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{{short description|Spice made from crocus flowers}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}}
{{other uses}}
{{EngvarB|date=August 2015}}
{{use dmy dates|date=August 2021}}
[[File:Saffron - premium spice.jpg|alt=Saffron|thumb|Saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', with its vivid crimson stigmas and styles]]
'''Saffron''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|æ|f|r|ə|n|,_|-|r|ɒ|n}})<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|saffron|access-date=2012-11-21}}</ref> is a spice derived from the flower of ''[[Crocus sativus]]'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]] and [[style (botany)|styles]], called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a [[seasoning]] and [[Food coloring|colouring agent]] in food. The saffron crocus was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and [[Oceania]].
Saffron's taste and [[iodoform]]-like or [[hay]]-like fragrance result from the [[phytochemical]]s [[picrocrocin]] and [[safranal]].{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}<ref name="Katzer2010">{{cite web |last=Katzer |first=G. |date=2010 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) |work=Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages |url=http://gernot-katzers-spice-pages.com//engl/Croc_sat.html |access-date=1 December 2012}}</ref> It also contains a [[carotenoid]] pigment, [[crocin]], which imparts a rich golden-yellow hue to dishes and textiles. Its quality is graded by the proportion of red stigma to yellow style, varying by region and affecting both potency and value. As of 2024, [[Iran]] produced some 90% of the world total for saffron.<ref name="menia">{{cite journal |vauthors=Menia M, Iqbal S, Zahida R, Tahir S, Kanth RH, Saad AA, Hussian A |title=Production technology of saffron for enhancing productivity (see PDF)|journal=Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry |date=2018 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=1033–1039 |url=https://www.phytojournal.com/archives?year=2018&vol=7&issue=1&ArticleId=2634 |language=en |issn=2349-8234}}</ref><ref name="hooker">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-41110151|title=The problem for the world's most expensive spice|last=Hooker|first=Lucy|date=13 September 2017|access-date=12 January 2020|language=en-GB}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Citation is to dates before 2024, so they don't confirm the statement.|date=July 2025}} At US$5,000 per kg or higher, saffron has long been the world's costliest spice by weight.{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=53}}{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/slide-show-1-pics-world-s-costliest-spice-blooms-in-kashmir/20121109.htm|title=World's COSTLIEST spice blooms in Kashmir|publisher=[[Rediff]]|access-date=7 January 2013}}</ref>
The [[English language|English]] word saffron likely originates from the [[Old French]] ''safran'', which traces back through [[Latin]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] to the word ''zarparān'', meaning “gold strung.” It is a [[Sterility (physiology)|sterile]], human-propagated, [[autumn]]-flowering plant descended from wild relatives in the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], cultivated for its fragrant purple [[Flower|flowers]] and valuable red stigmas in sunny, [[temperate climates]]. Saffron is primarily used as a culinary [[spice]] and natural [[colourant]], with additional historical uses in [[traditional medicine]], [[dyeing]], [[Perfume|perfumery]], and [[Ritual|religious rituals]].
Saffron likely originated in or near [[Greece]], [[Iran]], or [[Mesopotamia]]. It has been cultivated and traded for over 3,500 years across [[Eurasia]], spreading through [[Asia]] via [[Cultural diplomacy|cultural exchange]] and [[conquest]]. [[History of saffron|Its recorded history]] is attested in a 7th-century BC [[Assyria]]n botanical treatise.{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}}
==Etymology==
{{Further|History of saffron}}
A degree of uncertainty surrounds the origin of the English word ''saffron''. It might stem from the 12th-century [[Old French]] term ''safran'', which comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|safranum}}, from [[Persian language|Persian]] ({{lang|Fa|زعفران}}, ''za'farān''),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=saffron|title=Saffron|date=2016|publisher=etymonline.com ([[Online Etymology Dictionary]]), Douglas Harper|access-date=25 May 2016}}</ref> ultimately from the Persian word ''zarparān'' ({{nq|زَرپَران}}) 'gold strung' (implying either the golden stamens of the flower or the golden colour it creates when used as flavour).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Persische Lehnwörter im Arabischen|first=Asya|last=Asbaghi|date=1988|publisher=O. Harrasowitz|isbn=978-3-447-02757-1|___location=Wiesbaden|oclc=19588893}}</ref>
==Species==
{{Main|Crocus sativus}}
==
[[File:860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG 7707-2.jpg|alt=Saffron Flowers|thumb|Crocus flowers which yield red saffron stigmas]]
[[File:Saffron onions-IMG 7549-2.jpg|alt=Saffron onions|thumb|Corms]]
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Saffron-62-1160x773.jpg|alt=Saffron harvest|thumb|Several women in traditional clothes are collecting saffron in one of the farms of [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Torbat Heydarieh]] city of Khorasan Razavi]] -->
The domesticated saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild. It possibly descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'' which is also known as "wild saffron"{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} and is native to [[mainland Greece]], [[Euboea]], [[Crete]], [[Skyros]] and some islands of the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="Atticasaffron">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Niels |last2=Ørgaard |first2=Marian |title=Crocus cartwrightianus on the Attica Peninsula |journal=ISHS Acta Horticulturae |date=2004 |volume=650 |issue=6 |pages=65–69 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.6 |url=https://safranerio.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/650_6.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Cartwright}}</ref> The similar species ''[[Crocus thomasii|C. thomasii]]'' and ''[[Crocus pallasii|C. pallasii]]'' were considered as other possible ancestors.{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=28}} As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]].{{Sfn|Rubio-Moraga|Castillo-López|Gómez-Gómez|Ahrazem|2009}} Various origins have been suggested for saffron, including [[Iran]],<ref name="Ghorbani et al.">{{Cite book |first1=R. |last1=Ghorbani |first2=A. |last2=Koocheki |s2cid=28214061 |chapter=Sustainable Cultivation of Saffron in Iran |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdksDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=Sustainable Agriculture Reviews |editor-last=Lichtfouse |editor-first=Eric |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-58679-3 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3 |pages=170–171|url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02801642/file/Sustainable%20Agriculture%20Reviews%2014%20-%20Front%20Matter_1.pdf }}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name="Gresta et al.">{{Cite journal|first1=F. |last1=Gresta |first2=G. M. |last2=Lombardo |first3=L. |last3=Siracusa |first4=G. |last4=Ruberto |s2cid=44054590 |year=2008 |title=Saffron, an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886393/document |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1051/agro:2007030|bibcode=2008AgSD...28...95G }}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> and [[Kashmir]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |___location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 }}</ref>
It is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] form, which means that three homologous sets of [[chromosome]]s make up each specimen's genetic complement; ''C. sativus'' bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Being sterile, the purple flowers of ''C. sativus'' fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of [[corm]]s, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}} The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} above the plant's neck.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}
The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-[[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] leaves known as [[cataphyll]]s. These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are {{Convert|1|–|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}}, in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). ''C. sativus'' cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear [[bract]]eoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as [[pedicel (botany)|pedicels]].{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} After [[Aestivation (botany)|aestivating]] in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to {{Convert|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=3}} The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are {{Convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-pronged [[style (botany)|style]] {{Convert|25|–|30|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]], which is the distal end of a [[carpel]].{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}
==
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Iran-MA-20221554-1160x1740.jpg|alt=cleaning Saffron |thumb|An Iranian woman is cleaning saffron.]] -->
The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''. It is a [[polyploid|triploid]] that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant [[meiosis]] and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by [[vegetative reproduction|vegetative multiplication]] via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=30–31}}{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}
''Crocus sativus'' thrives in the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]], an ecotype superficially resembling the North American [[chaparral]], and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as {{Convert|−10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rezvani-Moghaddam |first=Parviz |title=Chapter 8. Ecophysiology of saffron |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128186381000083 |work=Saffron |pages=119–137 |editor-last=Koocheki |editor-first=Alireza |access-date=2023-02-22 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-818638-1 |editor2-last=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor2-first=Mohammad}}</ref> Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages {{Convert|1000|–|1500|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}; saffron-growing regions in Greece ({{Convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}} annually) and Spain ({{Convert|400|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=2}} and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. [[Nematode]]s, leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and corm rot pose other threats. Yet ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.{{Sfn|Sharaf-Eldin|Elkholy|Fernández|Junge|2008}}
The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged {{Convert|7|–|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting {{Convert|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep and in rows {{Convert|2|–|3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} apart; depths of {{Convert|8|–|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.
