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Bogazicili (talk | contribs) Undid revision 1306003912 by HudecEmil (talk) No need for too many short sections per MOS:OVERSECTION. One of the sections created have other content anyway |
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{{Short description|Country in West Asia and Southeast Europe}}
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{{Redirect|Türkiye}}
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{{Use American English|date=February 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of Türkiye
| common_name = Turkey <!-- DO NOT change to Türkiye. The subject of Turkey's name rebrand is controversial, and there is currently no consensus on Wikipedia supporting the use of Türkiye in English text. -->
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| image_coat = <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms -->
| symbol_type =
| national_motto = <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official motto -->
| national_anthem = <br />{{lang|tr|[[İstiklal Marşı]]}}<br />"Independence March"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/the-turkish-flag-and-the-turkish-national-anthem.en.mfa |title=The Turkish Flag and The Turkish National Anthem (Independence March) |website=Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=4 August 2024}}</ref>{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:IstiklalMarsi-2013 (version 2).oga]]}}<!-- Do not replace this with the instrumental version. Official sheet music provided by the source contains lyrics.-->
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| coordinates = {{Coord|39|55|N|32|51|E|type:city|display=title,inline}}
| largest_city = [[Istanbul]]<br />{{coord|41|1|N|28|57|E|display=inline}}
| official_languages = [[Turkish language|Turkish]]<ref name="TC Constituton Art. 3">{{cite news|title=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası|url=https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/tc_anayasasi.maddeler?p3=3|publisher=[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]]|access-date=1 July 2020|language=Tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200702232731/https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/develop/owa/tc_anayasasi.maddeler?p3=3|archive-date=2 July 2020|quote="3. Madde: Devletin Bütünlüğü, Resmi Dili, Bayrağı, Milli Marşı ve Başkenti: Türkiye Devleti, ülkesi ve milletiyle bölünmez bir bütündür. Dili Türkçedir. Bayrağı, şekli kanununda belirtilen, beyaz ay yıldızlı al bayraktır. Milli marşı "İstiklal Marşı" dır. Başkenti Ankara'dır."}}</ref><ref name="Constitutional Court of Turkey - Constitution Art. 3">{{cite news|title=Mevzuat: Anayasa|url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/tr/mevzuat/anayasa/|publisher=[[Constitutional Court of Turkey]]|access-date=1 July 2020|language=Tr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621023406/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/tr/mevzuat/anayasa/|archive-date=21 June 2020}}</ref>
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| Predominantly Turkish<ref>
* {{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=19}}
* {{harvnb|Kornfilt|2018|p=537}}</ref>}} {{collapsible list |[[Kurmanji|Kurdish]]|[[Zaza language|Zaza]]|[[Arabic]]|[[Circassian languages|Circassian]]|[[Laz language|Laz]]|[[Greek language|Greek]]|[[Armenian language|Armenian]]|[[Albanian language|Albanian]]|[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]|[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]|[[Languages of Turkey|Other languages]]}}
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list
| 70–75% [[Turkish people|Turkish]]
| 19% [[Kurds in Turkey|Kurdish]]
| 6–11% [[Ethnic groups in Turkey|other minorities]]
}}
| demonym = {{hlist|Turkish|Turk}}
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| leader_title4 = [[Constitutional Court of Turkey|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name4 = [[Kadir Özkaya]]
| legislature = {{nowrap|[[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]]}}
| established_event1 = [[Ottoman Empire]]
| established_date1 = {{circa|1299}}
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Turkey|Establishment]]
| established_event2 = [[Turkish War of Independence|War of Independence]]
| established_date2 = 19 May 1919
| established_event3 = [[Government of the Grand National Assembly]]
| established_date3 = 23 April 1920
| established_event4 = [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|Sultanate abolished]]
| established_date4 = 1 November 1922
| established_event5 = {{nowrap|[[Treaty of Lausanne]]}}
| established_date5 = 24 July 1923
| established_event6 = {{nowrap|[[Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey|Republic declared]]}}
| established_date6 = 29 October 1923
| established_event7 = [[Constitution of Turkey|Current constitution]]
| established_date7 = 9 November 1982<ref name="Constitution2019"/>
| area_km2 = 783,562 <!--http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/DE/Aussenpolitik/Laender/Laenderinfos/01-Nodes_Uebersichtsseiten/Tuerkei_node.html -->
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| percent_water = 2.03<ref>{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 85,664,944<!-- Update all numbers using this source, including article body--><ref name="Population of Turkey">{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2024-53783&dil=2 |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2024 |publisher=[[Turkish Statistical Institute]] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=6 February 2025 |access-date=6 February 2025}}</ref> <!-- do not add update figure as that stat is only published once a year due to legal reasons -->
