal government reached an agreement in the absence of Quebec's delegation, which had left for the night.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/libre-opinion/496450/le-rapatriement-de-1982-trahison-et-fin-d-un-mythe|title=Le rapatriement de 1982: trahison et fin d'un mythe |last=Paquette |first=Gilbert |date=April 17, 2017 |website=Le Devoir}}</ref> Because of this, the [[National Assembly of Quebec|National Assembly]] refused to recognize the new [[Constitution Act, 1982]], which patriated the Canadian constitution and made modifications to it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/affaires-intergouvernementales/positions-historiques/motions/1981-12-01.pdf |title=Résolution de l'Assemblée nationale du Québec sur les conditions sans lesquelles le Québec ne peut accepter le rapatriement de la Constitution canadienne, 1er décembre 1981 |publisher=Government of Quebec |access-date=August 16, 2021 |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183041/https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/affaires-intergouvernementales/positions-historiques/motions/1981-12-01.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> The 1982 amendments apply to Quebec despite Quebec never having consented to it.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Constitution, Patriation of|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/patriation-of-the-constitution/|last=Sheppard|first=Robert|date=May 4, 2020}}</ref>
Between 1982-92, the Quebec government's attitude changed to prioritize reforming the federation. Attempts at constitutional amendments by the [[Brian Mulroney|Mulroney]] and Bourassa governments ended in failure with the [[Meech Lake Accord]] of 1987 and the [[Charlottetown Accord]] of 1992, resulting in the creation of the [[Bloc Québécois]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Busta |last2=Hui |first2=Ann |first1=Shannon |title=Bloc Québécois through the years |work=The Globe and Mail |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/bloc-qubcois-through-the-years/article2008669/ |url-status=dead |access-date=June 29, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110509013937/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/bloc-qubcois-through-the-years/article2008669/ |archive-date=May 9, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/accord-de-charlottetown|title=Accord de Charlottetown|encyclopedia=L'Encyclopédie Canadienne|date=May 7, 2020}}</ref> The failures also led to the re-election of the Parti Québécois in 1994, and the return to power of [[Jacques Parizeau]], who had promised to hold a sovereignty referendum within a year of election. In 1995, Parizeau called a [[1995 Quebec referendum|referendum on Quebec's independence]] from Canada. This consultation ended in a close outcome: 50.6% "no" and 49.4% "yes" (notably, over 60% of francophones voted "yes" and over 90% of anglophones voted "no").<ref name="1995 facts2">{{cite web|last=Directeur général des élections du Québec|title=Référendum de 1995|url=http://www.quebecpolitique.com/elections-et-referendums/referendums-quebecois/referendum-de-1995/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808031154/http://www.quebecpolitique.com/elections-et-referendums/referendums-quebecois/referendum-de-1995/|archive-date=August 8, 2011|access-date=June 29, 2011|work=Information and results|publisher=Quebec Politic}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Les immigrants : sortir de l'ethnicité |title=Les raisons fortes: Nature et signification de l'appui à la souveraineté du Québec |last1=Gagné |first1=Gilles |last2=Langlois |first2=Simon |url=https://books.openedition.org/pum/12348?lang=fr |language=fr |publisher=University of Montreal Press |pages=101–109 |date=2002 |doi=10.4000/books.pum.12348 |isbn=9791036504556}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://lactualite.com/actualites/referendum-de-1995-le-love-in-du-camp-du-non-naurait-pas-servi-a-grand-chose/ |title=Référendum de 1995: le «love-in» du camp du Non n'aurait pas servi à grand-chose |work=L'actualité |last=Lévesque |first=Catherine |agency=The Canadian Press |date=March 3, 2020}}</ref>
In 1996, the federal government launched the Sponsorship Program to increase federal visibility in Quebec. In 2000, following the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]'s decision on the [[Reference Re Secession of Quebec]], the Parliament of Canada passed a legal framework, called the [[Clarity Act]], within which governments would act in another referendum. In 2002, the [[Gomery commission]] and media revealed the Sponsorship Program, in which $539,000 was illegally spent and where well-connected agencies received millions for minimal work. This [[Sponsorship scandal|scandal]] contributed to the Liberals' defeat in the [[2006 Canadian federal election|2006 federal election]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Scandale des programmes de commandites |url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/scandale-des-programme-de-commandites |access-date=2025-08-03 |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=fr}}</ref> On October 30, 2003, the National Assembly voted unanimously to affirm "that the people of Québec form a nation".<ref>{{cite web |date=October 30, 2003 |title=Résolution unanime sur la nation québécoise |trans-title=Resolution by the National Assembly of Québec |url=http://www.saic.gouv.qc.ca/publications/resolutions/20031030_en.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728013918/http://www.saic.gouv.qc.ca/publications/resolutions/20031030_en.pdf |archive-date=July 28, 2013 |access-date=September 29, 2013}}</ref> On November 27, 2006, the House of Commons followed with a [[Québécois nation motion|symbolic motion]] declaring "that this House recognize that the Québécois form a nation within a united Canada."<ref>{{cite web |work=Hansard |title=39th Parliament, 1st Session; No. 087 |date=November 27, 2006 |url=http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?DocId=2544166&File=0&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Pub=hansard&Ses=1#SOB-1798651 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002113653/http://www.parl.gc.ca/HousePublications/Publication.aspx?DocId=2544166&File=0&Language=E&Mode=1&Parl=39&Pub=hansard&Ses=1#SOB-1798651 |archive-date=October 2, 2013}}</ref>
In 2007, the Parti Québécois was pushed back to official opposition in the National Assembly, with the Liberal party leading. During the [[2011 Canadian federal election]]s, Quebec voters rejected the Bloc Québécois in favour of the previously minor [[New Democratic Party|New Democratic Party (NDP)]]. As the NDP's logo is orange, this was called the "orange wave".<ref>{{cite web |last=Rocher |first=François |date=August 20, 2015 |title=Retour sur la vague orange de 2011 |url=https://www.ledevoir.com/opinion/idees/447949/elections-federales-retour-sur-la-vague-orange-de-2011 |website=Le Devoir}}</ref> In 2012, the Liberal party, led by [[Jean Charest]], announced an increase in student tuition fees. This spawned months-long protests involving over 300,000 students known as the [[2012 Quebec student protests|Maple Spring]], ultimately leading to a rollback of the increases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grève étudiante québécoise de 2012 |url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/la-greve-etudiante-quebecoise-de-2012-et-la-loi-78 |access-date=2025-08-03 |website=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=fr}}</ref> Also partially as a result, the Liberal party fell out of favour, letting the Parti Québécois regain power in 2012 and its leader, [[Pauline Marois]], to become the first female premier of Quebec.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Élections québécoises de 2012|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2012|access-date=August 4, 2021|publisher=University of Sherbrooke|archive-date=September 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923060037/http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Liberal Party of Quebec then returned to power in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Élections québécoises de 2014|url=http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2014|access-date=August 4, 2021|publisher=University of Sherbrooke|archive-date=June 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210621230545/http://bilan.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/pagesElections.jsp?annee=2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Then, in 2018, the [[Coalition Avenir Québec|Coalition Avenir Québec (CAQ)]] won the [[2018 Quebec general election|provincial general elections]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=International |first1=Radio Canada |title=Quebec's provincial election: What does it signal for Canada, maybe the world? |url=https://www.rcinet.ca/en/2018/10/04/quebecs-provincial-election-what-does-it-signal-for-canada-maybe-the-world/ |website=RCI {{!}} English |date=4 October 2018}}</ref>
Between 2020-21, Quebec took measures against the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Quebec|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in Québec |url=https://www.quebec.ca/en/health/health-issues/a-z/2019-coronavirus |website=Gouvernement du Québec |language=en}}</ref> In 2022, the CAQ, led by Quebec's premier [[François Legault]], increased its parliamentary majority in the [[2022 Quebec general election|provincial general elections.]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Onishi |first1=Norimitsu |title=Embracing Nationalism, a Canadian Provincial Leader Wins Re-election |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/03/world/canada/quebec-general-election-results.html |work=The New York Times |date=4 October 2022}}</ref> In 2025, following the [[Tariffs in the second Trump administration|implementation of tariffs]] and [[2025 United States trade war with Canada and Mexico|aggressive rhetoric]] by the United States president [[Donald Trump]], Quebecers decreased their travel to the US,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Vailles |first=Francis |date=2025-06-26 |title=Effondrement des voyages aux États-Unis: Le boycottage canadien fait mal |url=https://www.lapresse.ca/affaires/chroniques/2025-06-26/effondrement-des-voyages-aux-etats-unis/le-boycottage-canadien-fait-mal.php |access-date=2025-07-10 |work=La Presse |language=fr-CA}}</ref> banned the sale of American alcohol,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Retrait des produits des États-Unis de la SAQ |url=https://www.saq.com/fr/contenu/a-propos/mises-au-point/retrait-des-produits-des-etats-unis-de-la-saq |access-date=2025-07-10 |website=www.saq.com |language=fr}}</ref> and slightly reduced personal purchases of US items.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.tvanouvelles.ca/2025/05/31/les-consommateurs-ne-boycottent-pas-tant-que-ca-les-produits-americains-a-lepicerie |title=Les consommateurs ne boycottent pas tant que ça les produits américains à l'épicerie |date=2025-05-31 |last=Beaudoin |first=Yannick |access-date=2025-07-10 |via=www.journaldemontreal.com}}</ref>
=== Territorial Evolution (1700s–present) ===
<gallery widths="150px" heights="100px" class="center" caption="Territorial evolution of Quebec">
File:Canada (New France) Location Map.svg|[[Canada (New France)|Canada]] in the 18th century
File:Province of Quebec 1763, 1774, 1784.gif|The [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Province of Quebec]] from 1763 to 1783
File:Évolution territoriale du Bas-Canada.gif|[[Lower Canada]] from 1791 to 1841 ([[Patriots' War]] in 1837, [[Canada East]] in 1841)
File:Évolution territoriale du Québec.gif|Quebec from 1867 to 1927
File:Disputed territory between Quebec and Labrador map-blank.svg|Quebec today. Quebec (in blue) has a border dispute with [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Labrador]] (in red).
</gallery>
==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Quebec}}
{{see also|List of rivers of Quebec|List of lakes of Quebec}}[[File:Map_of_Quebec.png|thumb|Map of Quebec]]
Located in the [[Eastern Canada|eastern part]] of Canada, Quebec occupies a territory nearly three times the size of [[France]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Institut de la statistique du Québec |title=Comparaison entre la superficie du Québec et celle de divers pays |trans-title=Comparison between the area of Quebec and various countries|url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/jeunesse/territoire/compa_superf_pays.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808030517/http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/jeunesse/territoire/compa_superf_pays.htm|archive-date=August 8, 2011|access-date=July 4, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> It holds an area of {{Convert|1.5|e6km2||abbr=off}} and its borders are more than {{Convert|12,000|km|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="Geography of Quebec territory">{{cite web |date=28 March 2024 |title=Geography of Quebec territory |url=https://www.quebec.ca/gouvernement/portrait-quebec/geographie-territoire |access-date=26 June 2024 |publisher=Government of Quebec |language=fr |quote=Quebec is divided into 17 administrative regions which bring together 104 regional county municipalities (MRC) and several independent municipalities.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-05-24 |title=Land and freshwater area, by province and territory |url=http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/phys01-eng.htm |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063547/http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/phys01-eng.htm |archive-date=May 24, 2011 |access-date=2024-07-25 }}</ref> Most of Quebec is very sparsely populated.{{Citation needed|date=December 2024}} The most populous [[Physical geography|physiographic]] region is the [[Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands]]. The combination of rich soils and the lowlands' relatively warm climate makes this valley the most prolific agricultural area of Quebec. The rural part of the landscape is divided into narrow rectangular tracts of land that extend from the river and date back to the seigneurial system.
Quebec's [[topography]] is very different from one region to another due to the varying composition of the ground, the climate, and the proximity to water. More than 95% of Quebec's territory, including the [[Labrador Peninsula]], lies within the [[Canadian Shield]].<ref name="naturalhistory2">{{cite web|title=Natural History of Quebec|url=http://redpath-museum.mcgill.ca/Qbp/Natural%20History/nat_hist.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706185133/http://redpath-museum.mcgill.ca/Qbp/Natural%20History/nat_hist.html|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=June 22, 2011|work=A description of the natural history of the province|publisher=McGill University}}</ref> It is generally a quite flat and exposed mountainous terrain interspersed with higher points such as the [[Laurentian Mountains]] in southern Quebec, the [[Otish Mountains]] in central Quebec and the [[Torngat Mountains]] near [[Ungava Bay]]. While low and medium altitude peaks extend from western Quebec to the far north, high altitudes mountains emerge in the [[Capitale-Nationale]] region to the extreme east. Quebec's highest point at {{convert|1652|m}} is Mont d'Iberville, known in English as [[Mount Caubvick]].<ref>{{cite web|date=November 1, 2004|title=Mont D'Iberville, Québec/Newfoundland|url=http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=5968|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807070459/http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=5968|archive-date=August 7, 2011|publisher=PeakBagger}}</ref> In the Labrador Peninsula portion of the Shield, the far northern region of [[Nunavik]] includes the Ungava Peninsula and consists of flat Arctic [[tundra]] inhabited mostly by the Inuit. Further south is the [[Eastern Canadian Shield taiga]] ecoregion and the [[Central Canadian Shield forests]]. The [[Chaudière-Appalaches|Appalachian]] region has a narrow strip of ancient mountains along the southeastern border of Quebec.<ref name="Ecological classification of Quebec territory">{{cite web |author1=Claude Morneau, Ph. D. |author2=Pierre-Luc Couillard, ing.f., Ph. D. |author3=Jason Laflamme, ing.f., M. Sc |author4=Mélanie Major, ing.f., M. Sc. |author5=Valérie Roy, t.a.a.g. |date=10 June 2021 |title=Ecological classification of Quebec territory |url=https://mffp.gouv.qc.ca/documents/forets/inventaire/classification_ecologique_territoire_quebecois.pdf |access-date=21 June 2024 |website=Quebec Gouvernement |publisher=Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks - Forest Inventories Directorate |pages=2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11 of 16 |language=fr |quote=The ecological classification of Quebec territory consists of mapping and description of ecological units at various levels of perception between the continental scale and that of the landscape}}</ref>
[[File:Chutes_à_Michel.jpg|left|thumb|Michel's falls on [[Ashuapmushuan River]] in [[Saint-Félicien, Québec|Saint-Félicien]], [[Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean]]]]
Quebec has one of the world's largest reserves of [[fresh water]],{{sfn|Ministry of Environment of Quebec|2002|p=5}} occupying 12% of its surface{{sfn|Babin|1986|p=39}} and representing 3% of the world's [[Renewable freshwater resources|renewable fresh water]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Boyer |first=Marcel|date=January 12, 2008|title=11 idées pour changer le Québec|language=fr|newspaper=Le Journal de Montréal|url=http://www.iedm.org/main/show_editorials_fr.php?editorials_id=604|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325020028/http://www.iedm.org/fr/node/2904|archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref> More than half a million lakes and 4,500 rivers{{sfn|Ministry of Environment of Quebec|2002|p=5}} empty into the [[Atlantic Ocean]], through the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] and the [[Arctic Ocean]], by [[James Bay|James]], [[Hudson Bay|Hudson]], and Ungava bays. The largest inland body of water is the [[Caniapiscau Reservoir]]; [[Lake Mistassini]] is the largest natural lake.<ref name="CTQ-resC2">{{cite web|author=Commission de toponymie du Québec|title=Réservoir de Caniapiscau|url=http://www.toponymie.gouv.qc.ca/ct/ToposWeb/fiche.aspx?no_seq=150506|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920115448/http://www.toponymie.gouv.qc.ca/ct/ToposWeb/fiche.aspx?no_seq=150506|archive-date=September 20, 2011|access-date=July 10, 2010|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> The [[Saint Lawrence River]] has some of the world's largest sustaining inland Atlantic ports. Since 1959, the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] has provided a navigable link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes.
The [[public lands]] of Quebec cover approximately 92% of its territory, including almost all of the bodies of water. [[Protected areas of Quebec|Protected areas]] can be classified into about twenty different legal designations (ex. exceptional forest ecosystem, protected marine environment, [[National Parks of Quebec|national park]], [[Biodiversity reserves of Quebec|biodiversity reserve]], wildlife reserve, [[zone d'exploitation contrôlée]] (ZEC), etc.).<ref name="definition2">{{cite web|title=Protected areas in Quebec|url=http://www.mddefp.gouv.qc.ca/biodiversite/aires_protegees/aires_quebec.htm#def|access-date=December 7, 2013|publisher=Ministry of Sustainable Development, Environment, Wildlife and Parks|archive-date=December 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213201813/http://www.mddefp.gouv.qc.ca/biodiversite/aires_protegees/aires_quebec.htm#def|url-status=dead}}</ref> More than 2,500 sites in Quebec today are protected areas.<ref>{{cite web|year=2009|title=Protected areas in Quebec|url=http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/biodiversite/aires_protegees/articles/090329/synthese.pdf|access-date=March 29, 2009|publisher=Ministry of Sustainable Development, Environment and Parks}}</ref> As of 2013, protected areas comprise 9.14% of Quebec's territory.<ref name="register2">{{cite web|title=Register of protected areas|url=http://www.mddefp.gouv.qc.ca/biodiversite/aires_protegees/registre/index.htm#historic|access-date=December 7, 2013|publisher=Ministry of Development Sustainable, Environment, Wildlife and Parks|archive-date=December 13, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213201621/http://www.mddefp.gouv.qc.ca/biodiversite/aires_protegees/registre/index.htm#historic|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The ecological classification of Quebec territory established by the [[Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Quebec)|Ministry of Forests, Wildlife and Parks]] 2021, is presented in 9 levels, it includes the diversity of terrestrial [[ecosystem]]s throughout Quebec while taking into account both the characteristics of the [[vegetation]] (physiognomy, structure and composition) and the physical environment (relief, [[geology]], [[geomorphology]], [[hydrography]]).<ref name="Ecological classification of Quebec territory" />
===Climate===
{{Main|Ecological regions of Quebec}}
[[File:Quebec_Köppen.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] of Quebec]]
In general, the climate of Quebec is cold and humid, with variations determined by latitude, maritime and elevation influences.<ref name="climat2">{{cite web|title=Climat au Québec|url=http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/climat/normales/climat-qc.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212211615/http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/climat/normales/climat-qc.htm|archive-date=December 12, 2019|access-date=December 12, 2019|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> Because of the influence of both storm systems from the core of North America and the Atlantic Ocean, precipitation is abundant throughout the year, with most areas receiving more than {{convert|1000|mm|abbr=on}} of precipitation, including over {{convert|300|cm|abbr=on}} of snow in many areas.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Climat-Québec|title=Climate Normals, tabular, year|url=http://www.climat-quebec.qc.ca/home.php?id=norm_entab&mpn=stati_clim&slt_nomStations=34&slt_idStations=7016294&slt_variable=10&slt_periode=2&sub=Afficher|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827223813/http://www.climat-quebec.qc.ca/home.php?id=norm_entab&mpn=stati_clim&slt_nomStations=34&slt_idStations=7016294&slt_variable=10&slt_periode=2&sub=Afficher|archive-date=August 27, 2011|access-date=July 13, 2011}}</ref> During the summer, severe weather patterns (such as [[tornado]]es and severe [[thunderstorm]]s) occur occasionally.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Climat-Québec|title=Tornadoes|url=http://www.climat-quebec.qc.ca/home.php?id=p23&mpn=ev_mto_sig|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827224256/http://www.climat-quebec.qc.ca/home.php?id=p23&mpn=ev_mto_sig|archive-date=August 27, 2011|access-date=July 13, 2011}}</ref>
[[File:Baie-Saint-Paul.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Baie-Saint-Paul]] during winter]]
Quebec is divided into four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic, humid continental and East maritime. From south to north, average temperatures range in summer between {{convert|25|and|5|C}} and, in winter, between {{convert|-10|and|-25|C}}.<ref>{{cite web|website=Quebec Portal|date=October 12, 2006|title=Zones climatiques du Québec|url=http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/geographie/climat/zonesclimatiques/?lang=fr|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806094342/http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/geographie/climat/zonesclimatiques/?lang=fr|archive-date=August 6, 2011|access-date=January 23, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Immigration Québec|title=Moyenne mensuelle des températures de Québec (ville) et Montréal|url=http://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/fr/avantages/territoire/climat/moyenne-temperatures.html|url-status=live|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20140325110816/http://www.immigration-quebec.gouv.qc.ca/fr/avantages/territoire/climat/moyenne-temperatures.html|archive-date=March 25, 2014|access-date=June 2, 2011}}</ref> In periods of intense heat and cold, temperatures can reach {{convert|35|C}} in the summer<ref name="climatetabular2">{{cite web|publisher=Climat-Québec|date=August 30, 2010|title=Climate Normals, Tabular|url=http://www.climat-quebec.qc.ca/home.php?id=norm_entab&mpn=stati_clim&slt_nomStations=34&slt_idStations=7016294&slt_variable=0&slt_periode=0&sub=Afficher|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827223341/http://www.climat-quebec.qc.ca/home.php?id=norm_entab&mpn=stati_clim&slt_nomStations=34&slt_idStations=7016294&slt_variable=0&slt_periode=0&sub=Afficher|archive-date=August 27, 2011|access-date=July 12, 2011}}</ref> and {{convert|-40|C}} during the Quebec winter,<ref name="climatetabular2" /> Most of central Quebec, ranging from 51 to 58 degrees North has a [[subarctic climate]] (Köppen ''Dfc'').<ref name="climat2" /> Winters are long, very cold, and snowy, and among the coldest in eastern Canada, while summers are warm but very short due to the higher latitude and the greater influence of Arctic air masses. Precipitation is also somewhat less than farther south, except at some of the higher elevations. The northern regions of Quebec have an [[Climate of the Arctic|arctic climate]] (Köppen ''ET''), with very cold winters and short, much cooler summers.<ref name="climat2" /> The primary influences in this region are the Arctic Ocean currents (such as the [[Labrador Current]]) and continental air masses from the High [[Arctic]].