''C. sativus'' prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some {{Convert|20|–|30|t/ha|ST/acre|0|abbr=off}} of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}} After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=3–4}} All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=4}} Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=8}}
===Harvesting===
[[File:Saffron-sargol-zafaranic.jpg|thumb|Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade]]
The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some {{convert|200000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|stigmas|hand-picked saffron stigmas }} – equivalently, {{convert|70000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|flowers|crocus flowers }}.<ref name=hooker/><ref name="cnn">{{cite news |last=Monks |first=Keiron |date=3 September 2015 |title=Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/ |newspaper=CNN |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=273}}{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=35}} Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lak |first=Daniel |date=11 November 1998 |title=Kashmiris pin hopes on saffron |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm |access-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>
One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30 mg of fresh saffron or 7 mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield {{Convert|1|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of dry saffron threads; to produce {{Convert|12|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} of dried saffron, {{Convert|1|lb|g|order=flip|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only {{convert|0.2|oz/lb|g/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}}
==Spice==
===Phytochemistry and sensory properties===
[[File:Picrocrocin.svg|thumb|Structure of [[picrocrocin]]:{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}}
{|
|-
|{{Legend|#AEAEFF|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-glucopyranose derivative}}
|-
|{{Legend|#F5D76C|safranal moiety}}
|}
]]
[[File:Crocetin safranal esterification.png|thumb|[[Esterification]] reaction between [[crocetin]] and [[gentiobiose]]. Components of α–crocin:<ref name=dhar/>
{|
|-
|{{Legend|#A6CAF0|[[Anomer|β]]–[[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]-gentiobiose}}||{{Legend|#000000|crocetin}}
|}
]]
Saffron contains some 28 [[Volatile organic compound|volatile and aroma-yielding compounds]], dominated by [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s.<ref name="Amanpour">{{cite journal | last1=Amanpour | first1=Asghar | last2=Sonmezdag | first2=A. Salih | last3=Kelebek | first3=Hasim | last4=Selli | first4=Serkan | title=GC–MS–olfactometric characterization of the most aroma-active components in a representative aromatic extract from Iranian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) | journal=Food Chemistry | volume=182 | year=2015 | issn=0308-8146 | doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.03.005 | pages=251–256|pmid=25842335}}</ref> Its main aroma-active compounds are [[safranal]] – the main compound responsible for saffron aroma – 4-ketoisophorone, and dihydrooxophorone.<ref name="dhar">{{cite journal | last1=Dhar | first1=Manoj K | last2=Sharma | first2=Munish | last3=Bhat | first3=Archana | last4=Chrungoo | first4=Nikhil K | last5=Kaul | first5=Sanjana | title=Functional genomics of apocarotenoids in saffron: insights from chemistry, molecular biology and therapeutic applications (Review)| journal=Briefings in Functional Genomics | volume=16 | issue=6 | date=28 March 2017 | issn=2041-2649 | doi=10.1093/bfgp/elx003 | pages=336–347|pmid=28369196}}</ref><ref name=Amanpour/> Saffron also contains nonvolatile [[phytochemical]]s,{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} including the [[carotenoid]]s [[zeaxanthin]], [[lycopene]], various α- and β-[[carotene]]s, as well as [[crocetin]] and its [[glycoside]] crocein, which are the most biologically active components.<ref name=dhar/><ref name="pmid29134501">{{cite journal | vauthors=Hosseini A, Razavi BM, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Pharmacokinetic Properties of Saffron and its Active Components | journal=European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics | volume=43 | issue=4 | pages=383–390 | year=2018 | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890623820302926 | doi=10.1007/s13318-017-0449-3 | pmid=29134501| s2cid=23836415 | url-access=subscription }}</ref> Because crocetin is smaller and more water-soluble than the other carotenoids, it is more rapidly absorbed.<ref name="pmid29134501" />
The yellow-orange colour of saffron is primarily the result of α-crocin.<ref name=dhar/> This [[crocin]] is trans-[[crocetin]] di-(β-D-[[gentiobiose|gentiobiosyl]]) [[ester]]; it bears the [[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic (IUPAC) name]] 8,8-diapo-8,8-carotenoic acid. This means that the crocin underlying saffron's aroma is a digentiobiose ester of the carotenoid crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocins themselves are a series of [[hydrophile|hydrophilic]] carotenoids that are either [[glycosyl|monoglycosyl]] or diglycosyl [[polyene]] esters of crocetin.{{Sfn|Abdullaev|2002|p=1}} Crocetin is a [[conjugated system|conjugated]] polyene [[carboxylic acid|dicarboxylic acid]] that is [[Hydrophobe|hydrophobic]], and thus oil-soluble. When crocetin is [[esterification|esterified]] with two water-soluble gentiobioses, which are [[carbohydrate|sugars]], a product results that is itself water-soluble. The resultant α-crocin is a carotenoid pigment that may make up more than 10% of dry saffron's mass. The two esterified gentiobioses make α-crocin ideal for colouring water-based and non-fatty foods such as rice dishes.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}}
The bitter [[glucoside]] [[picrocrocin]] is responsible for saffron's [[pungency|pungent flavour]].<ref name=dhar/> Picrocrocin ([[chemical formula]]: {{Chem2|C16H26O7}}; systematic name: 4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-1-ene-1-carbaldehyde) is a union of an [[aldehyde]] sub-molecule known as [[safranal]] (systematic name: 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-diene-1-carbaldehyde) and a carbohydrate. It has insecticidal and pesticidal properties, and may comprise up to 4% of dry saffron. Picrocrocin is a truncated version of the carotenoid [[zeaxanthin]] that is produced via [[redox|oxidative]] cleavage, and is the [[glycoside]] of the [[terpene]] [[aldehyde]] safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}}
When saffron is dried after its harvest, the heat, combined with enzymatic action, splits picrocrocin to yield [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|D]]–[[glucose]] and a free safranal molecule.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=4}} Safranal, a [[essential oil|volatile]] oil, gives saffron much of its distinctive aroma.{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=423}}{{Sfn|Dharmananda|2005}} Safranal is less bitter than picrocrocin and may comprise up to 70% of dry saffron's volatile fraction in some samples.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} A second molecule underlying saffron's aroma is [[Lanierone|2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-2,5-cyclohexadien-1-one]], which produces a scent described as saffron, dried hay-like.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Chemists find this is the most powerful contributor to saffron's fragrance, despite its presence in a lesser quantity than safranal.{{Sfn|Leffingwell}} Dry saffron is highly sensitive to fluctuating [[pH]] levels, and rapidly breaks down chemically in the presence of light and [[redox|oxidising]] agents. It must, therefore, be stored in air-tight containers to minimise contact with atmospheric oxygen. Saffron is somewhat more resistant to heat.