| population_estimate_year = December 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 18th
| population_density_km2 = 111.4<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2024-53783&dil=2 |title=Table.3 – Population of province/district centers and towns/villages by province and sex and population density |publisher=[[Turkish Statistical Institute]] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=6 February 2025 |access-date=6 February 2025}}</ref>
| population_density_sq_mi =
| population_density_rank = 83rd
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $3.652 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.TR">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/April/weo-report?c=186,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 Edition. (Türkiye) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=22 April 2025 |access-date=26 May 2025}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 12th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $42,451<ref name="IMFWEO.TR" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 54th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $1.437 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.TR" />
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 16th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $16,709<ref name="IMFWEO.TR" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 63rd
| Gini = 44.5 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year = 2022
| Gini_ref = <ref name="Gini">{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=TR|title=Gini index (World Bank estimate) – Turkey|year=2019|access-date=8 July 2025|publisher=World Bank|archive-date=17 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517075906/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI%3Flocations%3DTR|url-status=live}}</ref>
| Gini_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI = 0.853
| HDI_year = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year. -->
| HDI_change = steady
| HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 51st
| currency = [[Turkish lira]] ([[Turkish lira sign|₺]])
| currency_code = TRY
| time_zone = [[Time in Turkey|TRT]]
| utc_offset = +3
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Turkey|+90]]
| cctld = [[.tr]]
| today =
| ethnic_groups_year = 2016
| ethnic_groups_ref = <ref name="cia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#people-and-society |title=Turkey (Turkiye) |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref>
}}
'''Turkey'''<!--NOTE: Do not change lead sentence to Türkiye per [[WP:COMMONNAME]]. Thanks.-->,{{efn|{{langx|tr|Türkiye}} {{IPA|tr|ˈtyɾcije|}}}} officially the '''Republic of Türkiye''',{{efn|{{langx|tr|Türkiye Cumhuriyeti}} {{IPA|tr|ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti||Tur-Türkiye_Cumhuriyeti.ogg}}}} is a country mainly located in [[Anatolia]] in [[West Asia]], with a relatively small part called [[East Thrace]] in [[Southeast Europe]]. It borders the [[Black Sea]] to the north; [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Iran]] to the east; [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south; and the [[Aegean Sea]], [[Greece]], and [[Bulgaria]] to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people;<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> most are ethnic [[Turkish people|Turks]], while ethnic [[Kurds in Turkey|Kurds]] are the [[Minorities in Turkey|largest ethnic minority]].<ref name="cia"/> Officially [[Secularism in Turkey|a secular state]], Turkey has [[Islam in Turkey|a Muslim-majority]] population. [[Ankara]] is Turkey's capital and second-largest city. [[Istanbul]] is its largest city and economic center. Other major cities include [[İzmir]], [[Bursa]], and [[Antalya]].
First inhabited by modern humans during the [[Late Paleolithic]],<ref>{{harvnb| Howard|2016|p=24}}</ref> present-day Turkey was home to [[List of ancient peoples of Anatolia|various ancient peoples]].<ref>
* {{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|p=1}}
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=xv}}
* {{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|pp=3–12}}
* {{harvnb|Matthews|2012|p=49}}</ref> The [[Hattians]] were assimilated by the [[Hittites]] and other [[Anatolian peoples]].<ref>
* {{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Turkey's diversity is derived from its central ___location near the world's earliest civilizations as well as a history replete with population movements and invasions. The Hattite culture was prominent during the Bronze Age prior to 2000 BCE, but was replaced by the Indo-European Hittites who conquered Anatolia by the second millennium. Meanwhile, Turkish Thrace came to be dominated by another Indo-European group, the Thracians for whom the region is named."
* {{harvnb|Steadman|2012|p=234}}: "By the time of the Old Assyrian Colony period in the early second millennium b.c.e . (see Michel, chapter 13 in this volume) the languages spoken on the plateau included Hattian, an indigenous Anatolian language, Hurrian (spoken in northern Syria), and Indo-European languages known as Luwian, Hittite, and Palaic"
* {{harvnb|Michel|2012|p=327}}
* {{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=713}}
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=26}}</ref> [[Classical Anatolia]] transitioned into cultural [[Hellenization]] after [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests, and later [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]] during the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] eras.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval. ... statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."