The all-time record high temperature was {{convert|40.0|C}} and the all-time record low was {{convert|-51.0|C}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Normales climatiques du Québec 1981-2010|url=http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/climat/normales/index.asp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212211601/http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/climat/normales/index.asp|archive-date=December 12, 2019|access-date=December 12, 2019|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> The all-time record of the greatest precipitation in winter was established in winter 2007–2008, with more than five metres<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Environment Canada|date=December 29, 2008|title=Canada's Top Ten Weather Stories for 2008|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/doc/smc-msc/2008/s3_eng.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807170704/http://www.ec.gc.ca/doc/smc-msc/2008/s3_eng.html|archive-date=August 7, 2011}}</ref> of snow in the area of Quebec City.<ref>{{cite web|title=Records de neige|url=http://ici.radio-canada.ca/jeunesse/explorateur/histoire/index.asp?no_contenu=7253|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140418223711/http://ici.radio-canada.ca/jeunesse/explorateur/histoire/index.asp?no_contenu=7253|archive-date=April 18, 2014|access-date=January 23, 2010|publisher=CBC}}</ref> March 1971, however, saw the "[[Eastern Canadian Blizzard of March 1971|Century's Snowstorm]]" with more than {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} in Montreal to {{convert|80|cm|abbr=on}} in [[RCAF Station Mont Apica|Mont Apica]] of snow within 24 hours in many regions of southern Quebec. The winter of 2010 was the warmest and driest recorded in more than 60 years.<ref>{{cite web|date=March 19, 2010|title=Climat : L'hiver le plus chaud de l'histoire du pays|url=http://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelles/National/2010/03/19/001-hiver-le-plus-chaud.shtml?ref=rss|publisher=CBC|language=fr}}</ref>
===Flora and fauna===
{{see also|List of mammals of Quebec|List of birds of Quebec|List of reptiles of Quebec|List of amphibians of Quebec|List of trees of Quebec}}
[[File:Map_of_Quebec.png|thumb|Map of Quebec]]
[[File:Ecoregions_quebec_map.svg|thumb|Different forest areas of Quebec: {{legend|#93ACA7|1. Middle Arctic Tundra}}
{{legend|#536C67|2. Low Arctic Tundra}}
{{legend|#00D4AA|3. Torngat Mountain Tundra}}
{{legend|#004455|4. Eastern Canadian Shield Taiga}}
{{legend|#89A02C|5. Southern Hudson Bay Taiga}}
{{legend|#2D5016|6. Central Canadian Shield Forests}}
{{legend|#504416|7. Eastern Canadian Forests}}
{{legend|#55FF99|8. Eastern Forest/Boreal Transition}}
{{legend|#C8AB37|9. Eastern Great Lakes Lowland Forests}}
{{legend|#7137C8|10. New England/Acadian Forests}}
{{legend|#99FF55|11. Gulf of St. Lawrence Lowland Forests}}]]
Given the geology of the province and its different climates, there are a number of large areas of vegetation in Quebec. These areas, listed in order from the northernmost to the southernmost are: the [[tundra]], the [[taiga]], the [[Boreal forest of Canada|Canadian boreal forest]] (coniferous), [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|mixed forest]] and [[deciduous]] forest.<ref name="naturalhistory2" /> On the edge of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait is the tundra, whose flora is limited to [[lichen]] with less than 50 growing days per year. Further south, the climate is conducive to the growth of the [[Boreal forest of Canada|Canadian boreal forest]], bounded on the north by the taiga. Not as arid as the tundra, the taiga is associated with the subarctic regions of the Canadian Shield<ref name="types veg2">{{cite web|title=Types de végétations du Québec|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/forets/connaissances/connaissances-inventaire-zones.jsp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827041242/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/forets/connaissances/connaissances-inventaire-zones.jsp|archive-date=August 27, 2011|access-date=June 22, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> and is characterized by a greater number of both plant (600) and animal (206) species. The taiga covers about 20% of the total area of Quebec.<ref name="naturalhistory2" /> The Canadian boreal forest is the northernmost and most abundant of the three forest areas in Quebec that straddle the Canadian Shield and the upper lowlands of the province. Given a warmer climate, the diversity of organisms is also higher: there are about 850 plant species and 280 vertebrate species. The [[mixed forest]] is a transition zone between the Canadian boreal forest and [[deciduous forest]]. This area contains a diversity of plant (1000) and [[vertebrate]]s (350) species, despite relatively cool temperatures. The ecozone mixed forest is characteristic of the [[Laurentides|Laurentians]], the [[Chaudière-Appalaches|Appalachians]] and the eastern lowland forests.<ref name="types veg2" /> The third most northern forest area is characterized by [[deciduous forest]]s. Because of its climate, this area has the greatest diversity of species, including more than 1600 [[vascular plants]] and 440 vertebrates.
The total forest area of Quebec is estimated at {{convert|750300|sqkm|abbr=on}}.<ref name="domaine_forestier2">{{cite web|publisher=Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune|title=Domaine forestier|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/forets/quebec/quebec-milieu.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406114232/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/forets/quebec/quebec-milieu.jsp|archive-date=April 6, 2012|access-date=August 19, 2007|language=fr}}</ref> From the [[Abitibi-Témiscamingue]] to the [[Côte-Nord|North Shore]], the forest is composed primarily of conifers such as the ''[[Abies balsamea]]'', the [[jack pine]], the [[Picea glauca|white spruce]], the [[Picea mariana|black spruce]] and the [[Larix laricina|tamarack]]. The deciduous forest of the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands is mostly composed of deciduous species such as the [[Acer saccharum|sugar maple]], the [[Acer rubrum|red maple]], the [[Fraxinus americana|white ash]], the [[Fagus grandifolia|American beech]], the [[Juglans cinerea|butternut (white walnut)]], the [[Ulmus americana|American elm]], the [[Tilia americana|basswood]], the [[Carya cordiformis|bitternut hickory]] and the [[Quercus rubra|northern red oak]] as well as some conifers such as the [[eastern white pine]] and the [[Thuja occidentalis|northern whitecedar]]. The distribution areas of the [[Betula papyrifera|paper birch]], the [[Populus tremuloides|trembling aspen]] and the [[Sorbus|mountain ash]] cover more than half of Quebec's territory.<ref>{{cite web|title=L'Arboretum du Québec|url=http://www.arboquebecium.com/index.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707155005/http://www.arboquebecium.com/index.html|archive-date=July 7, 2011|access-date=June 25, 2011|website=Arboquebecium.com|language=fr}}</ref>
Biodiversity of the estuary and gulf of Saint Lawrence River<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Environnement Canada|title=La biodiversité du Saint-Laurent|url=http://www.qc.ec.gc.ca/faune/biodiv/fr/mammiferes/marins.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807111032/http://www.qc.ec.gc.ca/faune/biodiv/fr/mammiferes/marins.html|archive-date=August 7, 2011|access-date=July 12, 2011|language=fr}}</ref> includes aquatic mammal wildlife, such as the [[blue whale]], the [[Beluga (whale)|beluga]], the [[minke whale]] and the [[harp seal]] (earless seal). The Nordic marine animals include the [[walrus]] and the [[narwhal]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune|title=Espèces fauniques du Nunavik|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/faune/especes/nunavik/index.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706201853/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/faune/especes/nunavik/index.jsp|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=July 12, 2011|language=fr}}</ref> Inland waters are populated by small to large freshwater fish, such as the [[largemouth bass]], the [[American pickerel]], the [[walleye]], the ''[[Acipenser oxyrinchus]]'', the [[muskellunge]], the [[Atlantic cod]], the [[Arctic char]], the [[brook trout]], the ''[[Microgadus tomcod]]'' (tomcod), the [[Atlantic salmon]], and the [[rainbow trout]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune|title=Poissons du Québec|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/faune/peche/poissons/index.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706201909/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/faune/peche/poissons/index.jsp|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=July 12, 2011|language=fr}}</ref>
Among the birds commonly seen in the southern part of Quebec are the [[American robin]], the [[house sparrow]], the [[red-winged blackbird]], the [[mallard]], the [[common grackle]], the [[blue jay]], the [[American crow]], the [[black-capped chickadee]], some [[New World warbler|warblers]] and [[swallow]]s, the [[European starling|starling]] and the [[rock pigeon]].{{sfn |Brûlotte|2009}} Avian fauna includes birds of prey like the [[golden eagle]], the [[peregrine falcon]], the [[snowy owl]] and the [[bald eagle]]. Sea and semi-aquatic birds seen in Quebec are mostly the [[Canada goose]], the [[double-crested cormorant]], the [[northern gannet]], the [[European herring gull]], the [[great blue heron]], the [[sandhill crane]], the [[Atlantic puffin]] and the [[common loon]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Lepage, Denis|title=List of Quebec birds|url=http://www.oiseauxqc.org/listeannotee.jsp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716032400/http://www.oiseauxqc.org/listeannotee.jsp|archive-date=July 16, 2011|access-date=June 24, 2011|website=Les Oiseaux du Québec|language=fr}}</ref>
The large land wildlife includes the [[white-tailed deer]], the [[moose]], the [[muskox]], the [[Reindeer|caribou (reindeer)]], the [[American black bear]] and the [[polar bear]]. The medium-sized land wildlife includes the [[cougar]], the [[coyote]], the [[eastern wolf]], the [[bobcat]], the [[Arctic fox]], the fox, etc. The small animals seen most commonly include the [[eastern grey squirrel]], the [[snowshoe hare]], the [[groundhog]], the [[skunk]], the [[raccoon]], the [[chipmunk]] and the [[North American beaver|Canadian beaver]].
==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of Quebec|Politics of Quebec}}
[[File:Quebec_City_(14765614666).jpg|thumb|The [[Parliament Building (Quebec)|Parliament Building]] in Quebec City]]
Quebec is founded on the [[Westminster system]], and is both a [[liberal democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]] with [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary regime]]. The head of government in Quebec is the [[Premier of Quebec|premier]] (called {{lang|fr|premier ministre}} in French), who leads the largest party in the [[unicameral]] National Assembly ({{lang|fr|Assemblée Nationale}}) from which the [[Executive Council of Quebec]] is appointed. The [[Secrétariat du Conseil du trésor (Quebec)|Conseil du trésor]] supports the ministers of the Executive Council in their function of stewardship of the state. The [[Lieutenant Governor of Quebec|lieutenant governor]] represents the [[King of Canada]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-3.html|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, THE CONSTITUTION ACTS, 1867 to 1982|date=August 7, 2020|publisher=Government of Canada}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Constitutional role|url=http://www.lieutenant-gouverneur.qc.ca/roles-et-fonctions/role-constitutionnel-en.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210204607/http://www.lieutenant-gouverneur.qc.ca/roles-et-fonctions/role-constitutionnel-en.html|archive-date=February 10, 2012|access-date=January 19, 2012|publisher=Bureau du Lieutenant-gouverneur du Québec}}</ref>
Quebec has 78 [[Member of Parliament (Canada)|members of Parliament]] (MPs) in the [[House of Commons of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|date=July 29, 2019|title=Députés |publisher=Chambre des communes du Canada|url=https://www.noscommunes.ca/Parliamentarians/fr/members?currentOnly=true&province=QC.}}</ref> They are elected in federal elections. At the level of the [[Senate of Canada]], Quebec is represented by 24 senators, which are appointed on the advice of the [[prime minister of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|date=September 1, 2016|title= Liste Sénateurs|url=https://sencanada.ca/fr/liste-senateurs/|publisher=Sénat du Canada}}</ref>
The Quebec government holds [[Administration (government)|administrative]] and [[police]] authority in its areas of [[exclusive jurisdiction]]. The Parliament of the [[43rd Quebec Legislature|43rd legislature]] is made up of the following parties: [[Coalition Avenir Québec]] (CAQ), [[Parti libéral du Québec]] (PLQ), [[Québec solidaire]] (QS) and [[Parti Québécois]] (PQ), as well as an [[National Assembly of Quebec#Current standings|independent member]]. There are [[List of political parties in Quebec|25 official political parties in Quebec]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Partis politiques |url=https://www.electionsquebec.qc.ca/partis-et-autres-entites-politiques/partis-politiques/ |website=Élections Québec |date=February 25, 2021 |access-date=20 June 2023 |language=fr-CA}}</ref>
Quebec has a network of three offices for representing itself and defending its interests within Canada: one in Moncton for all provinces east, one in Toronto for all provinces west, and one in Ottawa for the federal government. These offices' mandate is to ensure an institutional presence of the Government of Quebec near other Canadian governments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bureaux du Québec au Canada |url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/representation-quebec-canada/index.asp |access-date=July 29, 2019 |publisher=Secrétariat du Québec aux relations canadiennes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Bureau du Québec dans les Provinces atlantiques |url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/representation-quebec-canada/provinces-atlantiques/index.asp |access-date=July 29, 2019 |publisher=Secrétariat du Québec aux relations canadiennes}}</ref>
===Subdivisions===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Quebec}}
Quebec's territory is divided into 17 [[Regions of Quebec|administrative regions]] as follows:<ref>{{cite web|title=Loi sur la division territoriale (L.R.Q., c. D-11)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/D_11/D11.HTM|access-date=February 6, 2011|publisher=Les Publications du Québec}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Décret concernant la révision des limites des régions administratives du Québec (L.R.Q., c. D-11, r.1)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=//D_11/D11R1.htm|access-date=October 16, 2016|publisher=Les Publications du Québec}}</ref>[[File:Regions_administratives_du_Quebec.png|thumb|The [[Regions of Quebec|seventeen administrative regions]] of Quebec]]
{{Div col}}
#[[Bas-Saint-Laurent]]
#[[Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean]]
#[[Capitale-Nationale]]
#[[Mauricie]]
#[[Estrie]]
#[[Urban agglomeration of Montreal|Montréal]]
#[[Outaouais]]
#[[Abitibi-Témiscamingue]]
#[[Côte-Nord]]
#[[Nord-du-Québec]]
#[[Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine]]
#[[Chaudière-Appalaches]]
#[[Laval, Quebec|Laval]]
#[[Lanaudière]]
#[[Laurentides]]
#[[Montérégie]]
#[[Centre-du-Québec]]
{{End div col}}
The province also has the following divisions:
*4 territories ([[Abitibi County, Quebec|Abitibi]], [[Ashuanipi]], [[Rivière-Mistassini, Quebec|Mistassini]] and [[Nunavik]]) which group together the lands that once formed the [[District of Ungava]]
*36 [[Judicial districts of Quebec|judicial districts]]
*73 {{lang|fr|circonscriptions foncières}}
*125 {{ill|Electoral districts of Quebec|lt=electoral districts|fr|Circonscription électorale du Québec}}<ref>[[Gazette officielle du Québec]] : Avis d'établissement de la liste des circonscriptions électorales (1992) 124 G.O. 2, 4373</ref>
For municipal purposes, Quebec is composed of:
*1,117 [[Local government in Quebec|local municipalities]] of various [[Types of municipalities in Quebec|types]]:
**11 [[Urban agglomerations of Quebec|agglomerations]] ({{lang|fr|agglomérations}}) grouping 42 of these local municipalities
**45 [[List of boroughs in Quebec|boroughs]] ({{lang|fr|arrondissements}}) within 8 of these local municipalities
*89 [[Regional county municipality|regional county municipalities]] or RCMs ({{lang|fr|municipalités régionales de comté, MRC}})
*2 [[Metropolitan Community (Quebec)|metropolitan communities]] ({{lang|fr|communautés métropolitaines}})
*the regional [[Kativik Regional Government|Kativik]] administration
*the [[List of unorganized territories in Quebec|unorganised territories]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Code municipal du Québec (L.R.Q., c. C-27.1)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=%2F%2FC_27_1%2FC27_1.htm|access-date=February 6, 2011|publisher=Les Publications du Québec}}</ref>
===Ministries and policies===
Quebec's constitution is enshrined in a series of social and cultural traditions that are defined in a set of judicial judgments and legislative documents, including the {{lang|fr|Loi sur l'Assemblée Nationale}} ("Law on the National Assembly"), the {{lang|fr|Loi sur l'éxecutif}} ("Law on the Executive"), and the {{lang|fr|Loi électorale du Québec}} ("Electoral Law of Quebec").<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Les Publications du Québec|Éditeur officiel du Québec]]|title=Loi électorale (L.R.Q., c E-3.3)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/E_3_3/E3_3.html|access-date=February 1, 2011}}</ref> Other notable examples include the [[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]], the [[Charter of the French language]], and the [[Civil Code of Quebec]].<ref name="CCQ2">{{cite web|date=October 28, 2011|title=Code civil du Québec, L.R.Q.|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=%2FCCQ%2FCCQ.html|access-date=June 6, 2021|archive-date=September 13, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110913110920/http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Quebec's international policy is founded upon the {{ill|Gérin-Lajoie doctrine|fr|Doctrine Gérin-Lajoie}},<ref>{{cite web |date=April 12, 1965 |title=Allocution du ministre de l'Éducation, M. Paul Gérin-Lajoie |url=http://www.mri.gouv.qc.ca/fr/ministere/histoire_ministere/documents_archives/discours_gerin_lajoie.pdf |publisher=[[Gouvernement du Québec]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526152449/http://www.mri.gouv.qc.ca/fr/ministere/histoire_ministere/documents_archives/discours_gerin_lajoie.pdf |archive-date=May 26, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> formulated in 1965. While Quebec's [[Ministry of International Relations (Quebec)|Ministry of International Relations]] coordinates international policy, [[Quebec Government Offices|Quebec's general delegations]] are the main interlocutors in foreign countries. Quebec is the only Canadian province that has set up a ministry to exclusively embody the state's powers for international relations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Comparaison interprovinciale et analyse de l'administration publique au Canada|url=http://etatscanadiens-canadiangovernments.enap.ca/fr/nav.aspx?sortcode=1.0.1.2|access-date=July 27, 2011|publisher=L'observatoire de l'administration publique}}</ref>
Since 2006, Quebec has adopted a green plan to meet the objectives of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] regarding climate change.<ref>{{cite book|year=2006|publisher=Ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement et des Parcs du Québec|title=Le Québec et les changements climatiques: un défi pour l'avenir. Plan d'action 2006-2012|url=http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/changements/plan_action/2006-2012_fr.pdf|isbn=978-2-550-53375-7}}</ref> The [[Ministry of Sustainable Development, Environment, and Fight Against Climate Change]] (MELCC) is the primary entity responsible for the application of environmental policy. The [[Société des établissements de plein air du Québec]] (SEPAQ) is the main body responsible for the management of national parks and wildlife reserves.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Les Publications du Québec|title=Loi sur la Société des établissements de plein air du Québec (L.R.Q., chapitre S-13.01)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=//S_13_01/S13_01.htm|access-date=December 10, 2009}}</ref> Nearly 500,000 people took part in a climate protest on the streets of Montreal in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|date=October 2, 2019|title=La "base climatosceptique" bel et bien présente au Québec|url=https://journalmetro.com/actualites/national/2383747/apres-la-marche-la-base-climatosceptique-bel-et-bien-presente-au-quebec/|website=Journal Métro |last=Carabin |first=François |language=fr}}</ref>
Agriculture in Quebec has been subject to [[agricultural zoning]] regulations since 1978.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Les Publications du Québec|title=Loi sur la protection du territoire et des activités agricoles (L.R.Q., c. P-41.1)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/P_41_1/P41_1.html|access-date=January 8, 2010}}</ref> Faced with the problem of expanding [[urban sprawl]], agricultural zones were created to ensure the protection of fertile land, which make up 2% of Quebec's total area. {{ill|Quebec's forests|fr|Forêt au Québec}} are essentially public property. The calculation of annual cutting possibilities is the responsibility of the {{lang|fr|Bureau du forestier en chef}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Forestier en chef|url=https://forestierenchef.gouv.qc.ca/|access-date=July 30, 2019|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref> The [[Union des producteurs agricoles]] (UPA) seeks to protect the interests of its members, including forestry workers, and works jointly with the [[Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (Quebec)|Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food]] (MAPAQ) and the [[Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Quebec)|Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources]].