===Grades and ISO 3632 categories===
[[File:Iran saffron threads.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Red threads and yellow styles from Iran]]
[[File:Safran-Weinviertel Niederreiter 2 Gramm 8285.jpg|thumb|left|upright|High quality red threads from Austrian saffron]]
[[File:Pure Kashmiri saffron pack 08.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Kashmir]]i saffron package]]
Saffron is not all of the same quality and strength. Strength is related to several factors, including age and the amount of yellow style picked relative to red stigma, as colour and flavour are concentrated in the latter.
Saffron from [[Iran]], [[Spain]], and [[Kashmir]] is classified into various grades according to the proportion of stigma to style it contains. Grades of Iranian saffron are: ''sargol'' ({{langx|fa|سرگل}}, red stigma tips only, strongest grade), ''pushal'' or ''pushali'' (red stigmas plus some yellow style, lower strength), "bunch" saffron (red stigmas plus large amount of yellow style, presented in a tiny bundle like a miniature wheatsheaf) and ''konge'' (yellow style only, claimed to have aroma but with very little, if any, colouring potential). Grades of Spanish saffron are ''coupé'' (the strongest grade, like Iranian sargol), ''mancha'' (like Iranian pushal), and in order of further decreasing strength ''rio'', ''standard'' and ''sierra'' saffron. The word ''mancha'' in the Spanish classification can have two meanings: a general grade of saffron or a very high quality Spanish-grown saffron from a specific geographical origin. Real Spanish-grown La Mancha saffron has [[Geographical indications and traditional specialities in the European Union#Protected designation of origin (PDO)|PDO]] protected status, which is displayed on the product packaging. Spanish growers fought hard for Protected Status because they felt that imports of Iranian saffron re-packaged in Spain and sold as "Spanish Mancha saffron" were undermining the genuine La Mancha brand. {{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} Similar was the case in Kashmir where imported Iranian saffron is mixed with local saffron and sold as "Kashmir brand" at a higher price.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Sustainable Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Production: Technological and Policy Interventions for Kashmir |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Azra N. Kamili |author3=M. H. Wani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=G. N. Bhat |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad M. |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |___location=UK |page=118}}</ref> In Kashmir, saffron is mostly classified into two main categories called ''mongra'' (stigma alone) and ''lachha'' (stigmas attached with parts of the style).<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.academia.edu/30720498 |title=Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' Kashmirianus) Cultivation in Kashmir: Practices and Problems |author1=Amjad Masood Husaini |author2=Badrul Hassan |author3=Muzaffar Y. Ghani |author4=Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva |author5=Nayar A. Kirmani |editor-last=Husaini |editor-first=Amjad |journal=Functional Plant Science & Biotechnology |issn=1749-0472 |volume=4 |issue=2 |publisher=Global Science Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-4-903313-67-2 |___location=UK |page=110}}</ref> Countries producing less saffron do not have specialised words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labour charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron.
In addition to descriptions based on how the saffron is picked, saffron may be categorised under the international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3632 after laboratory measurement of crocin (responsible for saffron's colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (fragrance or aroma) content.{{Sfn|Verma|Middha|2010|p=1–2}} However, often there is no clear grading information on the product packaging and little of the saffron readily available in the UK is labelled with ISO category. This lack of information makes it hard for customers to make informed choices when comparing prices and buying saffron.
Under ISO 3632, determination of non-stigma content ("floral waste content") and other extraneous matter such as inorganic material ("[[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]]") are also key. Grading standards are set by the [[International Organization for Standardization]], a federation of national standards bodies. ISO 3632 deals exclusively with saffron and establishes three categories: III (poorest quality), II, and I (finest quality). Formerly there was also category IV, which was below category III. Samples are assigned categories by gauging the spice's crocin and picrocrocin content, revealed by measurements of specific spectrophotometric [[absorbance]]. Safranal is treated slightly differently and rather than there being threshold levels for each category, samples must give a reading of 20–50 for all categories.
These data are measured through [[spectrophotometry]] reports at certified testing laboratories worldwide. Higher absorbances imply greater levels of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal, and thus a greater colouring potential and therefore strength per gram. The absorbance reading of crocin is known as the "colouring strength" of that saffron. Saffron's colouring strength can range from lower than 80 (for all category IV saffron) up to 200 or greater (for category I). The world's finest samples (the selected, most red-maroon, tips of stigmas picked from the finest flowers) receive colouring strengths in excess of 250, making such saffron over three times more powerful than category IV saffron. Market prices for saffron types follow directly from these ISO categories. Sargol and coupé saffron would typically fall into ISO 3632 category I. Pushal and Mancha would probably be assigned to category II. On many saffron packaging labels, neither the ISO 3632 category nor the colouring strength (the measurement of crocin content) is displayed.