* {{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"
* {{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|p=5}}
* {{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=16}}
* {{harvnb|Sams|2012|p=617}}
* {{harvnb|Kaldellis|2024|p=26}}
</ref> The [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk Turks]] began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting the [[Turkification]] process.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=3–4}}: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=33–44}}</ref> The Seljuk [[Sultanate of Rum]] ruled Anatolia until the [[Mongol invasions of Anatolia|Mongol invasion]] in 1243, when it disintegrated into [[Anatolian beyliks|Turkish principalities]].<ref name="Howard 2016 38–39">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=38–39}}</ref> Beginning in 1299, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] united the principalities and [[Rise of the Ottoman Empire|expanded]]. [[Mehmed II]] conquered [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 1453]]. During the reigns of [[Selim I]] and [[Suleiman the Magnificent]], the Ottoman Empire became a [[global power]].<ref>
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=45}}
* {{harvnb|Somel|2010|p=xcvii}}</ref> From 1789 onwards, the empire saw major changes, [[Tanzimat|reforms]], centralization, and [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising nationalism]] while [[Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire|its territory declined]].<ref>
*{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2012|pp=15–25}}
*{{harvnb|Kayalı|2012|pp=26–28}}
*{{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=115–116}}</ref>
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, [[persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction]] and [[Persecution of Muslims#Russian Empire|in the Russian Empire]] resulted in large-scale loss of life and [[Muhacir|mass migration into modern-day Turkey]] from the [[Balkans]], [[Caucasus]], and [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]].<ref>
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former “suppressors”. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
* {{harvnb|Fábos|2005|p=437}}: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognized—and recognized themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration.'"
* {{cite journal |last1=Schayegh |first1=Cyrus |date=2024 |title=A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s |journal=Journal of World History |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=579–622 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172 |quote=Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher." ... "The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey." ... "Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families.51"
* {{harvnb|Biondich|2011|p=93}}: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkan far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
* {{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
* {{harvnb|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012a|p=17}}: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this ‘repatriation’ – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic’s population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"</ref> Under the control of the [[Three Pashas]], the Ottoman Empire [[Ottoman entry into World War I|entered World War I]] in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed [[Late Ottoman genocides|genocides]] against its [[Armenian genocide|Armenian]], [[Greek genocide|Greek]], and [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] subjects.<ref name="Tatz2">{{Cite book |last1=Tatz |first1=Colin |title=The Magnitude of Genocide |last2=Higgins |first2=Winton |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4408-3161-4}}</ref><ref name="SchallerZimmerer">{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J. |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |year=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |issn=1462-3528 |s2cid=71515470}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Benny |title=The Thirty-Year Genocide - Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 |last2=Ze'evi |first2=Dror |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=2021 |isbn=9780674251434}}</ref> Following Ottoman defeat, the [[Turkish War of Independence]] resulted in the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|abolition of the sultanate]] and the signing of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. Turkey emerged as a more homogenous [[nation state]].<ref>
*{{harvnb|Pamuk|2012|p=50}}
*{{harvnb|Kayali|2008|p=112}}</ref> The Republic [[Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey|was proclaimed]] on 29 October 1923, modelled on [[Atatürk's reforms|the reforms]] initiated by the country's first president, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]. Turkey [[Turkey during World War II|remained neutral during most of World War II]], but was involved in the [[Korean War]]. Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system.
Turkey is an [[Gross national income|upper-middle-income]] and [[emerging country]]; [[Economy of Turkey|its economy]] is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16th-largest by nominal]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP]]. As the [[List of countries by electricity production|15th-largest electricity]] producer in the world, Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation. It is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] presidential [[Presidential system|republic]]. Turkey is a founding member of the [[OECD]], [[G20]], and [[Organization of Turkic States]]. With a geopolitically significant ___location, Turkey is a [[NATO]] member and has [[Member states of NATO#Military personnel|its second-largest military force]]. It may be recognized as an [[emerging power|emerging]], a [[middle power|middle]], and a [[regional power|regional]] power. As [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|an EU candidate]], Turkey is part of the [[European Union Customs Union|EU Customs Union]].