The {{lang|fr|Ministère de l'Emploi et de la Solidarité sociale du Québec}} has the mandate to oversee social and workforce developments through Emploi-Québec and its local employment centres (CLE).<ref>{{cite web|title=Emploi-Québec|url=http://emploiquebec.net/index.asp|access-date=January 8, 2010|publisher=Ministère de l'Emploi et de la Solidarité sociale}}</ref> This ministry is also responsible for managing the {{lang|fr|Régime québécois d'assurance parentale}} (QPIP) as well as last-resort financial support for people in need. The {{ill|Commission des normes, de l'équité, de la santé et de la sécurité du travail|fr|Commission des normes, de l'équité, de la santé et de la sécurité du travail}} (CNESST) is the main body responsible for labour laws in Quebec<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Les Publications du Québec|Éditeur officiel du Québec]]|title=Loi sur les normes du travail (L.R.Q., c. N-1.1)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/N_1_1/N1_1.html|access-date=January 8, 2010}}</ref> and for enforcing agreements concluded between unions of employees and their employers.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Les Publications du Québec|Éditeur officiel du Québec]]|title=Code du travail (L.R.Q., c. C-27)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/C_27/C27.HTM|access-date=January 8, 2010}}</ref>
[[Revenu Québec]] is the body responsible for collecting taxes. It takes its revenue through a [[Progressive tax|progressive income tax]], a 9.975% sales tax,<ref>{{cite web|title=Basic Rules for Applying the GST/HST and QST|publisher=Revenu Quebec|url=http://www.revenuquebec.ca/en/entreprises/taxes/tpstvhtvq/reglesdebase/default.aspx|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807045446/http://www.revenuquebec.ca/en/entreprises/taxes/tpstvhtvq/reglesdebase/default.aspx|archive-date=August 7, 2016|access-date=July 30, 2016}}</ref> various other provincial taxes (ex. carbon, corporate and capital gains taxes), [[Equalization payments in Canada|equalization payments]], transfer payments from other provinces, and direct payments.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Consolidated provincial and territorial government revenue and expenditures, by province and territory, 2009|url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/govt56b-eng.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312082028/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/govt56b-eng.htm|archive-date=March 12, 2009|publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> By some measures Quebec residents are the most taxed;<ref>{{cite web|last=Kozhaya|first=Norma|date=March 11, 2004|title=Soaking 'les riches'|url=http://www.iedm.org/fr/2427-soaking-les-riches|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408214201/http://www.iedm.org/fr/2427-soaking-les-riches|archive-date=April 8, 2014|publisher=Montreal Economic Institute}}</ref> a 2012 study indicated that "Quebec companies pay 26 per cent more in taxes than the Canadian average".<ref>{{cite news|last=Marotte|first=Bertrand|title=Quebec business taxes highest in North America|newspaper=Globe and Mail|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/quebec-business-taxes-highest-in-north-america-study/article4618486/|url-status=live|access-date=April 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121031055451/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/quebec-business-taxes-highest-in-north-america-study/article4618486/|archive-date=October 31, 2012}}</ref>
Quebec's immigration philosophy is based on the principles of pluralism and [[interculturalism]].The {{lang|fr|Ministère de l'Immigration et des Communautés culturelles du Québec}} is responsible for the selection and integration of immigrants.<ref>{{cite web|title=Accord Canada-Québec relatif à l'immigration et à l'admission temporaire des aubains (Accord Gagnon-Tremblay—McDougall)|url=http://www.micc.gouv.qc.ca/publications/fr/divers/Accord-canada-quebec-immigration-francais.pdf|access-date=July 30, 2019|publisher=Government of Quebec|archive-date=June 14, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614152839/http://www.micc.gouv.qc.ca/publications/fr/divers/Accord-canada-quebec-immigration-francais.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Programs favour immigrants who know French, have a low risk of becoming criminals and have in-demand skills.
Quebec's health and social services network is administered by the [[Ministry of Health and Social Services (Quebec)|Ministry of Health and Social Services]]. It is composed of 95 {{lang|fr|réseaux locaux de services}} (RLS; 'local service networks') and 18 {{lang|fr|agences de la santé et des services sociaux}} (ASSS; 'health and social services agencies'). Quebec's health system is supported by the ''[[Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec]]'' (RAMQ) which works to maintain the accessibility of services for all citizens of Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Les Publications du Québec|Éditeur officiel du Québec]]|title=Loi sur la Régie de l'assurance maladie du Québec (L.R.Q., c. R-5)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/R_5/R5.html|access-date=January 8, 2010}}</ref>
The {{lang|fr|Ministère de la Famille et des Aînés du Québec}} operate {{ill|centres de la petite enfance|fr|Centre de la petite enfance}} (CPEs; 'centres for young children'). [[Education in Quebec|Quebec's education system]] is administered by the [[Ministry of Education and Higher Education (Quebec)|Ministry of Education and Higher Education]] ([[Primary school|primary]] and [[Secondary school|secondary]] schools), the {{lang|fr|Ministère de l'Enseignement supérieur}} ([[CEGEP]]) and the {{lang|fr|Conseil supérieure de l'Education du Québec}} (universities and colleges).<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Les Publications du Québec|Éditeur officiel du Québec]]|title=Loi sur le Conseil supérieur de l'éducation (L.R.Q., c. C-60)|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/C_60/C60.html|access-date=January 8, 2010}}</ref> In 2012, the annual cost for postsecondary [[Tuition payments|tuition]] was CA$2,168 (€1,700)—less than half of Canada's average tuition. Part of the reason for this is that tuition fees were frozen to a relatively low level when CEGEPS were created during the Quiet Revolution. When Jean Charest's government decided in 2012 to sharply increase university fees, [[2012 Quebec student protests|students protests]] erupted.<ref>{{cite web|first=Pascale|last=Dufour|date=June 1, 2012|title=Ténacité des étudiants québécois|url=https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2012/06/DUFOUR/47888|website=Le Monde diplomatique}}</ref> Because of these protests, Quebec's tuition fees remain relatively low.
===External relationships===
Quebec's closest international partner is the United States, with which it shares a long and positive history. Products of [[American culture]] like songs, movies, fashion and food strongly affect Québécois culture.
Quebec has a historied relationship with France, as Quebec was a part of the French Empire and both regions share a language. The {{ill|Fédération France-Québec|fr|Fédération France-Québec}} and the [[Francophonie]] are a few of the tools used for relations between Quebec and France. In [[Paris]], a {{lang|fr|place du Québec}} was inaugurated in 1980.<ref>{{cite web|title=La place du Québec à Paris dans toute sa splendeur|url=http://www.consulfrance-quebec.org/La-place-du-Quebec-a-Paris-dans|publisher=Consulat général de France à Québec|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> Quebec also has a historied relationship with the United Kingdom, having been a part of the British Empire. Quebec and the UK share the same head of state, [[King Charles III]].
Quebec has a [[Quebec Government Offices|network of 32 offices]] in 18 countries. These offices serve the purpose of representing Quebec in foreign countries and are overseen by Quebec's [[Ministry of International Relations (Quebec)|Ministry of International Relations]]. Quebec, like other Canadian provinces, also maintains representatives in some Canadian embassies and consulates general. {{As of|2019}}, the Government of Quebec had delegates-general ([[agents-general]]) in [[Brussels]], [[London]], [[Mexico City]], [[Munich]], [[New York City]], Paris and [[Tokyo]]; delegates to [[Atlanta]], [[Boston]], [[Chicago]], [[Houston]], [[Los Angeles]], and [[Rome]]; and offices headed by directors offering more limited services in [[Barcelona]], [[Beijing]], [[Dakar]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Mumbai]], [[São Paulo]], [[Shanghai]], [[Stockholm]], and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]]. In addition, there are the equivalent of [[Consul (representative)#honorary consul|honorary consuls]], titled {{lang|fr|antennes}}, in [[Berlin]], [[Philadelphia]], [[Qingdao]], [[Seoul]], and [[Silicon Valley]].
Quebec also has a representative to [[UNESCO]] and participates in the [[Organization of American States]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mrif.gouv.qc.ca/fr/ministere/representation-etranger |title=Réseau des représentations à l'étranger|publisher=Government of Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> Quebec is a member of the {{lang|fr|i=no|[[Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie]]}} and of the {{lang|fr|i=no|[[Organisation internationale de la francophonie]]}}.
==Law==
{{Main|Quebec law|Bar of Quebec}}
[[File:Edifice_Ernest-Cormier_14.JPG|thumb|The [[Édifice Ernest-Cormier]] is the courthouse for the [[Quebec Court of Appeal]] in Montreal.]]
Quebec law is the shared responsibility of the [[Government of Canada|federal]] and [[Government of Quebec|provincial government]]. The federal government is responsible for [[criminal law]], foreign affairs and laws relating to the regulation of Canadian commerce, interprovincial transportation, and telecommunications.<ref name="CF">{{Cite web|url=https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-3.html#docCont|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, THE CONSTITUTION ACTS, 1867 to 1982|first=Legislative Services|last=Branch|date=August 7, 2020|website=laws-lois.justice.gc.ca}}</ref> The provincial government is responsible for [[private law]], the administration of justice, and several social domains, such as social assistance, healthcare, education, and natural resources.<ref name="CF" />
Quebec law is influenced by two judicial traditions ([[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[common law]]) and four classic [[sources of law]] ([[legislation]], [[case law]], doctrine and [[customary law]]).{{sfn|Kélada|1970|p=21}} Private law in Quebec affects all relationships between individuals ([[Natural person|natural]] or [[Juridical person|juridical]] persons) and is largely under the jurisdiction of the [[Parliament of Quebec]]. The [[Parliament of Canada]] also influences Quebec private law, in particular through its power over banks, bankruptcy, marriage, divorce and [[maritime law]].{{sfn|Brun|Tremblay|Brouillet|2008|pp=474–491}} The ''{{ill|Droit civil du Québec|fr|Droit civil du Québec}}'' is the primary component of Quebec's private law and is [[Codification (law)|codified]] in the [[Civil Code of Quebec]].{{sfn|Émond|Lauzière|2003|p=38}} Public law in Quebec is largely derived from the common law tradition.{{sfn|Brun|Tremblay|Brouillet|2008|pp=9, 28}} Quebec [[constitutional law]] governs the rules surrounding the Quebec government, the Parliament of Quebec and Quebec's courts. Quebec [[administrative law]] governs relations between individuals and the Quebec public administration. Quebec also has some limited jurisdiction over criminal law. Finally, Quebec, like the federal government, has [[tax law]] power.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lord|first1=Guy|title=Les principes de l'imposition au Canada|last2=Sasseville|first2=Jacques|last3=Bruneau|first3=Diane|last4=Lachance|first4=Renaud|year=1998|editor=Wilson & Lafleur|edition=12|pages=11–13, 20–23|oclc=47248281}}</ref> Certain portions of Quebec law are considered mixed. This is the case, for example, with [[human rights and freedoms]] which are governed by the [[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]], a Charter which applies to both government and citizens.{{sfn|Émond|Lauzière|2003|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Brun|Tremblay|Brouillet|2008|pp=943–945}}
English is not an official language in [[Quebec law]].<ref name="charteroffrench2">{{cite web|publisher=Office Québecois de la langue francaise|date=June 1, 2011|title=Charter of the French language|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/C_11/C11_A.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030502200923/http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=%2FC_11%2FC11_A.html|archive-date=May 2, 2003}}</ref> However, both English and French are required by the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] for the enactment of laws and regulations, and any person may use English or French in the National Assembly and the courts. The books and records of the National Assembly must also be kept in both languages.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Canadian Legal Information Institute|title=Att. Gen. of Quebec v. Blaikie et al., 1979 CanLII 21 (S.C.C.)|url=http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/1979/1979canlii21/1979canlii21.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409085237/http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/1979/1979canlii21/1979canlii21.html|archive-date=April 9, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Canadian Legal Information Institute|title=A.G. (Quebec) v. Blaikie et al., [1981] 1 S.C.R. 312|url=http://www.canlii.org/eliisa/highlight.do?language=en&searchTitle=Federal&path=/en/ca/scc/doc/1981/1981canlii14/1981canlii14.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409085238/http://www.canlii.org/eliisa/highlight.do?language=en&searchTitle=Federal&path=%2Fen%2Fca%2Fscc%2Fdoc%2F1981%2F1981canlii14%2F1981canlii14.html|archive-date=April 9, 2013}}</ref>
===Courts===
Although Quebec is a civil law jurisdiction, it does not follow the pattern of other civil law systems which have court systems divided by subject matter. Instead, the court system follows the English model of unitary courts of general jurisdiction. The provincial courts have jurisdiction to decide matters under [[Law of Canada|provincial law]] as well as [[federal law]], including [[Civil law (legal system)|civil]], [[Criminal law|criminal]] and [[constitutional law|constitutional matters]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Duplé|first=Nicole|title=Droit constitutionnel : principes fondamentaux|year=2009|editor=Wilson & Lafleur|edition=4|page=729|oclc=373349446}}</ref> The major exception to the principle of general jurisdiction is that the [[Federal Court (Canada)|Federal Court]] and [[Federal Court of Appeal]] have exclusive jurisdiction over some areas of federal law, such as review of federal administrative bodies, federal taxes, and matters relating to national security.<ref>{{Cite canlaw|short title =Federal Courts Act|abbr =RSC|year =1985|chapter =F-7|link =https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/f-7/index.html}}</ref>
The Quebec courts are organized in a pyramid. At the bottom, there are the [[municipal court]]s, the Professions Tribunal, the Human Rights Tribunal, and administrative tribunals. Decisions of those bodies can be reviewed by the two trial courts, the [[Court of Quebec]] the [[Superior Court of Quebec]]. The Court of Quebec is the main criminal trial court, and also a court for small civil claims. The Superior Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction, in both criminal and civil matters. The decisions of those courts can be appealed to the [[Quebec Court of Appeal]]. Finally, if the case is of great importance, it may be appealed to the [[Supreme Court of Canada]].