However, many growers, traders, and consumers reject such lab test numbers. Some people prefer a more holistic method of sampling batches of threads for taste, aroma, pliability, and other traits in a fashion similar to that practised by experienced [[wine]] tasters.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=274}}
===Adulteration===
Despite attempts at quality control and standardisation, an extensive history of saffron [[adulteration]], particularly among the cheapest grades, continues into modern times. Adulteration was first documented in Europe's Middle Ages, when those found selling adulterated saffron in [[Nuremberg]] were executed under the ''Safranschou'' code.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=102–104}} Typical methods include mixing in extraneous substances like [[beetroot]], [[pomegranate]] fibres, red-dyed silk fibres, or the saffron crocus's tasteless and odourless yellow stamens. Other methods included dousing saffron fibres with viscid substances like [[honey]] or vegetable oil to increase their weight. Powdered saffron is more prone to adulteration, with [[turmeric]], [[paprika]], and other powders used as diluting fillers. Adulteration can also consist of selling mislabelled mixes of different saffron grades. Thus, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often sold and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports; these mixes are then marketed as pure Kashmiri saffron.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.firstpost.com/long-reads/kashmirs-saffron-harvest-sees-sharp-decline-4216123.html|title=Kashmir's saffron harvest sees sharp decline |website=Firstpost|date=18 November 2017 |access-date=1 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Rashid|first=Afshan|date=22 September 2018|title=From 35kgs earlier to 1kg yield now, 'successful' Saffron Mission paves way for apples in Pampore|url=https://freepresskashmir.news/2018/09/22/from-35kgs-earlier-to-1kg-yield-now-successful-saffron-mission-paves-way-for-apples-in-pampore/|access-date=1 January 2019|website=Free Press Kashmir|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 November 2003 |title=Kashmiri Saffron Producers See Red over Iranian Imports |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|Australian Broadcasting Corp.]] |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/1504154 |access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hussain |first=A. |date=28 January 2005 |title=Saffron Industry in Deep Distress |work=BBC News |___location=London |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4216493.stm |access-date=15 September 2011}}</ref> [[Safflower]] is a common substitute sometimes sold as saffron. The spice is reportedly counterfeited with [[horse hair]], [[corn silk]], or shredded paper. [[Tartrazine]] or [[sunset yellow]] dyes have been used to colour counterfeit powdered saffron.<ref name=hooker/>
In recent years, saffron adulterated with the colouring extract of [[gardenia]] fruits has been detected in the European market. This form of fraud is difficult to detect due to the presence of [[flavonoids]] and [[crocin]]es in the gardenia-extracts similar to those naturally occurring in saffron. Detection methods have been developed by using [[HPLC]] and [[mass spectrometry]] to determine the presence of [[geniposide]], a compound present in the fruits of gardenia, but not in saffron.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guijarro-Díez |first1=Miguel |last2=Castro-Puyana |first2=María |last3=Crego |first3=Antonio Luis |last4=Marina |first4=María Luisa |title=Detection of saffron adulteration with gardenia extracts through the determination of geniposide by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis |date=1 January 2017 |volume=55 |pages=30–37 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2016.11.004 }}</ref>
===Types===
The various saffron crocus cultivars give rise to thread types that are often regionally distributed and characteristically distinct. Varieties (not varieties in the botanical sense) from Spain, including the tradenames "Spanish Superior" and "Creme", are generally mellower in colour, flavour, and aroma; they are graded by government-imposed standards. Italian varieties are slightly more potent than Spanish. Greek saffron produced in the town of [[Krokos]] is [[Protected designation of origin|PDO]] protected due to its particularly high-quality colour and strong flavour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis|title=Krokos Kozanis PDO |last=Bishop |first=Stephen|date=26 April 2018|website=European Commission|access-date=16 November 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181117024010/https://ec.europa.eu/info/food-farming-fisheries/food-safety-and-quality/certification/quality-labels/eu-quality-food-and-drink/krokos-kozanis |archive-date= Nov 17, 2018 }}</ref> Various "boutique" crops are available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, the United States, and other countries—some of them organically grown. In the US, Pennsylvania Dutch saffron—known for its "earthy" notes—is produced in small quantities.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=201}}
Consumers may regard certain cultivars as "premium" quality. The "Aquila" saffron, or ''zafferano dell'Aquila'', is defined by high safranal and crocin content, distinctive thread shape, unusually pungent aroma, and intense colour; it is grown exclusively on eight hectares in the Navelli Valley of Italy's [[Abruzzo]] region, near [[L'Aquila]]. It was first introduced to Italy by a Dominican friar from inquisition-era Spain.{{when|date=October 2016}} But the biggest saffron cultivation in Italy is in [[San Gavino Monreale]], Sardinia, where it is grown on 40 hectares, representing 60% of Italian production; it too has unusually high crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content.
Another is the "Mongra" or "Lacha" saffron of Kashmir (''Crocus sativus'' 'Cashmirianus'), which is among the most difficult for consumers to obtain.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vlahova |first1=Veselka |title=Saffron (''Crocus Sativus'') as an Alternative Crop in Sustainable Agricultural Systems. a Review |journal=Scientific Papers Series Management, Economic Engineering in Agriculture and Rural Development |date=2022 |volume=22 |issue=2 |page=778 |url=https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |access-date=22 September 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922221935/https://managementjournal.usamv.ro/pdf/vol.22_2/Art91.pdf |archive-date=22 September 2022 }}</ref> Repeated droughts, blights, and crop failures in Kashmir combined with an Indian export ban, contribute to its prohibitive overseas prices. Kashmiri saffron is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue, making it among the world's darkest.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hassan |first=Firdous |date=2020-02-19 |title=Farmers Pitch For GI Tag For Kashmiri Saffron, World's Most Expensive Spice |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/farmers-pitch-for-gi-tag-for-kashmiri-saffron-worlds-most-expensive-spice/ |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=IndiaSpend |language=en}}</ref> In 2020, [[Kashmir Valley]] saffron was certified with a [[geographical indication]] from the Government of India.<ref>{{Cite web|date=25 July 2020|title=Kashmir's saffron gets GI tag|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/kashmir-s-saffron-gets-gi-tag/story-N7VfEu6mG5vlti0lHr6MpN.html|access-date=27 July 2020|website=Hindustan Times|language=en}}</ref>
==World production==
[[File:SaffMHD.jpg|thumb|Saffron market in [[Mashad]], [[Iran]]]]
Almost all saffron grows in a belt from [[Spain]] in the west to India in the east. [[Iran]] is responsible for around 88% of global production.<ref name=menia/> In 2024, Iran was the largest producer of saffron, with [[Afghanistan]] as the second largest.<ref name="islami">{{Cite news |title=Afghanistan bets on 'red gold' for global market presence |last=Islami |first=Modaser |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/2580482/amp |date=23 November 2024 |access-date=13 February 2025 |work=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> Saffron is cultivated in 26 of Afghanistan's 34 provinces, with most production concentrated in [[Herat]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1602281/world |title=Afghanistan's red gold 'saffron' termed world's best|last=Salahuddin|first=Sayed |publisher=Arab News |date=22 December 2019 |access-date=13 February 2025}}</ref>
Spain is the third largest producer, while the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Greece]], the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Morocco]] are among minor producers.<ref name=menia/><ref>{{cite news |title=Moroccan saffron farmers battle knockoff spices |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1421946/offbeat |date=December 17, 2018 |publisher=Arab News |___location=Saudi Arabia}}</ref>
===Trade===
{{Main|Saffron trade}}
Saffron prices at wholesale and retail rates range from {{cvt|500-5000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}. In Western countries, the average retail price in 1974 was {{cvt|1000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=272}} In February 2013, a retail bottle containing {{cvt|1.7|g|oz|frac=64|abbr=on}} could be purchased for $16.26 or the equivalent of {{cvt|4336|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}, or as little as about {{cvt|2000|$/lb|$/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} in larger quantities. There are between {{cvt|70000|and|200,000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|threads|threads }}. Vivid crimson colouring, slight moistness, elasticity, and lack of broken-off thread debris are all traits of fresh saffron.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
==Uses==
{{Main|Use of saffron}}
{{Infobox nutritional value
| serving_size = 1 tbsp (2.1 g)
| kJ = 27
| carbs = 1.37 g
| fibre = 0.10 g
| fat = 0.12 g
| satfat = 0.03 g
| transfat = 0.00 g
| monofat = 0.01 g
| polyfat = 0.04 g
| protein = 0.24 g
| water = 0.25 g
| vitA_iu = 11
| thiamin_mg = 0
| riboflavin_mg = 0.01
| niacin_mg = 0.03
| vitB6_mg = 0.02
| folate_ug = 2
| vitB12_ug = 0
| vitC_mg = 1.7
| vitD_ug = 0
| vitD_iu = 0
| calcium_mg = 2
| copper_mg = 0.01
| iron_mg = 0.23
| magnesium_mg = 6
| manganese_mg = 0.6
| phosphorus_mg = 5
| potassium_mg = 36
| selenium_ug = 0.1
| sodium_mg = 3
| zinc_mg = 0.02
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170934/nutrients Full Link to USDA database entry]
| source_usda = 1
}}
The primary use of saffron is in food and drink preparation. Saffron has a long history of use in [[traditional medicine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Z. |last2=Bathaie |first2=S. Z. |title=Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research |journal=Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=27–66 |year=2011 |url=http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/pdf_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.html |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055609/http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/pdf_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Basker |first1=D |last2=Negbi |first2=M |s2cid=40880131 |title=Uses of saffron |journal=Journal of Economic Botany |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=228–236 |year=1983 |doi=10.1007/BF02858789 |jstor=4254486 |bibcode=1983EcBot..37..228B }}</ref> Saffron has also been used as a fabric [[dye]], particularly in China and India, and in perfumery.{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=138}} It is used for religious purposes in India.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mousavi|first1=Z.M.|last2=Bathaie, S.|date=Autumn 2011|title=Historical uses of saffron: Identifying potential new avenues for modern research|url=http://ajp.mums.ac.ir/article_122_fa0adab83a39198419c20125f89ee8bf.pdf|journal=Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine|volume=1|pages=63}}</ref> It is one of the ingredients used in the making of [[Arabic coffee]] in [[Saudi Arabia]].
