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{{Short description|Set of procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing}}
'''Design methods''' are procedures, techniques, aids, or tools for designing. They offer a number of different kinds of activities that a designer might use within an overall design process. Conventional procedures of design, such as drawing, can be regarded as design methods, but since the 1950s new procedures have been developed that are more usually grouped
''Design methodology'' is the broader study of method in design: the study of the principles, practices and procedures of designing.<ref name="Cross Methodology">{{cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Nigel |title=Developments in Design Methodology |date=1984 |publisher=Wiley |___location=UK |isbn=
==Background==
Design methods originated in new approaches to [[problem solving]] developed in the mid-20th Century, and also in response to industrialisation and mass-production, which changed the nature of designing.<ref>Cross, N. (1993) "A History Of Design Methodology", in de Vries, J., N. Cross and D. P. Grant (eds.), ''Design Methodology and Relationships with Science'', Kluwer Press, The Netherlands. 15–27.</ref> A "Conference on Systematic and Intuitive Methods in Engineering, Industrial Design, Architecture and Communications", held in London in 1962<ref>Jones, J. C. and D. G. Thornley, (eds) (1963) ''Conference on Design Methods'', Pergamon Press, UK.</ref> is regarded as a key event marking the beginning of what became known within design studies as the "design methods movement", leading to the founding of the [[Design Research Society]] and influencing design education and practice. Leading figures in this movement in the UK were [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]] at the [[University of Manchester]] and [[L. Bruce Archer]] at the [[Royal College of Art]].
The movement developed through further conferences on new design methods in the UK and USA in the 1960s.<ref>Gregory, S. A. (ed.) ''The Design Method''. Butterworth, UK.</ref><ref>Broadbent, G. and A. Ward (eds) (1969) ''Design Methods in Architecture'', Lund Humphries, UK</ref><ref>Moore, G. T. (ed.) (1970) ''Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning'', MIT Press, USA.</ref> The first books on rational design methods,<ref>Asimow, M. (1962) ''Introduction to Design'', Prentice-Hall, USA.</ref><ref>Alexander, C. (1964) ''Notes on the Synthesis of Form'', Harvard University Press, USA.</ref><ref>Archer, L. B. (1965) ''Systematic Method for Designers'', The Design Council, UK</ref> and on creative methods<ref>Gordon, W. J. (1961) ''Synectics'', Harper & Row, USA.</ref><ref>Osborn, A. F. (1963) ''Applied Imagination: Principles and Procedures of Creative Thinking'', Scribener's Sons, USA.</ref> also appeared in this period.
New approaches to design were developing at the same time in Germany, notably at the [[Ulm School of Design]] (Hochschule für Gestaltung–HfG Ulm) (1953–1968) under the leadership of [[Tomás Maldonado]]. Design teaching at Ulm integrated design with science (including social sciences) and introduced new fields of study such as [[cybernetics]], [[systems theory]] and [[semiotics]] into design education.<ref>Krampen, M. and G. Hörman (2003) ''The Ulm School of Design'', Ernst & Sohn, Germany. p.85</ref> [[L. Bruce Archer|Bruce Archer]] also taught at Ulm, and another influential teacher was [[Horst Rittel]].<ref>
At the end of the 1960s two influential, but quite different works were published: [[Herbert A. Simon]]'s ''The Sciences of the Artificial'' and [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]]'s ''Design Methods''.<ref>Simon, H. A. (1969) ''The Sciences of the Artificial'', MIT Press, USA.</ref><ref>Jones, J. C. (1970) ''Design Methods: Seeds of Human Futures'', Wiley, UK</ref> Simon proposed the "science of design" as "a body of intellectually tough, analytic, partly formalizable, partly empirical, teachable doctrine about the design process", whereas Jones catalogued a variety of approaches to design, both rational and creative, within a context of a broad, futures creating, systems view of design.
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The 1970s saw some reaction against the rationality of design methods, notably from two of its pioneers, [[Christopher Alexander]] and [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]].<ref>Cross, N. (1984) ''Developments in Design Methodology'', Wiley, UK.</ref> Fundamental issues were also raised by Rittel, who characterised design and planning problems as [[wicked problems]], un-amenable to the techniques of science and engineering, which deal with "tame" problems.<ref>Rittel, H. and M. Webber (1973) "Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning", ''Policy Sciences'' '''4''', 155–169</ref> The criticisms turned some in the movement away from rationalised approaches to design problem solving and towards "argumentative", participatory processes in which designers worked in partnership with the problem stakeholders (clients, customers, users, the community). This led to [[participatory design]], [[user centered design]] and the role of [[design thinking]] as a creative process in problem solving and innovation.
However, interest in systematic and rational design methods continued to develop strongly in engineering design during the 1980s; for example, through the Conference on Engineering Design series of
==Methods and
The development of design methods has been closely associated with prescriptions for a systematic process of designing. These process models usually comprise a number of phases or stages, beginning with a statement or recognition of a problem or a need for a new design and culminating in a finalised solution proposal. In his 'Systematic Method for Designers' [[L. Bruce Archer]] produced a very elaborate, 229 step model of a systematic design process for industrial design,<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.dubberly.com/concept-maps/archers-design-process.html | title=Bruce Archer's Design Process Checklist}}</ref> but also a summary model consisting of three phases: Analytical phase (programming and data collection, analysis), Creative phase (synthesis, development), and Executive phase (communication). The UK's [[Design Council]]
In the [[engineering design process]] systematic models tend to be linear, in sequential steps, but acknowledging the necessity of iteration. In architectural design, process models tend to be cyclical and spiral, with iteration as essential to progression towards a final design. In industrial and product design, process models tend to comprise a sequence of stages of divergent and convergent thinking. The Dubberly Design Office has compiled examples of more than 80 design process models,<ref>Dubberly, H. (2004) ''How do you design: a compendium of models''. Dubberly Design Office, San Francisco, USA. http://www.dubberly.com/wp-content/uploads/2008/06/ddo_designprocess.pdf</ref> but it is not an exhaustive list.