Turkey has coastal plains, [[Geography of Turkey|a high central plateau]], and various mountain ranges with rising elevation eastwards. [[Climate of Turkey|Turkey's climate]] is diverse, ranging from [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] and other [[temperate climates]] to [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] and [[Continental climate|continental]] types. Home to three [[biodiversity hotspot]]s, Turkey is prone to [[List of earthquakes in Turkey|frequent earthquakes]] and is [[Climate change in Turkey|highly vulnerable to climate change]].<ref>
* {{cite journal |last1=Birben |first1=Üstüner |date=2019 |title=The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey |journal=CERNE |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=424–438 |doi=10.1590/01047760201925042644 |quote=Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots|doi-access=free | issn = 0104-7760 }}
* {{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|pp=1575–1576}}
* {{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=7}}</ref> Turkey has [[Health care in Turkey|a universal healthcare system]], growing [[Education in Turkey|access to education]], and increasing levels of [[Global Innovation Index|innovativeness]].<ref>
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1410433 |title=Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage |date=2015 |last1=Atun |first1=Rifat |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=373 |issue=14 |pages=1285–1289 |pmid=26422719}}
* {{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=35}}
* {{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2024|p=22}}</ref> It is a leading [[Turkish television drama|TV content]] exporter.<ref>{{cite book | last=Berg | first=Miriam | title=Turkish Drama Serials: The Importance and Influence of a Globally Popular Television Phenomenon | publisher=University of Exeter Press | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-80413-043-8 |pages=1–2}}</ref> With numerous UNESCO [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|World Heritage]] sites and [[intangible cultural heritage]] inscriptions, and [[Turkish cuisine|a rich and diverse cuisine]], Turkey is the [[World Tourism rankings|fourth most visited country]] in the world.
==Etymology==
{{main article|Name of Turkey}}
''Turchia'', meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for [[Anatolia]] by the end of the 12th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Agoston|Masters|2009|p=574}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=31}}</ref><ref name="Everett">{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2020|loc=Türkiye (Turkey)}}</ref> As a word in [[Turkic languages]], ''Turk'' may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength".<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|p=30}}</ref> It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for a person.<ref>{{harvnb|Clauson|1972|pp=542–543}}</ref> As an [[ethnonym]], the etymology is still unknown.<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=6–7}}</ref> In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century,<ref name="Everett"/> the earliest mention of ''Turk'' ({{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜}}, {{transliteration|otk|türü̲k̲}}; or {{lang|otk|𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚}}, {{transliteration|otk|türk/tẄrk}}) in Turkic languages comes from the [[Second Turkic Khaganate]].<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=9, 16}}</ref>
In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] sources in the 10th century, the name ''[[Tourkia (disambiguation)|Tourkia]]'' was used for defining two medieval states: [[Tourkia (Hungary)|Hungary]] (''Western Tourkia''); and [[Tourkia (Khazaria)|Khazaria]] (''Eastern Tourkia'').<ref name="constantine_vii">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC |title=De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus |last=Jenkins |first=Romilly James Heald |publisher=Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-88402-021-9 |edition=New, revised |series=Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae |page=65 |access-date=28 August 2013 |archive-date=20 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230120171955/https://books.google.com/books?id=3al15wpFWiMC |url-status=live }} According to Constantine Porphyrogenitus, writing in his {{lang|la|[[De Administrando Imperio]]}} ({{circa|950 AD}}) "Patzinakia, the [[Pechenegs|Pecheneg realm]], stretches west as far as the [[Siret River]] (or even the [[Carpathian Mountains|Eastern Carpathian Mountains]]), and is four days distant from Tourkia [i.e. Hungary]."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=51}}</ref> The [[Mamluk Sultanate]], with its ruling elite of Turkic origin, was called the "State of the Turks" ({{transliteration|ar|Dawlat at-Turk}}, or {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat al-Atrāk}}, or {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat-at-Turkiyya}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|2021|pp=2–3}}</ref> Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in [[Central Asia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Everett-Heath|2020|loc=Turkestan, Central Asia, Kazakhstan}}</ref>