<span class="anchor" id="E164"></span>In the European [[E number]] categorisation for food elements and additives, Saffron is coded as '''E164'''.
{{
==
[[File:Saffron soak.jpg|thumb|left|Saffron threads soaked in hot water prior to use in food preparation]]
Saffron's aroma is often described by connoisseurs as reminiscent of metallic honey with grassy or hay-like notes, while its taste has also been noted as hay-like and sweet. Saffron also contributes a luminous yellow-orange colouring to foods. Saffron is widely used in Persian,<ref>{{cite book|last=Simmons|first=Shirin|title=A Treasury of Persian Cuisine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87KOW40HThAC&pg=PT37|date=October 2007|publisher=Stamford House Publishing|isbn=978-1-904985-56-3|pages=37–38}}</ref> Indian, European, and Arab cuisines. Confectioneries and liquors also often include saffron. Saffron is used in dishes ranging from the jewelled rice and ''[[khoresh]]'' of Iran,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepersianfusion.com/persian-jewelled-rice-with-lamb-gheymeh-nesar/ |date=11 July 2017 |title=Persian Jewelled Rice with Lamb (Gheymeh Nesar)}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepersianfusion.com/chicken-aubergine-stew-bademjan-ghooreh-mosama/ |date=20 August 2017 |title=Persian Chicken & Aubergine Stew (Bademjan-Ghooreh Mosama)}}</ref> the Milanese ''[[risotto]]'' of Italy, the ''[[paella]]'' of Spain, the ''[[bouillabaisse]]'' of France, to the ''[[biryani]]'' with various meat accompaniments in South Asia. Saffron is also used in the preparation of the ''Golden Ham'', a precious dry-cured [[ham]] made with saffron from [[San Gimignano]] in Tuscany.{{cn|date=January 2024}} Common saffron substitutes include [[safflower]] (''Carthamus tinctorius'', which is often sold as "Portuguese saffron" or "açafrão"), [[annatto]], and [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa'').<!-- Saffron is identified as "E164" under the European Union [[E number]] food additive code system. --> In [[Middle Ages|Medieval Europe]], turmeric was also known as "Indian saffron" because of its yellow-orange colour.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=170 |isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref> {{clear left}}
===Nutrition===
Dried saffron is 65% [[carbohydrates]], 6% fat, 11% [[protein]] (table) and 12% water. In one [[tablespoon]] (2 grams; a quantity much larger than is likely to be ingested in normal use) [[manganese]] is present as 29% of the [[Daily Value]], while other [[micronutrient]]s have negligible content (table).{{clear left}}
===Toxicity===
Ingesting less than {{convert|1.5|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of saffron is not toxic for humans, but doses greater than {{convert|5|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} can become increasingly toxic.<ref name="pmid24848002">{{cite journal | vauthors=Moshiri M, Vahabzadeh M, Hosseinzadeh H | title=Clinical Applications of Saffron (Crocus sativus) and its Constituents: A Review | journal=[[Drug Research (journal)|Drug Research]] | volume=56 | issue=6 | pages=287–295 | year=2015 | doi=10.1055/s-0034-1375681 | pmid=24848002| doi-access=free }}</ref> Mild toxicity includes dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, whereas at higher doses there can be reduced [[platelet]] count and spontaneous bleeding.<ref name="pmid24848002" />
===Storage===
Saffron will not spoil, but will lose flavour within six months if not stored in an airtight, cool and dark place.<ref name="WikiHow">{{cite web | last =authors | first = Wiki- | title = How to Use Saffron | work = FOOD AND ENTERTAINING – HERBS AND SPICES | publisher = [[wikiHow]] | date = 4 October 2020 | url = https://www.wikihow.com/Use-Saffron | access-date = 9 March 2021 }}</ref> Freezer storage can maintain flavour for up to two years.<ref name="WikiHow" />
===Research===
Dietary supplementation with saffron is under preliminary research to assess its potential effect on [[depression (mood)|depression]] and anxiety.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Marx|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Lane|first2=Melissa|last3=Rocks|first3=Tetyana|last4=Ruusunen|first4=Anu|last5=Loughman|first5=Amy|last6=Lopresti|first6=Adrian|last7=Marshall|first7=Skye|last8=Berk|first8=Michael|last9=Jacka|first9=Felice|last10=Dean|first10=Olivia M|date=1 August 2019|title=Effect of saffron supplementation on symptoms of depression and anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis|language=en|volume=77|issue=8|pages=557–571|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuz023 |url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/article/77/8/557/5499264|journal=Nutrition Reviews|pmid=31135916|issn=0029-6643}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dai|first1=Lili |last2=Chen |first2=Lingyan|last3=Wang|first3=Wenjing|date=2020|title=Safety and Efficacy of Saffron (''Crocus sativus'' L.) for Treating Mild to Moderate Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FNMD.0000000000001118|journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease|language=en|volume=208|issue=4|pages=269–276|doi=10.1097/NMD.0000000000001118|pmid=32221179 |s2cid=210119504|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of saffron}}
[[File:Cueilleuse de safran, fresque, Akrotiri, Grèce.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|A detail from the "Saffron Gatherers" fresco of the "Xeste 3" building in the Bronze Age settlement of [[Akrotiri (prehistoric city)|Akrotiri]] on the Aegean island of Santorini. It is one of many depicting saffron preserved at the excavation site]]
Saffron likely originated in Iran,<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> Greece,<ref name="Gresta et al." /> Mesopotamia, <ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> or Kashmir.<ref name="auto"/> Harold McGee<ref>Harold McGee. On Food and Cooking, 2004 edition, pg 422. Scribner, New York, NY,</ref> states that it was domesticated in or near Greece during the Bronze Age. ''C. sativus'' is probably a [[triploid]] form of ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'',{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}<ref name="Schmidt et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Schmidt|first1=Thomas|last2=Heitkam|first2=Tony|last3=Liedtke|first3=Susan|last4=Schubert|first4=Veit|last5=Menzel|first5=Gerhard|title=Adding color to a century-old enigma: multi-color chromosome identification unravels the autotriploid nature of saffron (''Crocus sativus'') as a hybrid of wild ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' cytotypes|journal=New Phytologist|volume=222|issue=4|pages=1965–1980|doi=10.1111/nph.15715|issn=1469-8137|pmid=30690735|year=2019|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Harpke et al.">{{Cite journal|last1=Harpke|first1=Dörte|last2=Meng|first2=Shuchun|last3=Rutten|first3=Twan|last4=Kerndorff|first4=Helmut|last5=Blattner|first5=Frank R.|date=1 March 2013|title=Phylogeny of ''Crocus'' (Iridaceae) based on one chloroplast and two nuclear loci: Ancient hybridization and chromosome number evolution|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=66|issue=3|pages=617–627|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2012.10.007|pmid=23123733|bibcode=2013MolPE..66..617H |issn=1055-7903}}</ref><ref name="Attica saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Nemati |first1=Zahra |last2=Harpke |first2=Dörte |last3=Gemicioglu |first3=Almila |last4=Kerndorff |first4=Helmut |last5=Blattner |first5=Frank R. |title=Saffron (Crocus sativus) is an autotriploid that evolved in Attica (Greece) from wild Crocus cartwrightianus |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |date=2019 |volume=136 |pages=14–20 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2019.03.022 |pmid=30946897 |bibcode=2019MolPE.136...14N |ref=Atticsaff|doi-access=free }}</ref> which is also known as "wild saffron".{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} Saffron crocus was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]] and was later brought to parts of North Africa, North America, and Oceania.