The Court of Appeal serves two purposes. First, it is the general court of appeal for all legal issues from the lower courts. It hears appeals from the trial decisions of the Superior Court and the Quebec Court. It also can hear appeals from decisions rendered by those two courts on appeals or judicial review matters relating to the municipal courts and administrative tribunals.<ref>{{Cite canlaw|short title =Code of Civil Procedure|abbr =CQLR|year =|chapter =C-25.01|section =29|link =http://legisquebec.gouv.qc.ca/en/showdoc/cs/c-25.01}}</ref> Second, but much more rarely, the Court of Appeal possesses the power to respond to [[reference question]]s posed to it by the [[Executive Council of Quebec|Quebec Cabinet]]. The Court of Appeal renders more than 1,500 judgments per year.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vadnais|first=Louise|year=2000|title=Les caméras en Cour d'appel|url=http://www.barreau.qc.ca/publications/journal/vol32/no8/cameras.html|journal=Le Journal du Barreau|volume=32|number=8|access-date=April 29, 2021|archive-date=February 12, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212235906/http://www.barreau.qc.ca/publications/journal/vol32/no8/cameras.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Law enforcement===
The [[Sûreté du Québec]] is the main police force of Quebec. The Sûreté du Québec can also serve a support and coordination role with other police forces, such as with municipal police forces or with the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP).<ref>{{cite web|title=Loi sur la police, L.R.Q. P-13.1|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=2&file=/P_13_1/P13_1.html|access-date=September 27, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|year=2008|editor=Gouvernement du Québec|title=Mission, vision, valeurs|url=http://www.suretequebec.gouv.qc.ca/mission-et-services/organisation/mission-vision-valeurs-sq.jsp|access-date=September 27, 2011|publisher=Sûreté du Québec}}</ref> The RCMP has the power to enforce certain federal laws in Quebec. However, given the existence of the Sûreté du Québec, its role is more limited than in the other provinces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Béliveau|first1=Pierre|title=Traité général de preuve et de procédure pénales|last2=Vauclair|first2=Martin|year=2010|editor-first=Yvon|editor-last=Blais|edition=17|page=1436|oclc=660143951}}</ref>
Municipal police, such as the [[Service de police de la Ville de Montréal]] and the [[Service de police de la Ville de Québec]], are responsible for law enforcement in their municipalities. The Sûreté du Québec fulfils the role of municipal police in the 1038 municipalities that do not have a municipal police force.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ministère de la Sécurité publique|year=2011|editor=Gouvernement du Québec|title=Sûreté du Québec|url=http://www.securitepublique.gouv.qc.ca/police/police-quebec/services-police/sq.html|access-date=September 27, 2011|archive-date=March 14, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314044846/http://www.securitepublique.gouv.qc.ca/police/police-quebec/services-police/sq.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Indigenous communities of Quebec have their own police forces.<ref>{{cite web|date=2011|title=L'État Québécois En Perspective|url=https://cerberus.enap.ca/Observatoire/docs/Etat_quebecois/a-securitepublique.pdf|publisher=Les organismes de la sécurité publique|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>
For offences against provincial or federal laws in Quebec (including the [[Criminal Code (Canada)|Criminal Code]]), the [[Director of Criminal and Penal Prosecutions]] is responsible for prosecuting offenders in court through [[Crown attorney]]s. The [[Department of Justice (Canada)|Department of Justice of Canada]] also has the power to prosecute offenders, but only for offences against specific federal laws (ex. selling [[narcotic]]s). Quebec is responsible for operating the [[Ministry of Public Security (Quebec)|prison system]] for sentences of less than two years, and the federal government operates [[Incarceration in Canada|penitentiaries]] for sentences of two years or more.<ref>{{cite web|date=2009|title=Sorties sous surveillance|url=http://www.educaloi.qc.ca/placepublique/dossier75/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807160601/http://www.educaloi.qc.ca/placepublique/dossier75/|archive-date=August 7, 2011|publisher=Éducaloi}}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Quebec|Demographic history of Quebec}}
[[File:Quebec Population Density 2021.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Population density map of Quebec]]
In the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 census]], Quebec's population was determined to be 8,501,833, a 4.1% increase from its 2016 population of 8,164,361. With a land area of {{convert|1,356,625.27|km2|abbr=on}}, it had a population density of {{Pop density|8164361|1356625.27|km2|sqmi|prec=1}} in 2016. Quebec accounted for a little under 23% of the Canadian population. The [[List of population centres in Quebec|largest cities in Quebec]] are [[Montreal]] (1,762,976), [[Quebec City]] (538,738), [[Laval, Quebec|Laval]] (431,208), and [[Gatineau, Quebec|Gatineau]] (281,501).<ref>{{cite web|date=2017|title=La population des municipalités du Québec au 1er juillet 2017|url=https://statistique.quebec.ca/fr/fichier/la-population-des-municipalites-du-quebec-au-1er-juillet-2017.pdf|publisher=Institut de la statistique du Québec|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>
In 2016, Quebec's median age was 41.2 years. As of 2020, 20.8% of the population was younger than 20, 59.5% was aged between 20 and 64, and 19.7% was 65 or older. In 2019, Quebec witnessed an increase in the number of births compared to the year before (84,200 vs 83,840) and had a [[total fertility rate]] of about 1.6 children born per woman. As of 2020, the average life expectancy was 82.3 years. Quebec in 2019 registered its highest rate of population growth since 1972, with an increase of 110,000 people, mostly because of the arrival of a high number of immigrants. As of 2019, most international immigrants were from China, India and France.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bilan demographique du Québec |edition= 2020 |language=fr |url=https://statistique.quebec.ca/fr/fichier/bilan-demographique-du-quebec-edition-2020.pdf |publisher=Institut de la statistique du Québec |access-date=August 14, 2021}}</ref> In 2016, 30% of the population possessed a [[postsecondary]] degree or diploma. Most residents, particularly couples, are [[property owner]]s. In 2016, 80% of both property owners and renters considered their housing to be "unaffordable".<ref name="habitation">{{Cite web |url=http://www.shq.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/internet/documents/SHQ/profil-statistique-habitation-2018-2019.pdf |title=Profil statistique de l'habitation au Québec 2018–2019 |publisher=Government of Quebec |language=fr |date=November 2019}}</ref> In the [[2021 Canadian census]], 29.3% of Quebec's population stated their ancestry was of Canadian origin and 21.1% stated their ancestry was of French origin.<ref>{{cite web |title=Profile table |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 9, 2022 |access-date=4 June 2024}}</ref> As of 2021, 18% of Quebec's population belonged to a [[visible minorities|visible minority]] group.<ref>{{cite web |title=Portrait des personnes issues de minorités visibles sur le marché du travail au Québec en 2021 – Un aperçu (in French only) |url=https://statistique.quebec.ca/en/document/portrait-persons-visible-minorities-quebec-labour-market/publication/portrait-minorites-visibles-marche-travail-quebec-2021-apercu |website=Institut de la statistique du Québec |access-date=4 June 2024}}</ref>
===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Quebec}}
[[File:Ste_Anne_de_Beaupré,_Québec.jpg|thumb|The [[Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré]]]]
According to the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 census]], the most commonly cited religions in Quebec were:<ref name="2021censusB">{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |title= Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=Quebec&DGUIDlist=2021A000224&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0 |access-date=November 9, 2022 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>
*[[Christianity in Canada|Christianity]] (5,385,240 residents, or 64.8%)
*[[Irreligion in Canada|Irreligion]] (2,267,720 or 27.3%)
*[[Islam in Canada|Islam]] (421,710 or 5.1%)
*[[Judaism in Canada|Judaism]] (84,530 or 1.0%)
*[[Buddhism in Canada|Buddhism]] (48,365 or 0.6%)
*[[Hinduism in Canada|Hinduism]] (47,390 or 0.6%)
*[[Sikhism in Canada|Sikhism]] (23,345 or 0.3%)
*[[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous spirituality]] (3,790 or <0.1%)
*Other (26,385 or 0.3%)
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has long occupied a central and integral place in Quebec society since the foundation of Quebec City in 1608. However, since the [[Quiet Revolution]], which secularized Quebec, irreligion has been growing significantly.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Baillargeon |first1=Stéphane |title=Un Québécois sur deux ne croit pas en Dieu |url=https://www.ledevoir.com/societe/642084/l-adieu-a-dieu#:~:text=Il%20y%20a%20maintenant%20autant,non%2Dcroyants%20est%20d%C3%A9j%C3%A0%20atteinte. |website=Le Devoir |language=fr |date=October 22, 2021}}</ref>
Religions other than Christianity, Judaism and indigenous faiths were not present in Quebec before the 20th century. They started establishing a small presence following the passing of the ''Immigration Act of 1962''. Islam in particular has grown rapidly since the 1990s due to high immigration levels. Its number of adherents increased from 44,930 (0.6% of the population) in 1991 to 421,715 (5.1%) in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gouvernement du Canada |first=Statistique Canada |date=2024-03-20 |title=Profil d'intérêt spécial, Recensement de la population de 2021 - Profil d'intérêt : Religion - Géographie : Québec [Province] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/sip/details/page.cfm?Dguid=2021A000224&Lang=F&PoiId=8 |access-date=2025-01-24 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2004-10-01 |title=Religions in Canada |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/religion/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&View=1a&Code=13&Table=1&StartRec=1&Sort=3&B1=Canada&B2=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041001020718/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/religion/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&View=1a&Code=13&Table=1&StartRec=1&Sort=3&B1=Canada&B2=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2004-10-01 |access-date=2025-01-24}}</ref>
The oldest [[parish church]] in North America is the [[Cathedral-Basilica of Notre-Dame de Québec]]. Its construction began in 1647, when it was known under the name ''Notre-Dame-de-la-Paix'', and it was finished in 1664.<ref>{{cite web|date=February 15, 2010|title=Basilique-cathédrale Notre-Dame de Québec|url=http://www.patrimoine-religieux.com/patrimoine_fr.asp?no=19036|publisher=Corporation du patrimoine et du tourisme religieux de Québec|access-date=May 22, 2021|archive-date=February 19, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219093940/http://www.patrimoine-religieux.com/patrimoine_fr.asp?no=19036|url-status=dead}}</ref> The most frequented place of worship in Quebec is the [[Basilica of Sainte-Anne-de-Beaupré]]. This basilica welcomes millions of visitors each year. [[Saint Joseph's Oratory]] is the largest place of worship in the world dedicated to [[Saint Joseph]]. Many pilgrimages include places such as [[Saint Benedict Abbey, Quebec|Saint Benedict Abbey]], {{ill|Sanctuaire Notre-Dame-du-Cap|lt=Sanctuaire Notre-Dame-du-Cap|fr|Sanctuaire Notre-Dame-du-Cap}}, [[Notre-Dame de Montréal Basilica]], [[Mary, Queen of the World Cathedral|Marie-Reine-du-Monde de Montréal Basilica-Cathedral]], [[Saint-Michel Basilica-Cathedral]], and [[St. Patrick's Basilica, Montreal|Saint-Patrick's Basilica]]. Another important place of worship in Quebec is the Anglican Holy Trinity Cathedral, which was erected between 1800 and 1804. It was the first Anglican cathedral built outside the British Isles.<ref>{{cite web|date=July 29, 2019|title=The Cathedral of the Holy Trinity, Quebec, Canada|url=http://www.cathedral.ca/the-cathedral/|website=cathedral.ca}}</ref>
===Language===
{{Main|Language demographics of Quebec}}
{{See also|French language in Canada}}
[[File:Quebec_langues.png|thumb|{{legend-table|#008ECC|Francophone majority, less than 33% Anglophone|green|Francophone majority, more than 33% Anglophone|orange|Anglophone majority, more than 33% Francophone|red|Anglophone majority, less than 33% Francophone|grey|Data not available|lang=en|title=Linguistic map of the province of Quebec (source: Statistics Canada, 2006 census)}}]]Quebec differs from other Canadian provinces in that [[French language|French]] is its sole [[Official language|official]] language, while [[English language|English]] predominates in the [[rest of Canada]].<ref>{{cite web|year=2006|publisher=Commissariat aux langues officielles du Canada|title=Les langues officielles au Canada|url=http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/docs/f/Carte2006.pdf |access-date=January 29, 2013|archive-date=October 16, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016235448/http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/docs/f/Carte2006.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> French is the [[common language]], understood and spoken by 93.7% of the population according to the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 Census]],<ref name="language2021" /> and is the sole native language of 74.8% of the population (or slightly more than 6.5 million residents) and a native language (alone or in combination with others) of 77.8%.<ref name="TP"/> This makes Quebec the only Canadian province whose population is mainly [[Francophone]]. [[Quebec French]] is the umbrella term for local [[Variation (linguistics)|variant]]s of the language. Canada is estimated to be home to roughly 30 regional French accents,<ref name="quebeccultureblog.com2">{{cite web |title=Our 32 Accents |url=https://quebeccultureblog.com/2014/11/14/our-32-accents-series-post-3-88/ |access-date=February 26, 2021 |website=Quebec Culture Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=April 27, 2020 |title=Le francais parlé de la Nouvelle-France |url=https://www.noslangues-ourlanguages.gc.ca/fr/blogue-blog/francais-nouvelle-france-french-new-france-fra |publisher=Government of Canada |language=fr}}</ref> 17 of which can be found in Quebec.<ref>{{cite web |last=Parent |first=Stéphane |date=March 30, 2017 |title=Le francais dans tous ses etats au quebec et au canada |url=https://www.rcinet.ca/fr/2017/03/30/le-francais-dans-tous-ses-etats-au-quebec-et-au-canada/ |work=Radio-Canada}}</ref> 42.2% of Quebec's population with a French mother tongue can converse in English, the predominant language of the rest of Canada.<ref>https://www.montrealgazette.com/news/article54798.html</ref>
The {{Lang|fr|[[Office québécois de la langue française]]|italic=no}} oversees the application of linguistic policies respecting French on the territory, jointly with the [[Conseil supérieur de la langue française (Quebec)|Superior Council of the French Language]] and the [[Commission de toponymie du Québec]]. The foundation for these linguistic policies was created in 1968 by the [[Commission of Inquiry on the Situation of the French Language and Linguistic Rights in Quebec|Gendron Commission]] and they have been accompanied the [[Charter of the French language]] ("Bill 101") since 1977. The policies are in effect to protect Quebec from being assimilated by its English-speaking neighbours (the rest of Canada and the United States)<ref>{{Cite web |title=La Charte de la langue française au Québec ou Loi 101 - Le site de l'association Frontenac-Amériques |url=https://www.frontenac-ameriques.org/la-francophonie-en-amerique/article/la-charte-de-la-langue-francaise |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=www.frontenac-ameriques.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/432/LANG/Brief/BR11249912/br-external/CastonguayCharles-f.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630143024/https://www.ourcommons.ca/Content/Committee/432/LANG/Brief/BR11249912/br-external/CastonguayCharles-f.pdf | archive-date=2023-06-30}}</ref> and were also created to rectify historical injustice between the Francophone majority and Anglophone minority, the latter of which were favoured since Quebec was a colony of the British Empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Relations francophones-anglophones {{!}} l'Encyclopédie Canadienne |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/fr/article/relations-francophones-anglophones |access-date=2023-07-14 |website=www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca}}</ref> Quebec remains, alongside [[Haiti]], the only major Francophone dominant regions in the [[Americas]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Research Guides: Québec: French Culture, First Nations & Folk Music: Americas & the Caribbean | url=https://guides.loc.gov/quebec/francophone-studies/americas-caribbean }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=André | first1=Nicolas | last2=Picard | first2=Liesl | last3=Jean-Louis | first3=Arielle | last4=Hall | first4=Geoffrey | last5=Brouillet | first5=Luc | last6=Verna | first6=Chantalle F. | last7=Cinea | first7=William | last8=Peguero | first8=Brígido | last9=Jestrow | first9=Brett | last10=François | first10=Beatrice Jean | last11=Francisco-Ortega | first11=Javier | title=Haiti, Quebec, and the French Canadian Mission to Quisqueya (December 1937–January 1938): Perspectives from the Founder of the Montreal Botanical Garden, Brother Marie-Victorin | journal=Journal of Haitian Studies | date=2019 | volume=25 | issue=2 | pages=206–238 | doi=10.1353/jhs.2019.0024 | url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/763551 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Gates of la Francophonie | date=June 2, 2016 | url=https://reviewcanada.ca/magazine/2016/06/the-gates-of-la-francophonie/ }}</ref>
[[Anglo-Quebecers]], a name for residents whose main language is English, constitute the second largest linguistic group in Quebec. In 2021, [[English language|English]] was the sole mother tongue of 7.6% of Quebec residents, and was a native language (alone or in combination with others) of 10.0%.<ref name="TP">{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-27 |date=2022-02-09 |first=Statistique Canada |last=Gouvernement du Canada |title=Tableau de profil, Profil du recensement, Recensement de la population de 2021 |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=F |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}<!-- auto-translated from French by Module:CS1 translator --></ref> Anglo-Quebecers reside mainly in the west of the island of Montreal ([[West Island]]), [[downtown Montreal]] and the [[Pontiac Regional County Municipality|Pontiac]].
Three families of Indigenous languages encompassing eleven languages exist in Quebec: the [[Algonquian languages|Algonquian language family]] ([[Abenaki language|Abenaki]], [[Algonquin language|Algonquin]], [[Malecite-Passamaquoddy language|Maliseet-passamaquoddy]], [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]], and the [[linguistic continuum]] of [[Atikamekw language|Atikamekw]], [[Cree language|Cree]], [[Innu language|Innu-aimun]], and [[Naskapi language|Naskapi]]), the [[Eskimo–Aleut languages|Inuit–Aleut language family]] (Nunavimmiutitut, an [[Inuit grammar|Inuktitut dialect]] spoken by the [[Inuit]] of [[Nord-du-Québec]]), and the [[Iroquoian languages|Iroquoian language family]] ([[Mohawk language|Mohawk]] and [[Wendat language|Wendat]]). In the 2016 census, 50,895 people said they knew at least one Indigenous language<ref>{{cite web|title=Knowledge of Aboriginal Languages (90), Knowledge of Languages: Single and Multiple Language Responses (3), Aboriginal Identity (9), Aboriginal Mother Tongue (11), Registered or Treaty Indian Status (3) and Age (12) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data| date=October 25, 2017 |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?TABID=2&LANG=E&A=R&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=01&GL=-1&GID=1341679&GK=1&GRP=1&O=D&PID=110449&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2017&THEME=122&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&D1=0&D2=0&D3=0&D4=0&D5=0&D6=0|publisher=Statistics Canada|language=fr}}</ref> and 45,570 people declared having an Indigenous language as their mother tongue.<ref>{{cite web|title=Recensement du Canada de 2016 : Tableaux de données – Langue maternelle (10), langue parlée le plus souvent à la maison (10), autre(s) langue(s) parlée(s) régulièrement à la maison (11), connaissance des langues officielles (5), première langue officielle parlée (5), âge (7) et sexe (3) pour la population à l'exclusion des résidents d'un établissement institutionnel du Canada, provinces et territoires, régions métropolitaines de recensement et agglomérations de recensement, Recensement de 2016 - Données intégrales (100 %)|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-fra.cfm?LANG=F&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=110463&PRID=10&PTYPE=109445&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=888&Temporal=2016,2017&THEME=118&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=|publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref> In Quebec, most Indigenous languages are transmitted quite well from one generation to the next with a mother tongue retention rate of 92%.<ref>{{cite report |first1=Marc|last1=Termote|first2=Normand|last2=Thibault|date=2008|title=Nouvelles perspectives démolinguistiques du Québec et de la région de Montréal, 2001-2051|url=https://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/ressources/sociolinguistique/2008/etude_08.pdf|page=45|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref>
As of the [[2016 Canadian census|2016 census]], the most common immigrant languages claimed as a native language were [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (2.5% of the total population), [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (1.9%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.4%), Creole languages (mainly [[Haitian Creole]]) (0.8%), and [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (0.6%).<ref>{{cite web|title=Proportion de la population selon la langue maternelle déclarée, pour différentes régions au Canada, Recensement de 2016|date=August 4, 2017 |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/dv-vd/lang/index-fra.cfm|publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref>
As of the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 Canadian Census]], the ten most spoken languages in the province were [[French language|French]] (spoken by 7,786,735 people, or 93.72% of the population), [[English language|English]] (4,317,180 or 51.96%), [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (453,905 or 5.46%), [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (343,675 or 4.14%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (168,040 or 2.02%), [[Haitian Creole]] (118,010 or 1.42%), [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (80,520 or 0.97%), [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (65,605 or 0.8%), [[Russian language|Russian]] (55,485 or 0.7%), and [[Greek language|Greek]] (50,375 or 0.6%).<ref name="language2021">{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=August 17, 2022 |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table Quebec [Province] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000224&HEADERlist=,15,13,18,12,16,14,17&SearchText=Quebec |access-date=August 17, 2022 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.
===Indigenous peoples===
{{Main|Indigenous peoples in Quebec}}
[[File:Communautés_autochtones_du_Québec.png|thumb|Map of aboriginal communities in Quebec, this includes [[Indian reserve|reserves]], [[Indian settlement|settlements]] and [[Types of municipalities in Quebec#Aboriginal local municipal units|northern villages]]: {{legend|#800080|Algonquins}}{{legend|#ffd42a|Attikameks}}{{legend|#c87137|Abenakis}}{{legend|#2affd5|Crees}}{{legend|#808080|Hurons-Wendat}}{{legend|#008000|Innus}}{{legend|#1a1a1a|Maliseets}}{{legend|#c83771|Micmacs}}{{legend|#800000|Mohawks}}{{legend|#88aa00|Naskapis}}{{legend|#0000ff|Inuit}}]]
In 2021, the Indigenous population of Quebec numbered 205,010 (2.5% of the population), including 15,800 [[Inuit]], 116,550 [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] people, and 61,010 [[Métis]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-10-26 |title= Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0&DGUIDlist=2021A00051209034&SearchText=halifax |access-date=2023-07-04 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> There is an undercount, as some Indian bands regularly refuse to participate in Canadian censuses. In 2016, the [[Mohawk people|Mohawk]] reserves of [[Kahnawake]] and [[Doncaster, Quebec|Doncaster 17]] along with the [[Indian settlement]] of [[Kanesatake]] and [[Rapid Lake|Lac-Rapide]], a reserve of the [[Algonquins of Barriere Lake]], were not counted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/ref/dq-qd/iir-rii-eng.cfm |title=Incompletely enumerated Indian reserves and Indian settlements|date=January 3, 2019|publisher=Statistics Canada}}</ref>
The Inuit of Quebec live mainly in [[Nunavik]] in [[Nord-du-Québec]]. They make up the majority of the population living north of the 55th parallel. There are ten First Nations ethnic groups in Quebec: the [[Abenaki]], the [[Algonquin people|Algonquin]], the [[Attikamek]], the [[Cree]], the [[Wolastoqiyik]], the [[Mi'kmaq]], the [[Innu]], the [[Naskapi]]s, the [[Huron-Wendat Nation|Huron-Wendat]] and the [[Mohawks]]. The Mohawks were once part of the [[Iroquois Confederacy]].