[[Middle English]] usage of {{lang|enm|Turkye}} or {{lang|enm|Turkeye}} is found in ''[[The Book of the Duchess]]'' (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gray|2003|loc=Turkye, (Turkeye) Turkey; Book of the Duchess, The; Map 1; Map 3}}.</ref> The modern spelling ''Turkey'' dates back to at least 1719.<ref>{{Cite OED|Turkey}}</ref> The [[turkey (bird)|bird called turkey]] was named as such due to trade of [[guineafowl]] from Turkey to England.<ref name="Everett"/> The name ''Turkey'' has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire.<ref>
* {{Cite book |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |title=The Map of Europe by Treaty showing the various political and territorial changes which have taken place since the general peace of 1814, with numerous maps and notes |publisher=Butterworth |year=1875 |volume=2 |pages=1250–1265 |chapter=General treaty between Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey, signed at Paris on 30th March 1856}}
* {{cite web |url=https://archive.org/details/protocolsofconfe00grea/mode/2up |title=Protocols of conferences held at Paris relative to the general Treaty of Peace. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty, 1856 |publisher=Harrison |year=1856|access-date=9 May 2023}}
* {{Citation |last=Hertslet |first=Edward |author-link=Edward Hertslet |year=1891 |contribution=Treaty between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for the Settlement of Affairs in the East, Signed at Berlin, 13th July 1878 (Translation)|title= The Map of Europe by Treaty; which have taken place since the general peace of 1814. With numerous maps and notes |volume= IV (1875–1891) |edition=First |publisher=[[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] |publication-date=1891 |pages=2759–2798 |url=https://archive.org/stream/mapofeuropebytre04hert#page/2758/mode/2up |access-date=9 May 2023 |via=[[Internet Archive]]}}
*{{cite web|url=https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1878berlin.asp|title=Treaty Between Great Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and Turkey. (Berlin). July 13, 1878.|website=sourcebooks.fordham.edu|access-date=9 May 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326061204/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1878berlin.asp|url-status=live}}</ref> With the [[Treaty of Alexandropol]] in 1920, the name ''Türkiye'' entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] in 1921, the expression {{transliteration|ota|Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye}} ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.<ref>{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Türkiye|author=Cevdet Küçük|page=567|volume=41}}</ref>
In December 2021, President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] called for expanded official usage of ''Türkiye'', saying that ''Türkiye'' "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".<ref name="Genelge-2021/24">{{cite web|url=https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2021/12/20211204-5.pdf|title=Marka Olarak 'Türkiye' İbaresinin Kullanımı (Presidential Circular No. 2021/24 on the Use of the Term "Türkiye" as a Brand)|publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey|Resmî Gazete (Official Gazette of the Republic of Türkiye)]]|date=4 December 2021|access-date=11 April 2022|archive-date=17 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517002246/https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2021/12/20211204-5.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the [[United Nations]] and other international organizations to use ''Türkiye'' officially in English; the UN agreed.<ref>{{cite news |first=Ragip |last=Soylu |title=Turkey to register its new name Türkiye to UN in coming weeks |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-turkiye-new-name-register-un-weeks |newspaper=[[Middle East Eye]] |date=17 January 2022 |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606203745/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-turkiye-new-name-register-un-weeks |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2022 |title=UN to use 'Türkiye' instead of 'Turkey' after Ankara's request |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/un-to-use-türkiye-instead-of-turkey-after-ankara-s-request-57633 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602042921/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/un-to-use-t%C3%BCrkiye-instead-of-turkey-after-ankara-s-request-57633 |archive-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=3 June 2022 |website=[[TRT World]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wertheimer |first=Tiffany |date=2 June 2022 |title=Turkey changes its name in rebranding bid |website=[[BBC News Online]] |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-61671913 |url-status=live |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220602110511/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61671913 |archive-date=2 June 2022}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Turkey}}
{{see also|History of Anatolia|History of Thrace|Ancient regions of Anatolia}}
===Prehistory and ancient history===
{{Main|Prehistory of Anatolia|Prehistory of Southeast Europe}}
{{See also|Hattians|Hittites|Luwians|Pala (Anatolia)}}