Several wild species of ''Crocus'' similar to the commercial plant are known to have been harvested in recent times for use as saffron. ''[[Crocus ancyrensis]]'' was used to make saffron in Sivas in Central Turkey, the corms were also eaten. ''Crocus cartwrightianus'' was harvested on Andros in the islands of the Cyclades, for medicinal purposes and the stigmas for making a pigment called Zafran. ''[[Crocus longiflorus]]'' stigmas were used for saffron in Sicily. ''Crocus thomasii'' stigmas were used to flavour dishes around Taranto, South Italy. In Syria the stigmas of an unknown wild species were collected by women and children, sun-dried and pressed into small tablets which were sold in the Bazaars.<ref name="Maw Saffron">{{cite book |last1=Maw |first1=George |title=A Monograph of the Genus Crocus |date=1886 |publisher=Dulau and Co. |___location=Soho Square, London |pages=87, 164, 207, 250 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/52656#page/101/mode/1up |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Maw Saffron}}</ref> Not all ancient depictions or descriptions of saffron spice or flowers are certain to be the same species as the modern commercial species used for spice.<ref name="Ancient Saffron">{{cite journal |last1=Kazemi-Shahandashti |first1=Seyyedeh-Sanam |last2=Mann |first2=Ludwig |last3=El-nagish |first3=Abdullah |last4=Harpke |first4=Dörte |last5=Nemati |first5=Zahra |last6=Usadel |first6=Björn |last7=Heitkam |first7=Tony |title=Ancient Artworks and Crocus Genetics Both Support Saffron's Origin in Early Greece |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |date=2022 |volume=13 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2022.834416 |doi-access=free |pmid=35283878 |ref=Ancient Saffron|pmc=8913524 }}</ref>
===West Asia===
Documentation of saffron's use over the span of 3,500 years has been uncovered.<ref name=Honan2004>{{cite news |last=Honan |first=W. H. |date=2 March 2004 |title=Researchers Rewrite First Chapter for the History of Medicine |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/02/science/02MEDI.html?ex=1393563600 |access-date=13 September 2011}}</ref> Saffron-based pigments have indeed been found in 50,000-year-old depictions of prehistoric places in northwest Iran.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}}{{Sfn|Humphries|1998|p=20}} The Sumerians later used wild-growing saffron in their remedies and magical potions.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=12}} It was also known in [[ancient Egypt]], as indicated by a 2000 BC [[papyrus]].<ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Walton |first=Joshua AU - Santini, Lauren M. |title=Spices, Herbs, and Sweeteners |date=2022 |work=T&T Clark Handbook of Food in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel |pages=163–164 |editor-last=Fu |editor-first=Janling |url=https://www.bloomsburyfoodlibrary.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9780567679826&tocid=b-9780567679826-chapter9 |access-date=2025-07-28 |series=T&T Clark Handbooks |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=T&T Clark |language=en |isbn=978-0-567-67982-6 |editor2-last=Shafer-Elliott |editor2-first=Cynthia |editor3-last=Meyers |editor3-first=Carol}}</ref> Saffron was an article of long-distance trade before the [[Minoan palace]] culture's 2nd millennium BC peak. Ancient Persians cultivated Persian saffron (''Crocus sativus'' var. ''haussknechtii'' now called ''[[Crocus haussknechtii]]'' by botanists) in [[Derbent]], [[Isfahan]], and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] by the 10th century BC. At such sites, saffron threads were woven into textiles,{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} ritually offered to divinities, and used in dyes, perfumes, medicines, and body washes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=17–18}} Saffron threads would thus be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy. Non-Persians also feared the Persians' usage of saffron as a drugging agent and aphrodisiac.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}}
Saffron is featured in trade lists from [[Mari, Syria]],<ref name=":12" /> is described in a 7th-century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under [[Ashurbanipal]],{{Sfn|Russo|Dreher|Mathre|2003|p=6}} and is listed among other aromatic plants in the [[Hebrew Bible]], in [[Song of Songs 4|''Song of Songs'' 4]]:14.<ref name=":12" /> During his Asian campaigns, [[Alexander the Great]] used Persian saffron in his infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds. Alexander's troops imitated the practice from the Persians and brought saffron-bathing to Greece.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=54–55}}
=== South Asia ===
[[File:Maitreya Bodhisattva and Monks Singapore.jpeg|thumb|right|Buddhist adepts wearing saffron-coloured robes, pray in the Hundred Dragons Hall, [[Buddha Tooth Relic Temple and Museum]], Singapore.]]