Aboriginal rights were enunciated in the [[Indian Act]] and adopted at the end of the 19th century. This act confines [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] within the [[Indian reserve|reserves]] created for them. The Indian Act is still in effect today.<ref>{{cite web|date=July 30, 2019|title=Loi sur les Indiens|url=http://lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/Loi/I/I-5.pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20110706182157/http://laws%2Dlois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/I%2D5.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 6, 2011|publisher=justice.gc.ca|access-date=April 16, 2021}}</ref> In 1975, the [[Cree]], [[Inuit]] and the Quebec government agreed to an agreement called the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]] that would extended indigenous rights beyond reserves, and to over two-thirds of Quebec's territory. Because this extension was enacted without the participation of the [[Government of Canada|federal government]], the extended indigenous rights only exist in Quebec. In 1978, the [[Naskapi]]s joined the agreement when the [[Northeastern Quebec Agreement]] was signed. Discussions have been underway with the Montagnais of the [[Côte-Nord]] and [[Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean]] for the potential creation of a similar autonomy in two new distinct territories that would be called ''Innu Assi'' and ''Nitassinan''.<ref>{{cite web|date=April 15, 2009|title=Entente Québec-Innus|url=http://www.versuntraite.com/accueil.htm|publisher=Secrétariat aux Affaires intergouvernementales}}</ref>
A few political institutions have also been created over time:
* The [[Assembly of First Nations Quebec-Labrador]]<ref>{{cite web|title=APNQL|url=https://apnql.com/fr/|access-date=July 29, 2019|archive-date=March 31, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331200331/http://apnql.com/fr/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The [[Grand Council of the Crees]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Grand Conseil des Cris (Eeyou Istchee)/Gouvernement de la Nation Crie|url=https://www.cngov.ca/fr/gouvernance-et-structure/gcc-ei-gnc-role-mission-vision/|access-date=July 29, 2019|publisher=The Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee)}}</ref>
* The [[Makivik Corporation]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Bienvenue sur le site Internet de la Société MakivikAu service des Inuit du Nunavik depuis 1978|url=https://www.makivik.org/fr/|access-date=July 29, 2019|publisher=Makivik Corporation|archive-date=May 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515210120/https://www.makivik.org/fr/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Acadians===
The subject of [[Acadians in Quebec]] is an important one as more than a million people in Quebec are of [[Acadians|Acadian]] descent, with roughly 4.8 million people possessing one or multiple Acadian ancestors in their genealogy tree, because a large number of Acadians had fled [[Acadia]] to take refuge in Quebec during the [[Great Upheaval]]. Furthermore, more than a million people have a [[patronym]] of Acadian origin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Québec |url=http://snacadie.org/content/view/106/130/ |access-date=December 7, 2009 |publisher=[[Société Nationale de l'Acadie]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|year=1998|title=L'Acadie du Québec - Du 29 mars au 31 mai 1998|url=http://www.teleco.org/museeacadien/francais/expopre2.html|access-date=December 7, 2009|publisher=Télécommunauté insulaire francophone|archive-date=October 13, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081013014454/http://www.teleco.org/museeacadien/francais/expopre2.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|first=Adrien|last=Bergeron|year=2000|title=HÉBERT, ÉTIENNE|url=http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-f.php?&id_nbr=2928&&PHPSESSID=ychzfqkvzape|access-date=December 7, 2009|publisher=Dictionnaire biographique du Canada en ligne en collaboration avec l'Université de Toronto et l'Université Laval}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hébert|first1=Pierre-Maurice|title=Les Acadiens du Québec|date=1994|publisher=Éditions de L'Écho|isbn=2-920312-32-4|volume=427|language=fr}}</ref>
Quebec houses Acadian communities. Acadians mainly live on the [[Magdalen Islands]] and in [[Gaspesia]], but about thirty other communities are present elsewhere in Quebec, mostly in the [[Côte-Nord]] and [[Centre-du-Québec]] regions. An Acadian community in Quebec can be called a "Cadie", "Petite Cadie" or "Cadien".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arsenault|first1=Samuel|title=L'Acadie des Maritimes : études thématiques des débuts à nos jours|last2=Lamarche|first2=Rodolphe|last3=Daigle|first3=Jean|date=1993|publisher=[[:fr:Centre d'études acadiennes Anselme-Chiasson|Centre d'études acadiennes, Université de Moncton]]|isbn=2921166062|volume=Les géographes et l'aménagement des structures spatiales}}</ref>
==Economy==
{{
Quebec has an [[Developed country|advanced]], [[Market economy|market-based]], and [[open economy]]. In 2022, its [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) was [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product|US$50,000]] per person at [[purchasing power parity]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3610022101|title=Add/Remove data - Gross domestic product, income-based, provincial and territorial, annual|first=Statistics Canada|last=Government of Canada|date=November 19, 2012|website=www150.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref> The economy of Quebec is the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|46th largest in the world]] behind [[Chile]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|29th]] for GDP per person.<ref>{{cite web|title=Government Statistics|url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/salle-presse/communiq/2005/mars/mars0516a.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219133450/http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/salle-presse/communiq/2005/mars/mars0516a.htm|archive-date=February 19, 2006|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Le Québec : une économie dynamique|url=http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/economie/?lang=fr|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215221707/http://gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/economie/?lang=fr|archive-date=December 15, 2010|access-date=February 23, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref> Quebec represents 19% of the [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product|GDP of Canada]]. The provincial [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] peaked at 51% in 2012–2013, and declined to 43% in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Ministère des finances {{!}} Québec's debt {{!}} Québec's debt | url=http://www.finances.gouv.qc.ca/en/Quebecs_debt325.asp | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808065016/http://www.finances.gouv.qc.ca:80/en/Quebecs_debt325.asp | access-date=2025-07-25 | archive-date=2016-08-08}}</ref>
Like most [[industrialized countries]], the economy is based mainly on the [[services sector]]. Quebec's economy has traditionally been fuelled by abundant natural resources and a well-developed infrastructure, but has undergone significant change over the past decade.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perspective revue d'analyse économique|url=http://www.desjardins.com/fr/a_propos/etudes_economiques/previsions/en_perspective/per1003.pdf|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=caisse desjardins}}</ref> Firmly grounded in the [[knowledge economy]], Quebec has one of the highest growth rates of GDP in Canada. The knowledge sector represents about 31% of Quebec's GDP.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le Québec : une économie dynamique|url=http://www.mdeie.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/contenu/publications/etudes_statistiques/innovation/economie_savoir.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706202311/http://www.mdeie.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/contenu/publications/etudes_statistiques/innovation/economie_savoir.pdf|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=February 23, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> In 2011, Quebec experienced faster growth of its [[Research and development|research-and-development]] (R&D) spending than other Canadian provinces.<ref>{{cite web|title=L'expertise québécoise en haute technologie|url=http://www.investquebec.com/fr/index.aspx?page=340|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527131408/http://www.investquebec.com/fr/index.aspx?page=340|archive-date=May 27, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Investissement Québec}}</ref> Quebec's spending in R&D in 2011 was equal to 2.63% of GDP, above the [[European Union]] average of 1.8%.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sauvé, Mathieu-Robert|date=May 19, 2010|title=Une cible de 3% pour la science|url=https://www.ledevoir.com/societe/science-et-technologie/289219/une-cible-de-3-pour-la-science|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110808152509/http://www.ledevoir.com/societe/science-et-technologie/289219/une-cible-de-3-pour-la-science|archive-date=August 8, 2011|website=Le Devoir|language=fr}}</ref> The percentage spent on research and technology is the highest in Canada and higher than the averages for the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] and the [[G7]] countries.<ref>{{cite web|author=Le Cours, Rudy|date=July 30, 2010|title=L'économie du savoir en mutation au Québec|url=http://lapresseaffaires.cyberpresse.ca/economie/quebec/201007/30/01-4302438-leconomie-du-savoir-en-mutation-au-quebec.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730221229/http://lapresseaffaires.cyberpresse.ca/economie/quebec/201007/30/01-4302438-leconomie-du-savoir-en-mutation-au-quebec.php|archive-date=July 30, 2010|website=La Presse Affaire|language=fr}}</ref>
Some of the most important companies from Quebec are: [[Bombardier Inc|Bombardier]], [[Desjardins Group|Desjardins]], the [[National Bank of Canada]], the [[Jean Coutu Group]], [[Transcontinental (company)|Transcontinental média]], [[Quebecor]], the [[Metro Inc.|Métro Inc.]] food retailers, [[Hydro-Québec]], the [[Société des alcools du Québec]], the [[Bank of Montreal]], [[Saputo Inc|Saputo]], the [[Cirque du Soleil]], the [[Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec]], the Normandin restaurants, and [[Vidéotron]].
===Exports and imports===
[[File:EXPORT_quebec_USA_Chine.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Quebec's exports to the international market. The United States is the country which buys the most exports from Quebec by far. (2011)]]
Thanks to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) and the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), Quebec had, {{as of|2009|lc=on}}, experienced an increase in its exports and in its ability to compete on the international market. International exchanges contribute to the strength of the Quebec economy.<ref name="PQ">{{cite web |date=2009 |title=Portail Québec, Importation et exportation 2008 |url=http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/economie/importexport/?lang=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016053257/http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/economie/importexport/?lang=fr |archive-date=October 16, 2014 |access-date=June 30, 2011 |publisher=Gouvernement du Québec}}</ref> NAFTA is especially advantageous as it gives Quebec, among other things, access to a market of 130 million consumers within a radius of 1,000 kilometres.
In 2008, Quebec's exports to other provinces in Canada and abroad totalled 157.3 billion [[Canadian dollar|CND$]], or 51.8% of Quebec's [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). Of this total, 60.4% were international exports, and 39.6% were interprovincial exports. The breakdown by destination of international merchandise exports is: United States (72.2%), Europe (14.4%), Asia (5.1%), Middle East (2.7%), Central America (2.3%), South America (1.9%), Africa (0.8%) and Oceania (0.7%).<ref name="PQ" />
In 2008, Quebec imported $178 billion worth of goods and services, or 58.6% of its GDP. Of this total, 62.9% of goods were imported from international markets, while 37.1% of goods were interprovincial imports. The breakdown by origin of international merchandise imports is as follows: United States (31.1%), Europe (28.7%), Asia (17.1%), Africa (11.7%), South America (4.5%), Central America (3.7%), Middle East (1.3%) and Oceania (0.7%).<ref name="PQ" />
===Primary sector===
[[File:Centrale_de_Beauharnois_-_2014.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Beauharnois generating station]], operated by [[Hydro-Québec]]]]
Quebec produces most of Canada's [[hydroelectricity]] and is the second biggest hydroelectricity producer in the world (2019).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.one-neb.gc.ca/nrg/ntgrtd/mrkt/snpsht/2016/06-04cndscndwrld-fra.html |title=Aperçu du marché : Le Canada, deuxième producteur mondial d'hydroélectricité|publisher=Government of Canada|date=June 4, 2016}}</ref> Because of this, Quebec has been described as a potential [[clean energy]] superpower.<ref>{{cite web|author=Séguin, Hugo|date=April 13, 2010|title=Le Québec, la puissance énergétique verte du continent?|url=http://www.equiterre.qc.ca/choix-de-societe/blog/le-quebec-la-superpuissance-energetique-verte-du-continent|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706200534/http://www.equiterre.qc.ca/choix-de-societe/blog/le-quebec-la-superpuissance-energetique-verte-du-continent|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=April 28, 2011|publisher=Équiterre|language=fr}}</ref> In 2019, Quebec's electricity production amounted to 214 [[terawatt]]-hours (TWh), 95% of which comes from hydroelectric power stations, and 4.7% of which come from [[wind energy]]. The public company [[Hydro-Québec]] occupies a dominant position in the production, transmission and distribution of electricity in Quebec. Hydro-Québec operates 63 hydroelectric power stations and 28 large reservoirs.<ref name="hydroquebec.com2">{{cite web|title=Notre énergie est propre et renouvelable|url=https://www.hydroquebec.com/a-propos/notre-energie.html|access-date=September 6, 2020|publisher=Hydro-Québec}}</ref> Because of the remoteness of Hydro-Québec's [[Hydro-Québec's electricity transmission system|TransÉnergie]] division, it operates the largest electricity transmission network in North America. Quebec stands out for its use of [[renewable energy]]. In 2008, electricity ranked as the main form of energy used in Quebec (41.6%), followed by [[oil]] (38.2%) and [[natural gas]] (10.7%).<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Quebec Ministry of Natural Resources and Wildlife|title=Consommation d'énergie par forme|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/energie/statistiques/statistiques-consommation-forme.jsp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706201639/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/energie/statistiques/statistiques-consommation-forme.jsp|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=April 28, 2011|language=fr}}</ref> In 2017, 47% of all energy came from renewable sources.{{sfn|Whitmore|Pineau|2020|p=8}} The Quebec government's energy policy seeks to build, by 2030, a [[low carbon economy]].
Quebec ranks among the top ten areas to do business in mining in the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le Québec est le chouchou de l'industrie minière|url=http://lasentinelle.canoe.ca/webapp/sitepages/content.asp?contentid=141789&id=999|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120720051111/http://lasentinelle.canoe.ca/webapp/sitepages/content.asp?contentid=141789&id=999|archive-date=July 20, 2012|access-date=July 3, 2011|publisher=Canoe.ca|language=fr}}</ref> In 2011, the [[mining industry]] accounted for 6.3% of Quebec's GDP<ref>{{cite web|title=Industrie minière et substances exploitées|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/mines/industrie/index.jsp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110421053508/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/mines/industrie/index.jsp|archive-date=April 21, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec|language=fr}}</ref> and it employed about 50,000 people in 158 companies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amq-inc.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=34|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110321162047/http://www.amq-inc.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=12&Itemid=34|archive-date=March 21, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=AMQ inc.|language=fr|title=Industrie minière au Québec}}</ref> It has around 30 mines, 158 exploration companies and 15 primary processing industries. While many metallic and industrial minerals are exploited, the main ones are gold, iron, copper and [[zinc]]. Others include: [[titanium]], [[asbestos]], silver, [[magnesium]] and nickel, among many others.<ref>{{cite web|title=Substances exploitées au Québec|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/mines/industrie/industrie-substances.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617031904/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/mines/industrie/industrie-substances.jsp|archive-date=June 17, 2007|access-date=August 16, 2007|publisher=Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune}}</ref> Quebec is also as a major source of diamonds.<ref>{{cite web|title=Diamants au Québec|url=http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/mines/industrie/gemmes/gemmes-diamant.jsp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706201736/http://www.mrnf.gouv.qc.ca/mines/industrie/gemmes/gemmes-diamant.jsp|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=December 10, 2009|publisher=Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune}}</ref> Since 2002, Quebec has seen an increase in its mineral explorations. In 2003, the value of mineral exploitation reached $3.7 billion.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Institut de la statistique du Québec|date=July 17, 2006|title=Industrie minière: valeur des expéditions, selon les principales substances minérales, Québec|url=http://www.bdso.gouv.qc.ca/pls/ken/p_afch_tabl_clie?p_no_client_cie=FR&p_param_id_raprt=843|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706200539/http://www.bdso.gouv.qc.ca/pls/ken/p_afch_tabl_clie?p_no_client_cie=FR&p_param_id_raprt=843|archive-date=July 6, 2011|work=Banque de données des statistiques officielles}}</ref>
The [[Agrifood|agri-food industry]] plays an important role in the economy of Quebec, with meat and [[dairy product]]s being the two main sectors. It accounts for 8% of the Quebec's GDP and generate $19.2 billion. In 2010, this industry generated 487,000 jobs in agriculture, fisheries, manufacturing of food, beverages and tobacco and food distribution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Agri-Food Trade Service|url=http://www.ats.agr.gc.ca/reg/4710-eng.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706181403/http://www.ats.agr.gc.ca/reg/4710-eng.htm|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Agriculture and Agri-food Canada}}</ref>
===Secondary sector===
[[File:Bombardier_CSeries_mockup.jpg|thumb|A mockup of the [[Airbus A220]] (formerly the Bombardier CSeries), originally developed by [[Bombardier Aerospace]]]]
In 2021, Quebec's [[aerospace industry]] employed 35,000 people and its sales totalled C$15.2 billion - the world's 6th largest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Global Affairs |date=2015-10-20 |title=Sector Snapshots - Canadian Trade Commissioner Service - Quebec |url=https://www.tradecommissioner.gc.ca/quebec/snapshot-apercus.aspx?lang=eng |access-date=2024-01-21 |website=GAC }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Many aerospace companies are active here, including [[CMC Electronics]], [[Bombardier Aerospace|Bombardier]], [[Pratt & Whitney Canada]], [[Héroux-Devtek]], [[Rolls-Royce Holdings|Rolls-Royce]], [[General Electric]], [[Bell Textron]], [[L3Harris]], [[Safran]], [[SONACA]], [[CAE Inc.]], and [[Airbus]], among others. Montreal is globally considered one of the aerospace industry's great centres, and several international aviation organisations seat here.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Ministère de l'Économie et de l'Innovation|title=Aérospatiale / Présentation de l'industrie de l'aérospatiale|url=https://www.economie.gouv.qc.ca/objectifs/informer/par-secteur-dactivite/aerospatiale/page/le-secteur-10812/?tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5Bmode%5D=single|access-date=May 8, 2022|language=fr|archive-date=July 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702113130/https://www.economie.gouv.qc.ca/objectifs/informer/par-secteur-dactivite/aerospatiale/page/le-secteur-10812/?tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5Bmode%5D=single|url-status=dead}}</ref> Both Aéro Montréal and the CRIAQ were created to assist aerospace companies.<ref>{{cite web |title=Quebec's Aerospace Cluster |url=https://www.aeromontreal.ca/ |website=aeromontreal.ca|access-date=May 8, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Consortium de recherche et d'innovation en aérospatiale au Québec |url=https://www.criaq.aero/ |language=fr-FR|publisher=CRIAQ|access-date=May 8, 2022}}</ref>
The [[pulp and paper industry]] accounted for 3.1% of Quebec's GDP in 2007 <ref>{{cite web|title=Portraits forestiers régionaux|url=http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/grip/dr/facq/contsoci.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070910230852/http://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/grip/dr/facq/contsoci.htm|archive-date=September 10, 2007|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Conseil de l'industrie forestière du Québec}}</ref> and generated annual shipments valued at more than $14 billion.<ref>{{cite web|title=Encore "dix ans difficiles" pour l'industrie forestière|url=http://www.abitibiexpress.ca/Economie/Ressources-naturelles/2010-11-04/article-1923283/Encore-%26laquo%3Bdix-ans-difficiles%26raquo%3B-pour-l%26rsquo%3Bindustrie-forestiere/1|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706163954/http://www.abitibiexpress.ca/Economie/Ressources-naturelles/2010-11-04/article-1923283/Encore-%26laquo%3Bdix-ans-difficiles%26raquo%3B-pour-l%26rsquo%3Bindustrie-forestiere/1|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Abitibi expresse}}</ref> This industry employs 68,000 people in several regions of Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|title=Portraits forestiers régionaux|url=http://www.cifq.qc.ca/html/francais/centre_mediatique/portrait.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125114405/http://www.cifq.qc.ca/html/francais/centre_mediatique/portrait.php|archive-date=January 25, 2010|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Conseil de l'industrie forestière du Québec|language=fr}}</ref> It is also the main -and in some circumstances only- source of manufacturing activity in more than 250 municipalities in the province. The forest industry has slowed in recent years because of the [[United States – Canada softwood lumber dispute|softwood lumber dispute]].<ref>{{cite web|date=February 2006|title=CRISE dans l'industrie forestière|url=http://magazinemci.com/2006/02/01/crise-dans-lindustrie-forestiere/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714020151/http://magazinemci.com/2006/02/01/crise-dans-lindustrie-forestiere/|archive-date=July 14, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Corridors de commerce FCCQ}}</ref> In 2020, this industry represented 8% of Quebec's exports.<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 30, 2021|title=L'industrie forestière innove pour lutter contre les changements climatiques|url=https://www.lequotidien.com/2021/11/30/lindustrie-forestiere-innove-pour-lutter-contre-les-changements-climatiques-18418eeeafea625bbb6c18b33897c536|access-date=January 14, 2022|website=Le Soleil|language=fr}}</ref>
As Quebec has few significant deposits of [[fossil fuel]]s,{{sfn|Whitmore|Pineau|2020|p=10}} all [[hydrocarbon]]s are imported. [[Refinery|Refiners']] sourcing strategies have varied over time and have depended on market conditions. In the 1990s, Quebec purchased much of its oil from the [[Brent Crude|North Sea]]. Since 2015, it now consumes almost exclusively the crude produced in [[western Canada]] and the United States.{{sfn|Whitmore|Pineau|2020|p=9}} Quebec's two active refineries have a total capacity of 402,000 barrels per day, greater than local needs which stood at 365,000 barrels per day in 2018.{{sfn|Whitmore|Pineau|2020|p=10}}
Thanks to hydroelectricity, Quebec is the world's fourth largest [[Aluminium foil|aluminum]] producer and creates 90% of Canadian aluminum. Three companies make aluminum here: [[Rio Tinto (corporation)|Rio Tinto]], [[Alcoa]] and Aluminium Alouette. Their 9 ''alumineries'' produce 2,9 million tons of aluminum annually and employ 30,000 workers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=l'Innovation |first=Ministère de l'Économie et de |title=Aluminium / Présentation de l'industrie de l'aluminium - MEI |url=https://www.economie.gouv.qc.ca/objectifs/informer/par-secteur-dactivite/metallurgie/aluminium/page/le-secteur-19764/?no_cache=1&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5Bmode%5D=single&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BbackPid%5D=19755&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BcurrentCat%5D= |access-date=March 5, 2022 |website=Ministère de l'Économie et de l'Innovation |language=fr |archive-date=March 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305202019/https://www.economie.gouv.qc.ca/objectifs/informer/par-secteur-dactivite/metallurgie/aluminium/page/le-secteur-19764/?no_cache=1&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5Bmode%5D=single&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BbackPid%5D=19755&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BcurrentCat%5D= |url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Tertiary sector===
The [[Financial services|finance and insurance]] sector employs more than 168,000 people. Of this number, 78,000 are employed by the banking sector, 53,000 by the insurance sector and 20,000 by the securities and investment sector.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Québec |first=Institut de la statistique du |title=Emploi par industrie selon l'Enquête sur l'emploi, la rémunération et les heures de travail (EERH), Québec, 2005-2011 |url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/donstat/econm_finnc/insti_finnc_coopr/inst_fin/emploi_qc_05_11.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125212707/http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/donstat/econm_finnc/insti_finnc_coopr/inst_fin/emploi_qc_05_11.htm#federation=archive.wikiwix.com |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 25, 2013 |access-date=March 5, 2022 |website=archive.wikiwix.com |language=fr-CA}}</ref> The [[Bank of Montreal]], founded in 1817 in Montreal, was Quebec's first bank but, like many other large banks, its central branch is now in Toronto. Several banks remain based in Quebec [[National Bank of Canada]], the [[Desjardins Group]] and the [[Laurentian Bank of Canada|Laurentian Bank]].
[[File:Chateau_Frontenac_2.jpg|thumb|The [[Château Frontenac]] is the most photographed hotel in the world.]]