Within these process models
[[Nigel Cross]] outlined eight stages in a process of engineering product design, each with an associated method: Identifying Opportunities - User Scenarios; Clarifying Objectives - Objectives Tree; Establishing Functions - Function Analysis; Setting Requirements - Performance Specification; Determining Characteristics - Quality Function Deployment; Generating Alternatives - Morphological Chart; Evaluating Alternatives - Weighted Objectives; Improving Details - Value Engineering.<ref>Cross, N. (2008) ''Engineering Design Methods: Strategies for Product Design''. Wiley, UK.</ref>
Many design methods still currently in use originated in the design methods movement of the 1960s and 70s, adapted to modern design practices. Recent developments have seen the introduction of more qualitative techniques, including ethnographic methods such as [[cultural probe
==Emergence of design research and design studies==
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In the USA, a similar Design Methods Group (DMG) was also established in 1966 by [[Horst Rittel]] and others at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. The DMG held a conference at [[MIT]] in 1968<ref>Moore, G. T. (ed.) (1970) ''Emerging Methods in Environmental Design and Planning''. MIT Press, USA.</ref> with a focus on environmental design and planning, and that led to the foundation of the [[Environmental Design Research Association]] (EDRA), which held its first conference in 1969. A group interested in design methods and theory in architecture and engineering formed at MIT in the early 1980s, including [[Donald Schön]], who was studying the working practices of architects, engineers and other professionals and developing his theory of [[reflective practice]].<ref>Schön, D. A. (1983)''The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action''. New York: Basic Books. {{ISBN|0-465-06878-2}}.</ref> In 1984 the [[National Science Foundation]] created a Design Theory and Methodology Program to promote methods and process research in engineering design.
Meanwhile in Europe, Vladimir Hubka established the ''Workshop Design-Konstruction'' (WDK),which led to a series of International Conferences on Engineering Design (ICED) beginning in 1981 and later became
Academic research journals in design also began publication. DRS initiated ''Design Studies''<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/design-studies | title=Design Studies}}</ref> in 1979, ''Design Issues''<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.mitpressjournals.org/loi/desi | title=MIT Press Journals}}</ref> appeared in 1984, and ''Research in Engineering Design''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/journal/163|title = Research in Engineering Design}}</ref> in 1989.
==Influence on all professional design practice==
Several pioneers of design methods developed their work in association with industry. The [[Ulm School of Design|Ulm school]] established a significant partnership with the German consumer products company [[Braun (company)|Braun]] through their designer [[Dieter Rams]]. [[John Christopher Jones|J. Christopher Jones]] began his approach to systematic design as an ergonomist at the electrical engineering company [[Associated Electrical Industries|AEI]]. [[L. Bruce Archer]] developed his systematic approach in projects for medical equipment for the UK National Health Service.
In the USA, designer [[Henry Dreyfuss]] had a profound impact on the practice of industrial design by developing systematic processes and promoting the use of [[anthropometrics]], [[ergonomics]] and [[human factors]] in design, including through his 1955 book 'Designing for People'.<ref>
Much of current design practice has been influenced and guided by design methods. For example, the influential [[IDEO]] consultancy uses design methods extensively in its 'Design Kit' and 'Method Cards'.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.designkit.org//resources/1 | title=Design Kit | access-date=2018-12-20 | archive-date=2022-05-23 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523084621/https://www.designkit.org/resources/1 | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ideo.com/post/method-cards | title=Method Cards}}</ref> Increasingly, the intersections of design methods with business and government through the application of [[design thinking]] have been championed by numerous consultancies within the design profession. Wide influence has also come through [[Christopher Alexander]]'s [[pattern language]] method,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Alexander |display-authors=et al
==See also==
{{Div col}}
*[[Design management]]
*[[Design rationale]]
*[[Design research]]
*[[Design science]]
*[[Design theory]]
*[[Design thinking]]
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<references/>
==Other sources (not cited above)==
*Ko, A. J. ''Design Methods''. https://faculty.washington.edu/ajko/books/design-methods/index.html
*Koberg, D. and J. Bagnall. (1972) ''The Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Design''. Los Altos, CA: Kaufmann. 2nd edition (1981): ''The All New Universal Traveler: A Soft-Systems Guide to Creativity, Problem-Solving, and the Process of Reaching Goals''.
*Krippendorff, K. (2006). ''The Semantic Turn; A New Foundation for Design''. Taylor&Francis, CRC Press, USA. {{ISBN|978-0415779890}}
*
*
*Pugh, S. (1991), ''Total Design: Integrated Methods for Successful Product Engineering''. Addison-Wesley, UK.
*Roozenburg, N. and J. Eekels. (1991) ''Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods''. Wiley, UK. {{ISBN|0471943517}}
*Ulrich, K. and S. Eppinger. (2011) ''Product Design and Development''. McGraw Hill, USA. {{ISBN|978-0073404776}}
==External links==
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Design Methods}}
[[Category:Design studies]]
[[Category:Industrial design]]
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