Conflicting theories explain saffron's arrival in South Asia. Kashmiri and Chinese accounts date its arrival anywhere between 2500 and 900 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lak |first=D. |date=23 November 1998 |title=Gathering Kashmir's Saffron |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/213043.stm |access-date=12 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Fotedar |first=S. |date=1999 |title=Cultural Heritage of India: The Kashmiri Pandit Contribution |periodical=Vitasta |publisher=Kashmir Sabha of Kolkata |volume=32 |issue=1 |page=128 |url=http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929225731/http://vitasta.org/1999/index.html |archive-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}} Historians studying ancient Persian records date the arrival to sometime prior to 500 BC,{{Sfn|McGee|2004|p=422}} attributing it to a Persian transplantation of saffron corms to stock new gardens and parks.{{Sfn|Dalby|2003|p=256}} Phoenicians then marketed Kashmiri saffron as a dye and a treatment for melancholy. Its use in foods and dyes subsequently spread throughout South Asia. Buddhist monks wear saffron-coloured robes; however, the robes are not dyed with costly saffron but [[turmeric]], a less expensive dye, or [[jackfruit]].{{Sfn|Finlay|2003|p=224}} Monks' robes are dyed the same colour to show equality with each other, and turmeric or ochre were the cheapest, most readily available dyes. [[Gamboge]] is also used to dye the robes.{{Sfn|Hanelt|2001|p=1352}}{{clear left}}
=== East Asia ===
Some historians believe that saffron came to China with Mongol invaders from Persia.{{Sfn|Fletcher|2005|p=11}} Yet it is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts, including the forty-volume ''[[Shennong Bencaojing]]'', a pharmacopoeia written around 300–200 BC. Traditionally credited to the legendary [[Yan Emperor]] and the deity [[Shennong]], it discusses 252 plant-based medical treatments for various disorders.{{Sfn|Hayes|2001|p=6}} Nevertheless, around the 3rd century AD, the Chinese were referring to it as having a Kashmiri provenance. According to the herbalist Wan Zhen, "the habitat of saffron is in Kashmir, where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha". Wan also reflected on how it was used in his time: "The flower withers after a few days, and then the saffron is obtained. It is valued for its uniform yellow colour. It can be used to aromatise wine."{{Sfn|Dalby|2002|p=95}}
===South East Mediterranean===
Minoan depictions of saffron are now considered to be ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''.<ref name="Ancient Saffron"/> The [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] portrayed saffron in their palace frescoes by 1600–1500 BC; they hint at its possible use as a therapeutic drug.<ref name=Honan2004/>{{Sfn|Ferrence|Bendersky|2004|p=1}} Ancient Greek legends told of sea voyages to [[Cilicia]], where adventurers sought what they believed were the world's most valuable threads.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Another legend tells of Crocus and Smilax, whereby Crocus is bewitched and transformed into the first saffron crocus.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=2}} Ancient perfumers in Egypt, physicians in [[Gaza City|Gaza]], townspeople in [[Rhodes]],{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=58}} and the Greek ''[[hetaerae]]'' courtesans used saffron in their [[scented water]]s, perfumes and potpourris, mascaras and ointments, divine offerings, and medical treatments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=41}}
In late [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Egypt]], [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] used saffron in her baths so that lovemaking would be more pleasurable.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=55}} Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=34–35}} Saffron was also used as a fabric dye in such [[Levant]]ine cities as [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre (Lebanon)|Tyre]] in Lebanon.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=59}} [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus]] prescribes saffron in medicines for wounds, cough, colic, and scabies, and in the [[mithridatium]].{{Sfn|Celsus|1989}}
===Western Europe===
[[File:Crocus sativus 003.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Preserved "Safran", Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde, Karlsruhe, Germany]]
Saffron was a notable ingredient in certain Roman recipes such as [[jusselle]] and [[conditum]].<ref name="Way 1843 p. 268">{{cite book | last=Way | first=A. | title=Promptorium parvulorum sive clericorum, lexicon Anglo-Latinum princeps, recens. A. Way | series=Camden soc | issue=v. 1 | year=1843 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_0UAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA268 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=268}}</ref><ref name="Pratt 1855 p. 180">{{cite book | last=Pratt | first=A. | title=The Flowering Plants of Great Britain | publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge | issue=v. 3 | year=1855 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ji8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA180 | access-date=18 May 2016 | page=180}}</ref><ref name="Napier 1882 p. 104">{{cite book | editor-last=Napier | editor-first=R. | title=A Noble Boke Off Cookry Ffor a Prynce Houssolde Or Eny Other Estately Houssholde | publisher=Elliot Stock | year=1882 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPspAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA104 | access-date=18 May 2016 | pages=104–105}} (Reprinted verbatim from a rare manuscript in the Holkham Collection.)</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |title=Conditum Paradoxum – Würzwein |translator-first=R. |translator-last=Maier |year=1991 |language=de |trans-title=Conditum Paradoxum – Spiced Wine |access-date=3 February 2012 |archive-date=8 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308040216/http://www.klassischearchaeologie.phil.uni-erlangen.de/realia/essen/rezepte/conditum.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Such was the Romans' love of saffron that Roman colonists took it with them when they settled in southern [[Gaul]], where it was extensively cultivated until Rome's fall. With this fall, European saffron cultivation plummeted. Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th-century AD Moors or with the [[Avignon]] papacy in the 14th century AD.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=63}} Similarly, the spread of Islamic civilisation may have helped reintroduce the crop to Spain and Italy.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=70}}
The 14th-century [[Black Death]] caused demand for saffron-based [[medicament]]s to peak, and Europe imported large quantities of threads via Venetian and Genoan ships from southern and Mediterranean lands such as Rhodes. The theft of one such shipment by noblemen sparked the fourteen-week-long [[Saffron War]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=99}} The conflict and resulting fear of rampant saffron piracy spurred corm cultivation in [[Basel]]; it thereby grew prosperous.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=101}} The crop then spread to [[Nuremberg]], where endemic and insalubrious adulteration brought on the ''Safranschou'' code—whereby culprits were variously fined, imprisoned, and executed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=103–104}} Meanwhile, cultivation continued in southern France, Italy, and Spain.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=133}}
Direct archaeological evidence of mediaeval saffron consumption in Scandinavia comes from the wreck of the royal Danish-Norwegian flagship, [[Gribshunden]]. The ship sank in 1495 while on a diplomatic mission to Sweden. Excavations in 2021 revealed concentrations of saffron threads and small "pucks" of compressed saffron powder, along with fresh ginger, cloves, and pepper. Surprisingly, the saffron retained its distinctive odour even after more than 500 years of submersion in the Baltic Sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larsson |first1=Mikael |last2=Foley |first2=Brendan |date=2023-01-26 |title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0281010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9879437 |pmid=36701280|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1881010L }}</ref>
The [[Essex]] town of [[Saffron Walden]], named for its new specialty crop, emerged as a prime saffron growing and trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries but cultivation there was abandoned; saffron was re-introduced around 2013 as well as other parts of the UK (Cheshire).<ref name=BBCessex2014>{{cite news|last1=Granleese|first1=Bob|title=Interview: Meet the saffron producer: 'It seemed ridiculous that the UK didn't grow it' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2013/nov/16/meet-the-saffron-producer-uk |work=The Guardian|date=16 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite news|title=Saffron spice returns to Essex after 200 years |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-essex-29943720 |work=BBC News|date=7 November 2014}}</ref>
===The Americas===