The [[Tourism in Quebec|tourism industry]] is a major sector in Quebec. The [[Ministry of Tourism (Quebec)|Ministry of Tourism]] ensures the development of this industry under the commercial name "Bonjour Québec".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bonjourquebec.com/fr-ca |title=Bonjour-Quebec|publisher=Ministry of Tourism|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> Quebec is the second most important province for tourism in Canada, receiving 21.5% of tourists' spending (2021).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/tourisme-chiffres-2014.pdf|title=Chiffres tourisme|publisher=Government of Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021|archive-date=October 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006151519/https://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/tourisme-chiffres-2014.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The industry provides employment to over 400,000 people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/Tourisme-chiffres2009.pdf|title=Le tourisme en chiffres|publisher=Government of Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021|archive-date=October 6, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006151621/http://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/Tourisme-chiffres2009.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> These employees work in the more than 29,000 tourism-related businesses in Quebec, most of which are restaurants or hotels. 70% of tourism-related businesses are located in or close to Montreal or Quebec City. It is estimated that, in 2010, Quebec welcomed 25.8 million tourists. Of these, 76.1% came from Quebec, 12.2% from the [[rest of Canada]], 7.7% from the United States and 4.1% from other countries. Annually, tourists spend more than $6.7 billion in Quebec's tourism industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/TqBref2008.pdf|title=Le touisme en bref|publisher=Government of Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021|archive-date=August 28, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828194347/http://www.tourisme.gouv.qc.ca/publications/media/document/etudes-statistiques/TqBref2008.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Approximately 1.1 million Quebecers work in the field of science and technology.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Benefits of Investing in Québec Research & Development |url=http://www.investquebec.com/en/index.aspx?page=336 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527123940/http://www.investquebec.com/en/index.aspx?page=336 |archive-date=May 27, 2011 |access-date=February 23, 2011 |publisher=Investissement Québec}}</ref> In 2007, the [[Government of Quebec]] launched the Stratégie québécoise de la recherche et de l'innovation (SQRI) aiming to promote development through research, science and technology. The government hoped to create a strong culture of innovation in Quebec for the next decades and to create a [[sustainable economy]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Stratégie québécoise de la recherche et de l'innovation (SQRI) 2010–2013 |url=http://www.mdeie.gouv.qc.ca/objectifs/informer/promotion-de-la-science-et-de-la-technologie/page/strategies-10457/?tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5Bmode%5D=single&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BbackPid%5D=414&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BcurrentCat%5D=&cHash=92205d14fab28502662407daf5adfa2f |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501170553/http://www.mdeie.gouv.qc.ca/objectifs/informer/promotion-de-la-science-et-de-la-technologie/page/strategies-10457/?tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5Bmode%5D=single&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BbackPid%5D=414&tx_igaffichagepages_pi1%5BcurrentCat%5D=&cHash=92205d14fab28502662407daf5adfa2f |archive-date=May 1, 2012 |access-date=January 19, 2012 |publisher=Gouvernement du Québec |language=fr}}</ref>
Quebec's [[Information technology|IT]] sector has 7,600 businesses and employs 140,000 people.<ref>{{cite web |title=Services informatiques et logiciels |url=http://www.investquebec.com/en/index.aspx?rubrique=27 |url-status=dead |publisher=Investissement Québec |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527124352/http://www.investquebec.com/en/index.aspx?rubrique=27 |archive-date=May 27, 2011 |access-date=June 23, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Investir en TIC, innovation et créativité | Investissement Québec |url=http://www.invest-quebec.com/fr/investissement-direct-etranger/technologies-information-communications/innovation-creativite.html |url-status=dead |website=Invest-quebec.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002172230/http://www.invest-quebec.com/fr/investissement-direct-etranger/technologies-information-communications/innovation-creativite.html |archive-date=October 2, 2013 |access-date=September 29, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=l'Innovation |first=Ministère de l'Économie et de |title=Le secteur / Aperçu de l'industrie des technologies de l'information et des communications - MEI |url=https://www.economie.gouv.qc.ca/bibliotheques/secteurs/technologies-de-linformation-et-des-communications/apercu-de-lindustrie-des-technologies-de-linformation-et-des-communications/ |access-date=March 5, 2022 |website=Ministère de l'Économie et de l'Innovation |language=fr |archive-date=March 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305202023/https://www.economie.gouv.qc.ca/bibliotheques/secteurs/technologies-de-linformation-et-des-communications/apercu-de-lindustrie-des-technologies-de-linformation-et-des-communications/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Its most developed sectors are [[telecommunications]], multimedia and video game software, computer services, microelectronics, and the components sector. There are currently 115 telecommunications companies established in the province, including [[Motorola]], [[Ericsson]] and Mitec.<ref>{{cite web|title=Perspective|url=http://www.desjardins.com/fr/a_propos/etudes_economiques/previsions/en_perspective/per1003.pdf|website=Desjardins.com|language=fr}}</ref> The multimedia and video game sector has been growing fast since the early 2000s. The Digital Alliance, which claims 191 active members in video games, online education, mobility and Internet services, estimates the annual revenue of the sector at $827 million in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Se projeter dans l'avenir |url=https://www.ledevoir.com/economie/455230/sommet-du-jeu-video-se-projeter-dans-l-avenir |access-date=March 5, 2022 |website=Le Devoir |language=fr}}</ref> The microelectronics sector is made up of more than 100 companies employing 13,000 people. Computer services, software development, and consulting engineering employ 60,000 skilled workers. While the largest IT employers are [[CMC Electronics]], [[IBM]], and [[Matrox]], many other tech companies are present here, including [[Ubisoft Montreal|Ubisoft]], [[Electronic Arts]], [[Microids]], [[Strategy First]], [[Eidos-Montréal|Eidos]], [[Activision]], [[Artificial Mind and Movement|A2M]], [[Frima Studio]], etc.<ref>{{Cite web |title=convert |url=http://alliancenumerique.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/M%25C3%25A9moire_Alliance_num%25C3%25A9rique.pdf/index.html#federation=archive.wikiwix.com |access-date=March 5, 2022 |website=archive.wikiwix.com}}{{dead link|date=January 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
Montreal is ranked fourth in North America for the number of jobs in the pharmaceutical sector.<ref name="emergex2">{{cite web |date=November 30, 2005 |title=La recherche et le développement au Québec |url=http://www.emergex.com/fr/content/rd_quebec.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710190032/http://www.emergex.com/fr/content/rd_quebec.aspx |archive-date=July 10, 2011 |access-date=March 6, 2011 |publisher=EMERGEX |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=Investissement Québec|title=Life sciences|url=http://www.investquebec.com/documents/en/publications/BrochureSciences2010_en.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527205103/http://www.investquebec.com/documents/en/publications/BrochureSciences2010_en.pdf|archive-date=May 27, 2011|access-date=July 5, 2011}}</ref>
==Education==
{{Main|Education in Quebec}}
{{See also|List of universities in Quebec|List of colleges in Quebec|List of schools in Quebec}}
The education system of Quebec, administered by the government of Quebec's [[Ministry of Education and Higher Education (Quebec)|Ministry of Education and Higher Education]], differs from those of other Canadian provinces. The province has five levels of education: first {{ill|Preschool, primary and secondary education in Quebec|lt=preschool, then primary school, then secondary school|fr|Éducation préscolaire, primaire et secondaire au Québec}}; then [[CEGEP]] (see [[College education in Quebec]]); and finally [[Higher education in Quebec|university or college]]. Attached to these levels are the options to also attend [[professional development]] opportunities, [[Andragogy|classes for adults]], and [[continuing education]]. For every level of teaching, there exists a public network and private network: the public network is financed by taxes while the private options must be paid for by the student. In 2020, [[school boards]] were replaced by [[school service centre]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bill 40, An Act to amend mainly the Education Act with regard to school organization and governance |publisher=National Assembly of Québec|url=http://www.assnat.qc.ca/en/travaux-parlementaires/projets-loi/projet-loi-40-42-1.html?appelant=MC|access-date=August 23, 2020}}</ref>
All universities in Quebec exist by virtue of laws adopted by the [[National Assembly of Quebec]] in 1967 during the [[Quiet Revolution]]. Their financing mostly comes from public taxes, but the laws under which they operate grants them more autonomy than other levels of education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.education.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/site_web/documents/PSG/politiques_orientations/rapport_comiteCS_mai2014v3p.pdf |title=Rapport comite|publisher=Government of Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>[[File:Edifice_quebec_INRS.jpg|thumb|The [[Institut national de la recherche scientifique]] helps to advance scientific knowledge and to train a new generation of students in various scientific and technological sectors.]]
=== Research ===
Quebec is considered one of world leaders in [[Basic research|fundamental scientific research]], having produced ten [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureates]] in either physics, chemistry, or medicine.<ref>{{cite web |author=Perreault, Mathieu |title=Dix Nobel au Québec |work=La Presse |date=October 10, 2009 |url=http://www.cyberpresse.ca/international/dossiers/prix-nobel-2009/200910/10/01-910310-dix-nobel-au-quebec.php |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124175119/http://www.cyberpresse.ca/international/dossiers/prix-nobel-2009/200910/10/01-910310-dix-nobel-au-quebec.php |archive-date=January 24, 2011 |access-date=February 23, 2011 |publisher=Cyberpresse.ca |language=fr}}</ref> It is also considered one of the world leaders in sectors such as aerospace, information technology, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals, and therefore plays a significant role in the world's scientific and technological communities.<ref>{{cite web |title=Science and Technology: Portal of the government of Québec |url=http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/economie/sciencestechnologies/?lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217060340/http://gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait/economie/sciencestechnologies/?lang=en |archive-date=December 17, 2010 |access-date=February 23, 2011 |publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref> Between 2000 and 2011, Quebec had over 9,469 scientific publications in biomedical research and engineering.<ref>{{cite web |title=Québec had 195 triadic inventions patented |url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/savoir/index_an.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110612111434/http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/savoir/index_an.htm |archive-date=June 12, 2011 |access-date=February 23, 2011 |publisher=Institut de la statistique du Québec}}</ref> The contribution of Quebec in science and technology represented approximately 1% of the research worldwide between the 1980s and 2009.<ref>{{cite web |title=Nombre de publications scientifiques en sciences naturelles et génie, Québec, Ontario, pays du G8, pays nordiques, certains pays émergents et monde, et part dans le total mondial, 1980 à 2009 |url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/savoir/indicateurs/publications/pub_pays_total.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402145402/http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/savoir/indicateurs/publications/pub_pays_total.htm |archive-date=April 2, 2012 |access-date=October 11, 2011 |publisher=Institut de la statistique du Québec}}</ref>[[File:Apollo_11_Lunar_Module_Eagle_in_landing_configuration_in_lunar_orbit_from_the_Command_and_Service_Module_Columbia.jpg|thumb|In 1969, [[Héroux-Devtek]] designed and manufactured the [[Landing gear|undercarriage]] of the [[Apollo Lunar Module]].]]The province is one of the world leaders in the field of [[space science]] and contributed to important discoveries in this field.<ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Aerospace in Quebec |url=http://www.investquebec.com/documents/en/secteur/Aerospace.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527221548/http://www.investquebec.com/documents/en/secteur/Aerospace.pdf |archive-date=May 27, 2011 |access-date=May 3, 2010 |publisher=Investissement Québec}}</ref> The [[Canadian Space Agency]] was established in Quebec due to its major role in this research field. A total of four Quebecers have been in space since the creation of the CSA: [[Marc Garneau]], [[Julie Payette]], and [[David Saint-Jacques]] as CSA astronauts, plus [[Guy Laliberté]] as a private citizen who paid for his trip. Quebec has also contributed to the creation of some Canadian [[artificial satellite]]s including [[SCISAT-1]], [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]], [[Radarsat-1]] and [[Radarsat-2]].<ref>{{cite web |date=May 7, 2001 |title=RADARSAT-1 Climate Change |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/educators/resources/radarsat/q-a.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826024711/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/educators/resources/radarsat/q-a.asp |archive-date=August 26, 2011 |publisher=Canadian Space Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Construction and cost |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat1/construction.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826024726/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/radarsat1/construction.asp |archive-date=August 26, 2011 |publisher=Canadian Space Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=SCISAT Team and partners |url=http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/scisat/contractors.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826024702/http://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/scisat/contractors.asp |archive-date=August 26, 2011 |publisher=Canadian Space Agency}}</ref>
Quebec ranks among the world leaders in the field of [[life science]].<ref name="emergex2" /> Quebec has more than 450 biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies which together employ more than 25,000 people and 10,000 highly qualified researchers.<ref name="emergex2" />
==Infrastructure==
===Transportation===
{{Main|List of airports in Quebec|List of Quebec railways|List of Quebec provincial highways}}
[[File:Cmarcoux3.JPG|thumb|The ferry N.M. ''Camille-Marcoux'', of the ''Société des traversiers du Québec'']]
Development and security of land transportation in Canada are provided by [[Transports Québec]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Ministère des Transports du Québec (MTQ)|title=MISSION, RÔLE ET MANDAT|url=http://www.femmescentreduquebec.qc.ca/cd/mtq.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326161857/http://www.femmescentreduquebec.qc.ca/cd/mtq.pdf|archive-date=March 26, 2012|access-date=July 6, 2011}}</ref> Other organizations, such as the [[Canadian Coast Guard]] and [[Nav Canada]], provide the same service for the sea and air transportation. The ''Commission des transports du Québec'' works with the freight carriers and the public transport.
The ''réseau routier québécois'' (Quebec road network) is managed by the [[Société de l'assurance automobile du Québec]] (SAAQ; Quebec Automobile Insurance Corporation) and consists of about {{convert|185000|km|abbr=on}} of highways and national, regional, local, collector and forest roads. In addition, Quebec has almost 12,000 bridges, tunnels, retaining walls, culverts and other structures<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Ministère des Transports du Québec|year=2007|title=Quebec road network|url=http://www.mtq.gouv.qc.ca/portal/page/portal/grand_public/vehicules_promenade/reseau_routier|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113234955/http://www.mtq.gouv.qc.ca/portal/page/portal/grand_public/vehicules_promenade/reseau_routier|archive-date=November 13, 2008|access-date=August 16, 2007}}</ref> such as the [[Quebec Bridge]], the [[Laviolette Bridge]] and the [[Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel]].
In the waters of the Saint Lawrence there are eight deep-water ports for the transhipment of goods. In 2003, 3886 cargo and 9.7 million tonnes of goods transited the Quebec portion of the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]].<ref name="transport-qc2">{{cite web|year=2007|title=Quebec Portal: Transport|url=http://www.gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait?lang=fr&id=pgs.portrait.economie.transport&___location=pgs%2Fportrait%2Feconomie%2Ftransport#transferroviaires|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012205101/http://gouv.qc.ca/portail/quebec/pgs/commun/portrait?lang=fr&id=pgs.portrait.economie.transport&___location=pgs%2Fportrait%2Feconomie%2Ftransport#transferroviaires|archive-date=October 12, 2007|access-date=August 16, 2007|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref>
Concerning rail transport, Quebec has {{convert|6678|km|abbr=on}} of railways<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Institut de la statistique du Québec|year=2007|title=Le Québec, chiffres en main: Transport|url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/publications/referenc/qcem/qcem_eco_tra.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012210055/http://stat.gouv.qc.ca/publications/referenc/qcem/qcem_eco_tra.htm|archive-date=October 12, 2007|access-date=August 16, 2007}}</ref> integrated in the large North American network. Although primarily intended for the transport of goods through companies such as the [[Canadian National]] (CN) and the [[Canadian Pacific]] (CP), the Quebec railway network is also used by inter-city passengers via [[Via Rail Canada]] and [[Amtrak]]. In April 2012, plans were unveiled for the construction of an {{convert|800|km|0|abbr=on}} railway running north from [[Sept-Îles, Quebec|Sept-Îles]], to support mining and other resource extraction in the Labrador Trough.<ref>{{cite news|title=Railway Gazette: Railway could tap Québec's northern wealth|work=[[Railway Gazette International]]|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/railway-could-tap-quebecs-northern-wealth.html|access-date=April 23, 2012|archive-date=August 7, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807002205/https://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/railway-could-tap-quebecs-northern-wealth.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Quebec's air network includes 43 airports that offer scheduled services on a daily basis.<ref name="transport-qc2" /> In addition, the Government of Quebec owns airports and heliports to increase the accessibility of local services to communities in the [[Basse-Côte-Nord]] and northern regions.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Ministère des Transports du Québec|title=Quebec air transport|url=http://www.mtq.gouv.qc.ca/portal/page/portal/entreprises/transport_aerien|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815150809/http://www.mtq.gouv.qc.ca/portal/page/portal/entreprises/transport_aerien|archive-date=August 15, 2011|access-date=December 10, 2009}}</ref>
Various other transport networks crisscross the province of Quebec, including hiking trails, snowmobile trails and bike paths. The [[Route Verte|Green Road]] is the largest at nearly {{convert|4000|km|abbr=on}} in length.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Route verte puts all of Quebec within reach of your handlebars!|url=http://www.routeverte.com/rv/index2010_e.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715205401/http://www.routeverte.com/rv/index2010_e.php|archive-date=July 15, 2011|access-date=July 6, 2011|publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref>
===Healthcare===
Quebec has a health policy that emphasizes prevention, is based on the analysis of health-related data, and evolves with the needs of the population. Similar to other developed economies, the public health policies implemented in Quebec have extended the life expectancy of its population since the mid-20th century.<ref>{{cite book|url= http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/publications/demograp/pdf2006/Bilan2006.pdf|title= La situation démographique au Québec|work= Bilan 2006|date= 2006|publisher= Institut de la statistique du Québec|isbn= 2-550-48491-6|page= 53|access-date= April 29, 2021|archive-date= July 5, 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070705142621/http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/publications/demograp/pdf2006/Bilan2006.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>
Health and social services are part of the same administration. The Quebec health system is also public, which means that the [[État québécois|government]] acts as the main insurer and administrator, that funding is provided by general taxation, and that patients have access to care regardless of their income level.
There are 34 health establishments in Quebec, 22 of which are an {{ill|Integrated Health and Social Services Centre|fr|Centre intégré de santé et de services sociaux}} (CISSS). They ensure the distribution of different services on the territories they are assigned to. Quebec has approximately 140 hospitals for general or specialised care (CHSGS). Quebec also has other types of establishments in its healthcare system, such as ''Centre local de services communautaires'' (CLSC), ''Centre d'hébergement et de soins de longue durée'' (CHSLD), ''Centre de réadaptation'' and ''Centre de protection de l'enfance et de la jeunesse''. Finally, there are private healthcare establishments (paid for directly by the patient) like {{ill|Groupe de médecine de famille|fr|Groupes de médecine de famille}}, pharmacies, private clinics, dentists, community organisations and retirement homes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://publications.msss.gouv.qc.ca/acrobat/f/documentation/2007/07-731-01F.pdf|title=Le système de santé et de services sociaux au Québec|publisher=Ministère de la santé et des services sociaux|access-date=April 29, 2021|archive-date=January 17, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117205442/http://publications.msss.gouv.qc.ca/acrobat/f/documentation/2007/07-731-01F.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
A 2021 Ipsos poll found that 85% of Quebecers agree that their health care system is too bureaucratic to respond to the needs of the population<ref>{{Cite web|last=QMI|first=Agence|title=Les québécois en faveur d'une implication du privé dans le secteur de la Santé|url=https://www.journaldemontreal.com/2021/12/01/les-quebecois-en-faveur-dune-implication-du-prive-dans-le-secteur-de-la-sante|access-date=December 3, 2021|website=Le Journal de Montréal |date=December 2021 }}</ref> and in 2023 found that less than half of Quebecers are satisfied with the provincial health care system.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Healthcare in Canada 2023 {{!}} Montreal Economic Institute |url=https://www.iedm.org/healthcare-in-canada-2023/ |access-date=2023-05-01 |website=www.iedm.org |date=April 6, 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref>
===Housing===
{{Main|Housing crisis in Quebec}}
In 2021, 59.9% of Quebec's residents were property owners.<ref>{{cite web |title=Taux de propriété |url=https://www.quebechabitation.ca/actualites/le-taux-de-propriete-est-en-baisse-au-quebec-pour-la-toute-premiere-fois/ |website=Québec habitation |access-date=21 June 2023 |language=fr-CA |date=22 September 2022}}</ref> In 2019, among property owners, 34% were couples with kids, 33% were couples without children, 22% lived alone, 8% were single parents, and 3% were something else. Among renters, 16% were couples with kids, 13% were couples without children, 51% lived alone, 13% were single parents, and 7% were something else.<ref name="habitation" />
Since the 1980s, the average price of a single-family home has doubled every 10 years, going from $48,715 in 1980 to $424,844 in 2021. Since the average salary did not follow these increases, Quebec homes are 10 times more expensive than they were 40 years ago.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cyr |first1=Guillaume |title=Les propriétés sont presque 10 fois plus chères qu'en 1980, mais les revenus ne suivent pas |url=https://www.24heures.ca/2022/03/10/les-proprietes-sont-presque-10-fois-plus-cheres-quen-1980 |website=24 heures |access-date=21 June 2023 |language=fr |date=10 March 2022}}</ref> In 2022, the cities with the most severe housing shortages were [[Granby, Quebec|Granby]], with a vacancy rate of 0,1%, followed by [[Marieville]] (0,1%), [[Rimouski]] (0,2%), [[Drummondville]] (0,2%) and [[Rouyn-Noranda]] (0,3%).<ref>{{cite web |last1=ICI.Radio-Canada.ca |first1=Zone Société- |title=Crise du logement au Québec : " On a perdu le contrôle " |url=https://ici.radio-canada.ca/nouvelle/1888093/crise-loyers-abordables-regions-inoccupation |website=Radio-Canada.ca |date=June 18, 2022 |access-date=21 June 2023 |language=fr-ca}}</ref>
==Culture==
{{
Quebec has developed its own unique culture from its historic [[New France]] roots. Its culture also symbolizes a distinct perspective: being a French-speaking nation surrounded by a bigger English-speaking culture.