Europeans introduced saffron to the Americas when immigrant members of the [[Schwenkfelder Church]] left Europe with a trunk containing its corms. Church members had grown it widely in Europe.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}} By 1730, the [[Pennsylvania Dutch]] cultivated saffron throughout eastern Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this new American saffron, and high demand ensured that saffron's list price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was equal to gold.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=138}} Trade with the Caribbean later collapsed in the aftermath of the War of 1812, when many saffron-bearing merchant vessels were destroyed.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=138–139}} Yet the Pennsylvania Dutch continued to grow lesser amounts of saffron for local trade and use in their cakes, noodles, and chicken or trout dishes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=142–146}} American saffron cultivation survives into modern times, mainly in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=143}}
=== Afghanistan ===
Saffron has a long history in [[Afghanistan]], with cultivation believed to date back to before [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest of the Persian Empire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saffron in History: A Deep-Rooted Heritage of Persia and Its Cultural |url=https://saffronice.com/blogs/saffron-value-heritage/saffron-in-history-a-deep-rooted-heritage-of-persia-and-its-cultural-footprint?srsltid=AfmBOorR03CFen8AzsuA0amCITsrAq21xoH9SxnhielibibFkb0G05bf |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=Saffronice |language=en}}</ref> Due to prolonged droughts, conflict, and shifts in agricultural focus, saffron farming declined for centuries. Cultivation resumed in the early 2000s as an alternative to [[Papaver somniferum|opium poppy]] farming,<ref>{{cite AV media |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/07/06/484894669/afghan-governor-wants-government-to-control-poppy-crop |title=Afghan Governor Wants Government To Control Poppy Crop |date=6 July 2016 |medium=Radio broadcast |publisher=NPR |time=0:10 |access-date=11 February 2025 |quote=Afghanistan's poppy production… accounts for more than 91 percent of the world's heroin. |people=David Greene (host, Morning Edition), Hayatullah Hayat (Governor of Helmand Province, Afghanistan), Tom Bowman (reporter), Dianne Feinstein (U.S. Senator, Chair of the Caucus on International Narcotics Control)}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Saffron Manual for Afghanistan |url=http://www.icarda.org/RALFweb/PDFs/SaffronManualForAfghanistan.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110909224926/http://www.icarda.org/RALFweb/PDFs/SaffronManualForAfghanistan.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-09-09 }}</ref> supported by international organizations and the Afghan government.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |date=2024-05-23 |title=Afghanistan Saffron and Potential for the Economy: An Overview of International Trade and Domestic Well Being |url=https://arccjournals.com/journal/agricultural-reviews/RF-290 |journal=Agricultural Reviews |language=en |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=297–303 |issn=0253-1496}}</ref> According to Afghanistan’s [[Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock|Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock]], production increased from 20 metric tons in 2022 to 46 metric tons in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghan Saffron Attracts Global Buyers, Secures Million-Dollar Deal |url=https://tolonews.com/business-191530#:~:text=Akhundzada%20Abdul%20Salam%20Jawad,%20spokesperson,valued%20at%20over%20$36%20million. |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=TOLOnews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Afghanistan's Saffron on Media {{!}} AfGOV |url=https://www.mail.gov.af/en/afghanistan%E2%80%99s-saffron-media |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=www.mail.gov.af}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Saffron in Afghanistan |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/saffron/reporter/afg |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |language=en}}</ref> Key export markets include India, Europe, and the United States, where Afghan saffron is prized for its high quality.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-20 |title=ITC - Trade Impact for Good |url=https://www.intracen.org/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=www.intracen.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Quality saffron poised to spice up Afghanistan's exports (en) {{!}} ITC |url=https://www.intracen.org/es/noticias-y-eventos/noticias/quality-saffron-poised-to-spice-up-afghanistans-exports-en |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=www.intracen.org |language=es}}</ref>
Saffron cultivation contributes significantly to Afghanistan’s economy, supporting thousands of farmers, particularly women. Over 80% of the saffron workforce consists of women, who primarily handle harvesting and processing. The sector has provided employment opportunities for over 40,000 people, playing a role in agricultural sustainability and rural development.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saffron Production Rises in Afghanistan |url=https://tolonews.com/business-192377 |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=TOLOnews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=EFE |first=Agencia |date=2024-06-12 |title=Harvesting Gold: Afghan women cultivate hope from saffron strands - EFE |url=https://efe.com/en/other-news/2024-06-12/harvesting-gold-afghan-women-cultivate-hope-from-saffron-strands/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=EFE Noticias |language=en-US}}</ref>
Afghan saffron is known for its deep red color, strong aroma, and high crocin content, a compound that determines color intensity.<ref name=":3" /> It has been ranked among the highest quality saffron varieties in recent years with a 310 Crocin color quality based on ISO 3632.2 standards.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=EFE |first=Agencia |date=2024-06-12 |title=Harvesting Gold: Afghan women cultivate hope from saffron strands - EFE |url=https://efe.com/en/other-news/2024-06-12/harvesting-gold-afghan-women-cultivate-hope-from-saffron-strands/ |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=EFE Noticias |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Gallery ==
<gallery class="center">
File:Saffronfarm-860808.jpg|Saffron farm in Iran
File:860808-Saffronfarm-02-IMG 7674-2.jpg|Saffron farm in Iran
File:Saffron-IMG 6603-3-2.jpg|Saffron
File: Packaged Saffron.jpg|Example of saffron packaging
</gallery>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
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* {{citation |last=Grilli Caiola|first=M.|s2cid=89990377|year=2003|title=Saffron Reproductive Biology |journal=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=ISHS |volume=650| issue=650 |pages=25–37 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.1}}
* {{Citation|editor-last=Hanelt|editor-first=P.|year=2001|title=Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops|edition=1st|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-41017-1<!--3540410171-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=10IMFSavIMsC}}
* {{Citation|last=Hayes|first=A. W.|year=2001|title=Principles and Methods of Toxicology|edition=4th|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-1-56032-814-8<!--1560328142-->}}
* {{Citation|last=Hill|first=T.|year=2004|title=The Contemporary Encyclopedia of Herbs and Spices: Seasonings for the Global Kitchen|edition=1st|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-21423-6<!--047121423X-->}}
* {{Citation|last=Humphries|first=J.|year=1998|title=The Essential Saffron Companion|publisher=Ten Speed Press|isbn=978-1-58008-024-8<!--1580080243-->}}
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* {{citation | vauthors = Sharaf-Eldin M, Elkholy S, Fernández JA, Junge H, Cheetham R, Guardiola J, Weathers P | title = Bacillus subtilis FZB24 affects flower quantity and quality of saffron (Crocus sativus) | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 74 | issue = 10 | pages = 1316–20 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18622904 | pmc = 3947403 | doi = 10.1055/s-2008-1081293 }}
* {{citation |last1=Verma |first1=Ranjit Singh |last2=Middha |first2=Deepak |date=2010 |title=Analysis of Saffron (Crocus sativus L. Stigma) Components by LC–MS–MS |journal=Chromatographia |volume=71 |issue=1–2 |pages=117–123 |doi=10.1365/S10337-009-1398-Z|s2cid=97327822 }}
* {{Citation|last=Willard|first=P.|year=2002|title=Secrets of Saffron: The Vagabond Life of the World's Most Seductive Spice|publisher=Beacon Press|isbn=978-0-8070-5009-5<!--0807050083-->|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsUaFT7l3QsC}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
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{{Cookbook}}
{{Americana Poster}}
* {{Citation|title=Saffron|work=Darling Biomedical Library|publisher=[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]|url=http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/index.cfm?displayID=22}}
* {{Citation|title=''Crocus sativus''|work=Germplasm Resources Information Network|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]|url=http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041110054340/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=318|archive-date=10 November 2004}}
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[[Category:Saffron| ]]
[[Category:Crocus|Saffron]]
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