The [[Quartier Latin, Montreal|Quartier Latin]] (English: Latin Quarter) of Montreal, and Vieux-Québec (English: [[Old Quebec]]) in Quebec City are two hubs of metropolitan cultural activity. Life in the cafés and "terrasses" (outdoor restaurant terraces) reveals a Latin influence in Quebec's culture, with the [[théâtre Saint-Denis]] in Montreal and the [[Capitole de Québec]] theatre in Quebec City being among the principal attractions.
A number of governmental and non-government organizations support cultural activity in Quebec. The [[Conseil des arts et des lettres du Québec]] (CALQ) is an initiative of the [[Ministry of Culture and Communications (Quebec)]]. It supports creation, innovation, production, and international exhibits for all cultural fields of Quebec. The [[Société de développement des entreprises culturelles]] (SODEC) works to promote and fund individuals working in the cultural industry. The [[Prix du Québec]] is an award given by the government to confer the highest distinction and honour to individuals demonstrating exceptional achievement in their respective cultural field. Other awards include the Athanase David Awards (Literature), [[Félix Awards]] (Music), [[Gémeaux Awards]] (Television and film), [[Jutra Awards]] (Cinema), Masques Awards (Theatre), [[Olivier Guimond]] Awards (Humour) and the Opus Awards (Concert music).
===Performing arts===
{{Main|Music of Quebec|Dance in Quebec|Comedy in Quebec}}
Traditional music is imbued with many dances, such as the [[jig]], the [[quadrille]], the [[Reel (dance)|reel]] and [[line dancing]]. Traditional instruments include harmonica, [[fiddle]], [[Spoon (musical instrument)|spoons]], [[jaw harp]] and [[accordion]]. The [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]] and the [[Inuit]] of Quebec also have their own traditional music. Quebec's most popular artists of the last century include the singers [[Félix Leclerc]], [[Gilles Vigneault]], [[Kate and Anna McGarrigle]] and [[Céline Dion]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Donald|last=Loignon|title=Répertoire des artistes québécois|url=http://www.repertoiredesartistesquebecois.org/index2.asp|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727213504/http://www.repertoiredesartistesquebecois.org/index2.asp|archive-date=July 27, 2011|access-date=July 6, 2011|publisher=DLP multimédia|language=fr}}</ref> The [[ADISQ|Association québécoise de l'industrie du disque, du spectacle et de la vidéo]] (ADISQ) was created in 1978 to promote the music industry in Quebec.<ref>{{cite web|author=ADISQ|title=Notre raison d'être, c'est la musique de votre quotidien|url=http://www.adisq.com/assoc-profil.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718175149/http://www.adisq.com/assoc-profil.html|archive-date=July 18, 2011|access-date=June 23, 2011|publisher=Association québécoise de l'industrie du disque, du spectacle et de la vidéo}}</ref> The [[Orchestre symphonique de Québec]] and the [[Montreal Symphony Orchestra]] are respectively associated with the Opéra de Québec and the Opéra de Montreal whose performances are presented at the [[Grand Théâtre de Québec]] and at [[Place des Arts]]. The ''Ballets Jazz de Montreal'', the ''Grands Ballets'' and [[La La La Human Steps]] are three important professional troupes of [[contemporary dance]].
Among the theatre troupes are the [[Compagnie Jean-Duceppe]], the ''Théâtre La Rubrique'', and the Théâtre Le Grenier. In addition to the network of cultural centres in Quebec,<ref>{{cite web|title=Centres culturels au Québec|url=http://www.quebecvacances.com/centre-culturel|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715134916/http://www.quebecvacances.com/centre-culturel|archive-date=July 15, 2011|access-date=July 5, 2011|website=Quebecvacances.com|language=fr}}</ref> the venues include the [[Monument-National]] and the ''Rideau Vert'' (green curtain) Theatre in Montreal, and the ''Trident'' Theatre in [[Quebec City]]. The [[National Theatre School of Canada]] and the [[Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québec]] form the future players.
[[File:Dralion-Vienna.jpg|thumb|The show ''Dralion'', Cirque du Soleil, introduced in 2004]]
Several circus troupes were created in recent decades, the most important being the [[Cirque du Soleil]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Cirque du Soleil|title=Cirque du Soleil Inc.|url=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Cirque-du-Soleil-Inc-Company-History.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823105400/http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/Cirque-du-Soleil-Inc-Company-History.html|archive-date=August 23, 2011|access-date=June 27, 2011|work=Company history|publisher=Funding Universe}}</ref> Among these troops are contemporary, travelling and on-horseback circuses, such as [[Les 7 Doigts de la Main]], [[Cirque Éloize]], [[Cavalia]], ''Kosmogonia'', ''Saka'' and Cirque ''Akya''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tellier, Chantal|title=Le fabuleux destin du cirque québécois|url=http://www.ellequebec.com/societe/fabuleux-destin-du-cirque-quebecois/a/25816|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912020849/http://www.ellequebec.com/societe/fabuleux-destin-du-cirque-quebecois/a/25816|archive-date=September 12, 2011|access-date=July 14, 2011|work=ELLE Québec|language=fr}}</ref> The [[École nationale de cirque|National Circus School]] and the ''École de cirque de Québec'' were created to train future [[Contemporary circus]] artists. ''[[Tohu, la Cité des Arts du Cirque]]'' was founded in 2004 to disseminate the circus arts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tohu.ca/en/TOHU/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706205825/http://www.tohu.ca/en/TOHU/|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=June 27, 2011|title=Historic and mission|publisher=Tohu}}</ref>
Comedy is a vast [[Comedy in Quebec|cultural sector]]. Quebec has created and is home to several different comedy festivals, including the [[Just for Laughs]] festival in Montreal, as well as the Grand Rire festivals of Quebec, Gatineau and Sherbrooke.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bonjourquebec.com/fr-ca/quoi-faire/festivals-et-evenements |title=Festivals et evenements|publisher=Bonjour Quebec|access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref> The ''Association des professionnels de l'industrie de l'humour'' (APIH) is the main organization for the promotion and development of the cultural sector of humour in Quebec and the {{ill|National School of Humour|fr|École nationale de l'humour}}, created in 1988, trains future humorists in Quebec.
===
{{Main|Cinema of Quebec|Television in Quebec}}
The [[Cinémathèque québécoise]] has a mandate to promote the film and television heritage of Quebec. The [[National Film Board of Canada]] (NFB), a federal Crown corporation, provides for the same mission in Canada. The Association of Film and Television in Quebec (APFTQ) promotes independent production in film and television.<ref>{{cite web|title=L'Association des producteurs de films et de télévision du Québec|url=http://www.apftq.qc.ca/fr/apftq/mission.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706201401/http://www.apftq.qc.ca/fr/apftq/mission.asp|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=June 25, 2011|publisher=APFTQ}}</ref> While the Association of Producers and Directors of Quebec (APDQ) represents the business of filmmaking and television, the Association of Community Radio Broadcasters of Quebec (ARCQ) (French acronym) represents the independent radio stations.<ref>{{cite web|author=ARCQ|title=L'Association des radiodiffuseurs communautaires du Québec, historique|url=http://radiovision.ca/arcq/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706202316/http://radiovision.ca/arcq/|archive-date=July 6, 2011|access-date=July 14, 2011|publisher=RadioVision|language=fr}}</ref> Several movie theatres across Quebec ensure the dissemination of Quebec cinema. With its cinematic installations, such as the ''Cité du cinéma'' and ''Mel's'' studios, the city of Montreal is home to the filming of various productions.<ref>{{cite web|author=La Cité du cinéma|title=La Cité du Cinéma|url=http://www.micheltrudel.tv/index.html|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031001192505/http://www.micheltrudel.tv/index.html|archive-date=October 1, 2003|access-date=July 14, 2011|publisher=Mel's Cité du cinéma}}</ref> The state corporation [[Télé-Québec]], the federal Crown corporation [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], general and specialized private channels, networks, independent and community radio stations broadcast the various [[Téléroman|Quebec téléromans]], the national and regional news, and other programming.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mission Télé-Québec|url=http://www.telequebec.tv/corporatif/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707165150/http://www.telequebec.tv/corporatif/|archive-date=July 7, 2011|access-date=July 14, 2011|publisher=Télé-Québec|language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=About CBC/Radio-Canada|url=http://cbc.radio-canada.ca/about/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709072730/http://www.cbc.radio-canada.ca/about/|archive-date=July 9, 2011|access-date=July 14, 2011|publisher=CBC corporation}}</ref> [[Les Rendez-vous du cinéma québécois]] is a festival surrounding the ceremony of the [[Jutra Award]]s Night that rewards work and personalities of Quebec cinema.<ref>{{cite web|author=La soirée des Jutra|title=La soirée des Jutra – À propos de nous|url=http://www.lesjutra.ca/apropos.php|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309204726/http://www.lesjutra.ca/apropos.php|archive-date=March 9, 2010|access-date=July 14, 2011|publisher=Radio-Canada|language=fr}}</ref> The Artis and the [[Gemini Awards]] gala recognize the personalities of television and radio industry in Quebec and French Canada. The ''Film Festival of the 3 Americas'', the ''Festival of International Short Film'', the [[Montreal World Film Festival|World Film Festival]] and the [[Festival du Nouveau Cinéma|Festival of New Cinema]] are other annual events surrounding the film industry in Quebec.
In the realm of literature and international publishing, the ''Québec Édition'' group is a committee created by the National Association of Book Editors dedicated to the international influence of French-language publishings from Quebec and Canada.<ref>{{cite web|title=Québec édition|date=August 3, 2018 |url=https://www.anel.qc.ca/quebec-edition/accueil/|access-date=July 29, 2019|publisher=Association nationale des éditeurs de livres/Québec Édition}}</ref>
==
{{Main|Quebec literature|Folklore of Quebec}}
[[File:La_Chasse-galerie_(1906).jpg|thumb|''La [[chasse-galerie]]'' (1906) by [[Henri Julien]], showing a scene from a popular Quebec folk legend]]
Quebec's French-speaking populace has the second largest body of folktales in Canada (the first being [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Fowke|first=Edith|title=Canadian Folklore|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1988|isbn=0-19-540671-0|page=34}}</ref> When the early settlers arrived from France in the 17th century, they brought with them popular tales from their homeland, which were adapted to the local context. Many were passed on through generations by ''raconteurs'', or storytellers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenough|first=William P.|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924105761831|title=Canadian Folk-Life and Folk-Lore|publisher=George H. Richmond|year=1897}}</ref> Almost all of the stories native to Quebec were influenced by Christian [[dogma]] and [[superstitions]]. The [[Devil]], for instance, appears often as either a person, an animal or monster, or indirectly through Demonic acts.<ref name="Chiasson2">{{cite book|last=Chiasson|first=Père Anselme|title=Les Légendes des îles de la Madeleine|publisher=Éditions des Aboiteaux|year=1969}}</ref> Various tales and stories are told through oral tradition, such as, among many others, the legends of the ''[[Bogeyman]]'', the ''[[Chasse-galerie]]'', the ''Black Horse of Trois-Pistoles'', the ''Complainte de Cadieux'', the ''[[Marie-Josephte Corriveau|Corriveau]]'', the ''dancing devil of Saint-Ambroise'', the ''[[Édouard Beaupré|Giant Beaupré]]'', the ''monsters of the lakes [[Lake Pohenegamook|Pohénégamook]]'' and ''[[Lake Memphremagog|Memphremagog]]'', of ''[[Quebec Bridge]]'' (called the Devil's Bridge), the ''[[Rocher Percé]]'' and of ''Rose Latulipe'', for example.{{sfn|Dupont|2008}}
From New France, Quebec literature was first developed in the travel accounts of explorers. The ''Moulin à paroles'' traces the great texts that have shaped the history of Quebec. The first to write the history of Quebec, since its discovery, was the historian [[François-Xavier Garneau]]. Many [[List of Quebec writers|Quebec poets]] and prominent authors marked their era and today remain anchored in the collective imagination, like, among others, Philippe Aubert de Gaspé, [[Octave Crémazie]], [[Honoré Beaugrand]], [[Émile Nelligan]], [[Lionel Groulx]], [[Gabrielle Roy]], [[Hubert Aquin]], [[Michel Tremblay]], [[Marie Laberge]], Fred Pellerin and [[Gaston Miron]]. The [[American Literary Regionalism|regional novel]] from Quebec is called ''Terroir'' novel and is a literary tradition<ref>{{cite web|title=Littérature du terroir québécois|url=http://www.litterature-quebecoise.org/terroir.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727034815/http://www.litterature-quebecoise.org/terroir.htm|archive-date=July 27, 2011|access-date=July 5, 2011|publisher=Litterature-quebecoise.org|language=fr}}</ref> specific to the province.
===Art and architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Quebec}}
{{See also|List of art schools in Quebec}}
[[File:Daudelin-Cavalière-Québec.JPG|thumb|upright|''La Cavalière'' by [[Charles Daudelin]], 1963, installed in front of the pavilion Gérard Morisset of the Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts in [[Quebec City]]]]
The art of Quebec has developed around the specific characteristics of its landscapes and cultural, historical, social and political representations. The development of Quebec masterpieces in painting, printmaking and sculpture is marked by the contribution of artists such as [[Louis-Philippe Hébert]], [[Cornelius Krieghoff]], [[Alfred Laliberté]], [[Marc-Aurèle Fortin]], [[Marc-Aurèle de Foy Suzor-Coté]], [[Jean Paul Lemieux]], [[Clarence Gagnon]], Adrien Dufresne, [[Alfred Pellan]], [[Jean-Philippe Dallaire]], [[Charles Daudelin]], [[Arthur Villeneuve]], [[Jean-Paul Riopelle]], [[Paul-Émile Borduas]] and [[Marcelle Ferron]].
The fine arts of Quebec are displayed at the [[Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec|Quebec National Museum of Fine Arts]], the [[Musée d'art contemporain de Montréal|Montreal Museum of Contemporary Art]], the [[Montreal Museum of Fine Arts]], the Quebec ''Salon des métiers d'art'' and in many art galleries. The [[École des Beaux-Arts de Montréal|Montreal School of Fine Arts]] forms the [[List of Canadian artists|painters, printmakers and sculptors of Quebec]].
[[File:Maison_Routhier.JPG|thumb|''Maison Routhier'' in [[Sainte-Foy, Quebec City|Sainte-Foy]], a [[Canadien]]-style house]]
Quebec's architecture is characterized by its unique [[Canadien]]-style buildings as well as the juxtaposition of a variety of styles reflective of Quebec's history. When walking in any city or town, one can come across buildings with styles congruent to [[Classical architecture|Classical]], [[Neo-Gothic]], [[Roman architecture|Roman]], [[Neo-Renaissance]], [[Greek Revival architecture|Greek Revival]], [[Neo-classical architecture|Neo-Classical]], Québécois Neo-Classical, [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]], [[Second Empire architecture|Second Empire]], [[Modern architecture|Modern]], [[Post-modern architecture|Post-modern]] or [[Skyscrapers]].
Canadien-style houses and barns were developed by the first settlers of New France along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. These buildings are rectangular one-storey structures with an extremely tall and steep roof, sometimes almost twice as tall as the house below. Canadien-style churches also developed and served as landmarks while traversing rural Quebec.
==
{{Main|Quebec Cultural Heritage Directory|Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec}}
{{See also|List of museums in Quebec}}
[[File:Baie_Johan_Beetz_005.jpg|thumb|[[Johan Beetz]] House,<ref name="Johan Beetz House, heritage">{{cite web |author1=Ministry of Culture and Communications of Quebec |title=Johan Beetz House, heritage real estate |url=https://www.patrimoine-culturel.gouv.qc.ca/rpcq/detail.do?methode=consulter&id=92401&type=bien |publisher=Heritage directory cultural of Quebec |access-date=18 June 2024 |date=2006 |quote=Other name, Château Johan-Beetz}}</ref> a [[Second Empire style|Second Empire-inspired]] rural residence at [[Baie-Johan-Beetz]], [[Minganie Regional County Municipality|Minganie]]]]
Several sites, houses and historical works reflect the cultural heritage of Quebec, such as the [[Village Québécois d'Antan]], the historical village of [[Val-Jalbert]], the [[Fort Chambly]], the national home of the Patriots, the Chicoutimi pulp mill (Pulperie de Chicoutimi), the [[Lachine Canal]] and the [[Victoria Bridge (Montreal)|Victoria Bridge]]. As of December 2011, there are 198 [[List of National Historic Sites of Canada in Quebec|National Historic Sites of Canada]] in Quebec.<ref name="Explore Quebec, Parc Canada">{{cite web |title=National historic sites Explore Quebec, Parc Canada |url=https://parks.canada.ca/voyage-travel/region/quebec/itin |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=27 June 2024 |date=22 April 2024 |quote=Explore Quebec, travel itineraries in Quebec Find day trips, weekend getaway ideas and week-long itineraries. Parc Canada}}</ref> These sites were designated as being of national historic significance.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Historic Sites|author2=Monuments Board of Canada|name-list-style=amp|title=About the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada – Duties|url=http://www.pc.gc.ca/clmhc-hsmbc/crit/crit2_e.asp|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006084636/http://www.pc.gc.ca/clmhc-hsmbc/crit/crit2_e.asp|archive-date=October 6, 2012|access-date=August 23, 2010}}</ref>
Various museums tell the cultural history of Quebec, like the [[Musée de la civilisation|Museum of Civilization]], the [[Musée de l'Amérique française|Museum of French America]], the [[McCord Museum]] or the Montreal Museum of Archaeology and History in [[Pointe-à-Callière]], displaying artifacts, paintings and other remains from the past of Quebec. Notable schools include the [[Conservatoire de musique et d'art dramatique du Québec]], the [[National Theatre School of Canada|École nationale de théâtre du Canada]] and the [[École nationale de cirque]]. Notable public agencies to catalogue and further develop Quebec's culture include the {{lang|fr|[[Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec]]|italic=no}}, the [[Conseil des arts et des lettres du Québec]] and [[Télé-Québec]]. The ''Association Quebecoise des Loisirs Folkloriques'' is an organization committed to preserving and disseminating Quebec's folklore heritage.<ref>{{cite web|title=L'Association Quebecoise des Loisirs Folkloriques|url=http://www.quebecfolklore.qc.ca/fr/index.php|access-date=April 12, 2014}}</ref>
===Cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Quebec}}
[[File:La_Banquise_Poutine.jpg|thumb|A classic [[poutine]]]]
The traditional Quebecois cuisine descends from 16th-century [[French cuisine]], the [[fur trade]] and a history of [[hunting]]. Quebec's cuisine has also been influenced by learning from [[First Nations in Canada|First Nation]], by [[English cuisine]] and by [[American cuisine]]. Quebec is most famous for its [[tourtière]], [[pâté chinois]], [[poutine]], and [[St. Catherine's taffy]] among others. "Le temps des sucres" is a period during springtime when many Quebecers go to the [[sugar shack]] (''cabane à sucre'') for a traditional meal.
Quebec is the world's biggest [[maple syrup]] producer.<ref name="bbc17">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39375257|first1=Robin |last1=Levinson-King |first2= Jessica |last2=Murphy |title=Quebec's maple syrup producers seeking global domination |publisher=BBC News |date=April 9, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606145949/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39375257 |archive-date=June 6, 2017}}</ref> The province has a long history of producing maple syrup, and creating new [[List of foods made from maple|maple-derived products]]. Other major food products include beer, wine (including [[ice wine]] and [[ice cider]]), and cheese.
===Sports===
[[File:Boston_vs._CH_au_Centre_Bell_007.jpg|thumb|The [[Montreal Canadiens]] at the [[Bell Centre]]]]
Sports in Quebec constitutes an essential dimension of Quebec culture. [[Ice hockey]] remains the national sport. This sport was played for the first time on March 3, 1875, in Montreal and has been promoted over the years by numerous achievements, including the centenary of the [[Montreal Canadiens]].<ref>{{cite web|date=September 20, 2013|title=Un anniversaire douloureux|url=http://fr.canoe.ca/sports/nouvelles/hockey/canadiens/archives/2009/12/20091205-065501.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120708091949/http://fr.canoe.ca/sports/nouvelles/hockey/canadiens/archives/2009/12/20091205-065501.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=July 8, 2012|publisher=Fr.canoe.ca|access-date=January 1, 2011}}</ref> Other major sports include [[Canadian football]] with the [[Montreal Alouettes]], soccer with [[Club de Foot Montréal]], the [[Canadian Grand Prix|Grand Prix du Canada]] Formula 1 racing with drivers such as [[Gilles Villeneuve]] and [[Jacques Villeneuve]], and professional baseball with the former [[Montreal Expos]]. Quebec has hosted several major sporting events, including the [[1976 Summer Olympics]], the Fencing World Championships in 1967, track cycling in 1974, and the [[Transat Québec-Saint-Malo]] race created in 1984.
Quebec athletes have performed well at the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]] over recent years. They won 12 of [[Canada at the 2018 Winter Olympics|Canada's 29 medals]] at the most recent [[2018 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang (2018)]]; they won 12 of the [[Canada at the 2014 Winter Olympics|27 Canadian medals]] in [[2014 Winter Olympics|Sochi (2014)]]; and 9 of the [[Canada at the 2010 Winter Olympics|26 Canadian medals]] in [[2010 Winter Olympics|Vancouver (2010)]].<ref>{{cite web|date=February 25, 2018|title=Who won Team Canada's 29 medals in Pyeongchang|url=https://olympic.ca/2018/02/25/who-won-team-canadas-29-medals-in-pyeongchang/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314095047/https://olympic.ca/2018/02/25/who-won-team-canadas-29-medals-in-pyeongchang/|archive-date=March 14, 2018|website=Olympic.ca}}</ref>
===Holidays and symbols===
{{Main|Symbols of Quebec}}
[[St-Jean-Baptiste Day]] is one of Quebec's biggest holidays. In 1977, the [[Quebec Parliament]] declared June 24, the day of {{lang|fr|La Saint-Jean-Baptiste}}, to be [[Quebec's National Holiday]]. {{lang|fr|La Saint-Jean-Baptiste}}, or {{lang|fr|La St-Jean}}, honours [[French Canada]]'s patron saint, [[John the Baptist]]. On this day, the song "[[Gens du pays]]", by [[Gilles Vigneault]], is often heard. The song ''[[À la claire fontaine]]''<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=À la claire fontaine|encyclopedia=The Canadian Encyclopedia|url=http://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/a-la-claire-fontaine-emc/|access-date=July 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806082946/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0000031|archive-date=August 6, 2011|author=Plouffe, Hélène|url-status=live}}</ref> was the anthem of the [[New France]], [[Patriote movement|Patriots]] and [[French Canadian]], then replaced by ''[[O Canada]]'', but "Gens du pays" is preferred by many Quebecers to be the national anthem of Quebec.
[[National Patriots' Day]], a statutory holiday in Quebec, is also a unique public holiday, which honours the [[Patriote movement|patriotes]] with displays of the [[patriote flag]], music, public speeches, and ceremonies.<ref name="law2">{{cite periodical|title=Décret no 1322-2002 concernant la Journée nationale des Patriotes|url=http://www2.publicationsduquebec.gouv.qc.ca/dynamicSearch/telecharge.php?type=1&file=39585.PDF|volume=134|page=8463|access-date=January 12, 2013|periodical=[[Gazette officielle du Québec]]|series=partie II|number=50}}</ref> ''[[Le Vieux de '37]]'' ("The Old Man of '37"), an illustration by [[Henri Julien]] that depicts a patriot of this rebellion,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://150ans150oeuvres.uqam.ca/fr/oeuvre/1970-un-vieux-de-37-de-henri-julien/#description|title=Une vieux de 37 de Henri Julien|publisher=UQAM|access-date=September 12, 2021|archive-date=September 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917185047/https://150ans150oeuvres.uqam.ca/fr/oeuvre/1970-un-vieux-de-37-de-henri-julien/#description|url-status=dead}}</ref> is sometimes added at the centre of [[Patriote flags]]. [[Moving Day (Quebec)|Moving Day]] is a tradition where leases terminate on July 1. This creates a [[social phenomenon]] where everyone seems to be moving out at the same time.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://immigrantquebec.com/fr/actualites/actualites/1er-juillet-grand-demenagement-montreal |title=Jour du grand demenagement|work=immigrantquebec.com|date=June 28, 2012 |access-date=September 12, 2021}}</ref>
Other distinct holiday traditions include the [[Réveillon]], a giant feast and party which takes place during [[Christmas Eve]] and [[New Year's Eve]] and goes on until midnight. Traditional dishes like [[tourtière]] or [[Sea-pie|cipâte]] are offered, and [[rigaudon]], [[Spoon (musical instrument)|spoon]] or [[violin]] may be played.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bv.cdeacf.ca/bvdoc.php?no=23309&col=RA&format=htm |title=Le temps des fêtes au Québec|access-date=September 12, 2021|website=cdeacf.ca |date=1994 }}</ref> Finally, [[April Fools' Day]] is called ''Poisson d'Avril'' ("April's Fish") because while pulling pranks is still important, there is another major tradition: sticking fish-shaped paper cutouts to people's backs without them noticing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collegecdi.ca/quebec/connectez-vous/actualites/quelles-sont-les-origines-du-poisson-d-avril/ |title=Quelles sont les origines du Poisson d'Avril|access-date=September 12, 2021|website=collegcdi.ca}}</ref>
In 1939, the [[government of Quebec]] unilaterally ratified its [[Coat of arms of Quebec|coat of arms]] to reflect [[History of Quebec|Quebec's political history]]: French rule (gold lily on blue background), followed by British rule (lion on red background), followed by Canadian rule (maple leaves).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drapeau.gouv.qc.ca/ |website=Justice Québec|title=Drapeauet et symboles nationaux|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009212247/http://www.drapeau.gouv.qc.ca/|archive-date=October 9, 2007|language=fr}}</ref> [[Je me souviens]] ("I remember") is an official part of the coat of arms and has been the official licence plate motto since 1978, replacing the previous motto: ''La belle province'' ("the beautiful province"), still used as a nickname for the province. The [[fleur-de-lis]], one of Quebec's most common symbols, is an ancient symbol of the [[French monarchy]]. Finally, the [[Great Seal of Quebec]] is used to authenticate documents issued by the government of Quebec.
The first members of the [[Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society]] created the ''Carillon Sacré-Coeur'' flag, which consisted of a white cross on an azure background with white fleur-de-lis in each corner and a [[Sacred Heart#Sacred Heart imagery|Sacred Heart]] surrounded by [[Maple leaf|maple leaves]] in the centre; it was based on the French merchant flag flown by Champlain and the [[Flag of Carillon]]. The ''Carillon Sacré-Coeur'' and French merchant flag went on to be the major inspirations for creating Quebec's current flag in 1903, called the ''[[Fleurdelisé]]''. The ''Fleurdelisé'' replaced the [[Union Jack]] on Quebec's [[Parliament Building (Quebec)|Parliament Building]] on January 21, 1948.[[File:Iris versicolor.jpg|thumb|''[[Iris versicolor]]'' – [[#Emblems of Quebec|floral emblem of Quebec]]]]
Three new official emblems in were adopted in the late 20th century: the [[Snowy owl]] in 1987 to symbolize the whiteness of Quebec's semi-northern climate, the [[Betula alleghaniensis|Yellow birch]] in 1993 for the variety of its uses and by its commercial value, and the [[Iris versicolor]] in 1999 to illustrate the cultural diversity of Quebec and the importance of water and wetlands for the balance of nature.<ref name="Qsymbols2">{{cite web |author=Quebec Portal |date=May 7, 2015 |title=Quebec's Symbols |url=https://www.sqrc.gouv.qc.ca/representation-quebec-canada/le-quebec/symboles-en.asp |access-date=August 27, 2020 |publisher=Government of Quebec}}</ref><ref name="Emblems of Quebec">{{cite web |date=2024 |title=Emblems of Quebec |url=https://www.quebec.ca/gouvernement/portrait-quebec/drapeau-symboles-nationaux/emblemes |access-date=25 June 2024 |website=Quebec Gouvernement |language=fr |quote=There are three official emblems in Quebec: the yellow birch, the snowy owl and the versicolor iris.}}</ref>
{{Main|Quebec diaspora}}
The earliest immigrants to the [[Canadian prairies]] were [[French Canadians]] from Quebec. Many [[Franco-Albertans]], [[Fransaskois]] and [[Franco-Manitobans]] are descended from them.
From the mid-1800s to the [[Great Depression]], Quebec experienced the [[Grande Hémorragie]] ("Great Hemorrhaging"), a massive emigration of 900,000 people from Quebec to [[New England]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Bélanger|first=Claude|title=Emigration to the United States from Canada and Quebec, 1840–1940|url=http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/stats/goto-us.htm|access-date=July 24, 2013|work=Quebec History|publisher=Marianopolis College|archive-date=July 28, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728233620/http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/stats/goto-us.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> French Canadians often established themselves in [[Little Canadas]] in many industrial New England centres. Of the 900,000 Québécois who emigrated, about half returned.<ref>{{cite web|author=Bélanger, Claude|date=August 23, 2000|title=Rapatriement|url=http://www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/events/repatr.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213234956/http://www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/events/repatr.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2007|publisher= Marianopolis College}}</ref> Most of the descendants of those who stayed are now [[Cultural assimilation|assimilated]], though a few [[Franco-Americans]] remain, speaking [[New England French]].
Some tried to slow the Grande Hémorragie by redirecting people north, which resulted in the founding of many regions in Quebec (ex. [[Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean]], [[Val-d'Or]]) but also in [[Northeastern Ontario]]. The northeastern [[Franco-Ontarian]]s of today, who live in [[Timmins]], [[Hearst, Ontario|Hearst]], [[Moosonee]] and [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Sainte Marie]], among others, are the descendants of emigrants from Quebec who worked in the mines of the area.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le Nord franco-ontarien : nature, culture et hospitalité|url=https://corridorcanada.ca/resource/le-nord-franco-ontarien-nature-culture-et-chaleur-humaine/|access-date=May 12, 2021|work=Le Corridor}}</ref>
In recent times, [[Snowbird (person)|snowbirds]] often migrate to southern [[Florida]] during the winter, resulting in the emergence of temporary "Québécois regions," such as in [[Hollywood, Florida|Hollywood]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Machonis |first1=Peter A. |title=Hollywood, Florida: a Seasonal, French-speaking Community |url=https://assets.noviams.com/novi-file-uploads/aatf/pdfs_and_documents/Conference_Proceedings/HOLLYWOOD-FLORIDA-982646eb.pdf |website=Selected Proceedings of the 2013 AATF Convention |access-date=3 February 2025}}</ref>
==See also==
{{portal |Canada}}
*[[
*[[
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
* {{cite book|last=Babin|first=Andrée|title=L'interatlas: Ressources du Québec et du Canada|publisher=Centre éducatif et culturel|year=1986|isbn=978-2-7617-0317-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Brûlotte|first=Suzanne|title=Les oiseaux du Québec|publisher=Éditions Broquet|year=2009|isbn=978-2-89654-075-4}}
* {{cite book |first1=Henri |last1=Brun |first2=Guy |last2=Tremblay |first3=Eugénie |last3=Brouillet |title=Droit constitutionnel |edition=5 |publisher=Éditions Yvon Blais |year=2008 |oclc=233522214}}
*{{cite book|last1=Charpentier|first1= Louise|first2= René |last2=Durocher|first3= Christian|last3= Laville|first4=Paul-André |last4=Linteau|title= Nouvelle histoire du Québec et du Canada|publisher= Éditions du Boréal Express|year= 1985}}
* {{cite book|last=Dupont|first=Jean-Claude|url=|title=Légendes du Québec – Un héritage culturel|publisher=Les éditions GID|year=2008|isbn=978-2-89634-023-1}}
* {{cite book|first1=André |last1=Émond |first2=Lucie |last2=Lauzière |title=Introduction à l'étude du droit |publisher=Wilson & Lafleur |year=2003 |oclc=52798925}}
* {{cite book|last=Hunter|first=William A.|title=Forts on the Pennsylvania Frontier, 1753–1758|publisher=Wennawoods|year=1999|isbn=978-1-889037-20-2}}
* {{cite book |first=Henri |last=Kélada |title=Précis de droit québécois |publisher=Centre éducatif et culturel |year=1970|oclc=17462972}}
* {{cite book|last=Ministry of Environment of Quebec|url=http://www.mddep.gouv.qc.ca/eau/politique/politique-integral.pdf|title=Water. Life. Future. National Policy on water|publisher=Government of Quebec|year=2002|isbn=978-2-550-40074-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Riendeau|first=Roger E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C|title=A brief history of Canada|publisher=Infobase Publishing|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8160-6335-2}}
*{{cite book|last1=Whitmore |first1=Johanne |last2=Pineau |first2=Pierre-Olivier |date=January 2020 |title=État de llénergie au Québec 2020 |publisher=HEC Montréal |url=https://energie.hec.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/EEQ2020_WEB.pdf}}
==Further reading==
===English===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Anderson|first=Fred|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-vMxLslZopgC&pg=PR1|title=Crucible of Wars: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766|publisher=Knopf|year=2000|isbn=978-0-375-40642-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Bergeron|first= Léandre |year=1974|title=Why There Must Be a Revolution in Québec|publisher=New Canada Publications|isbn= 0-919600-16-6}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Cave|first=Alfred A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiZoWyv77qQC&q=French%20and%20Indian%20Wars&pg=PP1|title=The French and Indian War|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-313-32168-9}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last1=Courville|first1=Serge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NDDs1HJWfOQC&q=Quebec&pg=PP1|title=Quebec: A Historical Geography|last2=Howard|first2=Richard|publisher=UBC Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7748-1426-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last1=Dickinson|first1=John Alexander|url=https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofqu0000dick_z9p8|title=A short history of Quebec|first2=Brian J.|last2=Young|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7735-2393-7|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Gairdner|first= William D|title=Constitutional Crack-up: Canada and the Coming Showdown with Québec|publisher= Stoddart Publishing Co|year= 1994|isbn=0-7737-5658-2}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Gauvreau|first=Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jz7uyc94sUYC&q=Quebec&pg=PP1|title=The Catholic origins of Quebec's Quiet Revolution, 1931–1970|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7735-2874-1}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Grenon|first=Jean-Yves|title=Pierre Dugua De Mons: Founder of Acadie (1604–5), Co-Founder of Quebec (1608)|publisher=Annapolis Royal, NS: Peninsular Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-9682016-2-6|translator=Phil Roberts}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Kokker|first=Steve|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iZB5AQ02PfIC&q=Quebec&pg=PP1|title=Québec|publisher=Lonely Planet|year=2002|isbn=978-1-74059-024-2}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Lefkowitz|first=Arthur S.|url=|title=Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War|publisher=Savas Beatie|year=2008|isbn=978-1-932714-03-6}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Maclure|first=Jocelyn|url=https://archive.org/details/quebecidentitych0000macl|title=Quebec identity: the challenge of pluralism|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7735-2553-5|url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last1=McRoberts|first1= Kenneth|first2= Dale|last2= Posgate |year=1984|title=Québec: Social Change and Political Crisis|publisher=McClelland and Stewart|edition= Rev. and updated|isbn=0-7710-7185-X}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last1=Merriam|url=https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6|title=Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary|last2=Webster|publisher=Merriam-Webster, Inc.|year=2003|isbn=978-0-87779-809-5|edition=11th}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|editor-last=Roussopoulos|editor-first= Dimitrios I|year=1974|title=Québec and Radical Social Change|publisher= Black Rose Books|isbn=0-919618-51-0}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Scott|first=Colin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bT6-05HTyFUC&q=Quebec&pg=PP1|title=Aboriginal autonomy and development in northern Quebec and Labrador|publisher=UBC Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7748-0844-6}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Taucar|first=Christopher Edward|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t17352tmB74C&q=Quebec&pg=PP1|title=Canadian Federalism and Quebec Sovereignty|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8204-6242-4}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Webb Hodge|first=Frederick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2h8HAtCWsIAC&q=Handbook+of+American+Indians+North+of+Mexico|title=American Indians North of Mexico, Volume 4, Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Handbook|publisher=Digital Scanning Inc|year=1912|isbn=978-1-58218-751-8}}
{{refend}}
===French===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Armony|first=Victor|title=Le Québec expliqué aux immigrants|publisher=VLB Éditeur|year=2007|isbn=978-2-89005-985-6}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last1=Bergeron|first1= Léandre |first2= Pierre |last2=Landry |year=2008|title=Petit manuel d'histoire du Québec, 1534–2008|publisher= Éditions Trois-Pistoles|isbn=978-2-89583-183-9}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Binot|first=Guy|title=Pierre Dugua de Mons: gentilhomme royannais, premier colonisateur du Canada, lieutenant général de la Nouvelle-France de 1603 à 1612|publisher=Bonne anse|year=2004|isbn=978-2-914463-13-3}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Institut de la statistique du Québec|url=http://www.stat.gouv.qc.ca/publications/referenc/pdf2010/QCM2010_fr.pdf|title=Le Québec chiffres en main|publisher=Government of Quebec|year=2010|isbn=978-2-550-49444-7|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100827015202/http://stat.gouv.qc.ca/publications/referenc/pdf2010/QCM2010_fr.pdf|archive-date=August 27, 2010|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last1=Lacoursière|first1=Jacques|title=Canada-Québec 1534–2000|last2=Provencher|first2=Jean|last3=Vaugeois|first3=Denis|publisher=Septentrion|year=2000|isbn=978-2-89448-156-1}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Lacoursière|first=Jacques|title=Histoire du Québec, Des origines à nos jours|publisher=Édition Nouveau Monde|year=2005|isbn=978-2-84736-113-1}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=La Rochelle|first= Louis |year=1982|title=En flagrant délit de pouvoir: chroniques des événements poliltiques, de Maurice Duplessis à René Lévesque|publisher=Boreal Express|isbn=2-89052-058-7}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Liebel|first=Jean|title=Pierre Dugua, sieur de Mons, fondateur de Québec|publisher=Le Croît vif|year=1999|isbn=978-2-907967-48-8}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Linteau|first=Paul-André|title=Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 1; De la Confédération à la crise (1867–1929)|publisher=Les Éditions du Boréal|year=1989|isbn=978-2-89052-297-8}}
*{{cite book|ref=none|last=Linteau|first=Paul-André|title=Histoire du Québec contemporain; Volume 2; Le Québec depuis 1930|publisher=Les Éditions du Boréal|year=1989|isbn=978-2-89052-298-5}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Morf|first= Gustave |year=1970|title=Le Terrorisme québécois|publisher=Éditions de l'Homme}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Parizeau|first= Jacques |year=1997|title=Pour un Québec souverain|publisher= V.L.B. éditeur|isbn=2-89005-655-4}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|editor=Pelletier, Réal|title=Une Certaine Révolution tranquille: 22 juin [19]60–[19]75|publisher= La Presse|year= 1975}}
* {{cite book|ref=none|last=Venne|first=Michel|url=https://archive.org/details/lannuaireduquebe0000unse|title=L'annuaire du Québec 2007|publisher=Fides|year=2006|isbn=978-2-7621-2746-1|url-access=registration}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links|c=Quebec|n=Category:Quebec|q=Quebec|s=Category:Quebec|b=no|voy=Quebec|v=Category:History of Quebec and Canada|d=Q176}}
* {{Official website|name=Official website of the Government of Quebec}}
* [https://www.bonjourquebec.com/en Quebec government official tourist site]
{{Quebec topics}}
{{Canada topics}}
{{La Francophonie}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Quebec| ]]
[[Category:1867 establishments in Canada]]
[[Category:Central Canada]]
[[Category:Eastern Canada]]
[[Category:Countries and territories where French is an official language]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1534]]
[[Category:Provinces and territories of Canada]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1867]]
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