[[File:Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg|thumb|Some [[henge]]s at [[Göbekli Tepe]] were erected as far back as [[Göbekli Tepe#Large enclosures|9600 BC]], predating those of [[Stonehenge]] by over seven millennia.<ref name="ArchMag">{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|title=The World's First Temple|work=Archaeology magazine|date=November–December 2008|page=23|access-date=25 July 2012|archive-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329113052/http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by [[Human|modern humans]] since the [[Upper Paleolithic|late Paleolithic]] period and contains some of the world's oldest [[Neolithic]] sites.<ref name="Howard 2016 24">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=24}}</ref><ref name="MET">{{cite journal|last=Casson|first=Lionel|year=1977|title=The Thracians|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258667.pdf.bannered.pdf|journal=The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin|volume=35|issue=1|pages=2–6|doi=10.2307/3258667|jstor=3258667|access-date=3 April 2013|archive-date=3 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503015440/https://www.metmuseum.org/pubs/bulletins/1/pdf/3258667.pdf.bannered.pdf}}</ref> [[Göbekli Tepe]] is close to 12,000 years old.<ref name="Howard 2016 24"/> Parts of [[Anatolia]] include the [[Fertile Crescent]], an [[Neolithic Revolution|origin of agriculture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=224}}</ref> Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include [[Çatalhöyük]] and [[Alaca Höyük]].<ref name="Howard 2016-3">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=25}}</ref> Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in [[Iran]] and [[Jordan Valley]].<ref name="auto3">{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=229}}</ref> These early Anatolian farmers also [[Early European Farmers|migrated into Europe]], starting around 9,000 years ago.<ref name="auto3"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kılınç |first1=Gülşah Merve |last2=Omrak |first2=Ayça |last3=Özer |first3=Füsun |last4=Günther |first4=Torsten |last5=Büyükkarakaya |first5=Ali Metin |last6=Bıçakçı |first6=Erhan |last7=Baird |first7=Douglas |last8=Dönertaş |first8=Handan Melike |last9=Ghalichi |first9=Ayshin |last10=Yaka |first10=Reyhan |last11=Koptekin |first11=Dilek |last12=Açan |first12=Sinan Can |last13=Parvizi |first13=Poorya |last14=Krzewińska |first14=Maja |last15=Daskalaki |first15=Evangelia A. |date=June 2016 |title=The Demographic Development of the First Farmers in Anatolia |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=26 |issue=19 |pages=2659–2666 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2016.07.057 |pmc=5069350 |pmid=27498567|bibcode=2016CBio...26.2659K }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lipson |first1=Mark |last2=Szécsényi-Nagy |first2=Anna |last3=Mallick |first3=Swapan |last4=Pósa |first4=Annamária |last5=Stégmár |first5=Balázs |last6=Keerl |first6=Victoria |last7=Rohland |first7=Nadin |last8=Stewardson |first8=Kristin |last9=Ferry |first9=Matthew |last10=Michel |first10=Megan |last11=Oppenheimer |first11=Jonas |last12=Broomandkhoshbacht |first12=Nasreen |last13=Harney |first13=Eadaoin |last14=Nordenfelt |first14=Susanne |last15=Llamas |first15=Bastien |date=November 2017 |title=Parallel palaeogenomic transects reveal complex genetic history of early European farmers |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=551 |issue=7680 |pages=368–372 |doi=10.1038/nature24476 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=5973800 |pmid=29144465|bibcode=2017Natur.551..368L }}</ref> [[Troy]]'s earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC.<ref name="Howard 2016-3" />
[[File:Empire of the Hitties.png|thumb|Map of the Hittite Empire at its greatest extent, with Hittite rule {{Circa|1300 BC}}]]
Anatolia's historical records start with [[clay tablets]] from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day [[Kültepe]].<ref name="Howard 2016-4">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=26}}</ref> These tablets belonged to an [[Karum (trade post)|Assyrian trade colony]].<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, [[Hittite language|Hittite]], [[Luwian language|Luwian]], and [[Palaic language|Palaic]].<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_234">{{harvnb|Steadman|2012|p=234}}</ref> [[Hattic language|Hattian]] was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections.<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_234"/><ref>{{harvnb|Michel|2012|p=327}}</ref> [[Hurrian language]] was used in northern [[Syria]].<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_234"/> Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written [[Indo-European languages]]",<ref>{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|p=246}}</ref> forming the [[Anatolian languages|Anatolian sub-group]].<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_522">{{harvnb|Beckman|2012|p=522}}</ref>{{efn|The origin of Indo-European languages is unknown.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030507 |title=Cognacy Databases and Phylogenetic Research on Indo-European |date=2021 |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |volume=7 |pages=371–394}}</ref> [[Anatolian hypothesis|They may be native to Anatolia]]<ref>{{harvnb|Bellwood|2022|p=242}}</ref> or non-native.<ref>{{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=713}}</ref>}}
[[Hattians|Hattian]] rulers were gradually replaced by [[Hittites|Hittite]] rulers.<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of [[Hattusa]].<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> It co-existed in Anatolia with [[Pala (Anatolia)|Palaians]] and [[Luwians]], approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC.<ref name="Howard 2016-4"/> As the Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=26–27}}</ref> The [[Thracians]] were also present in modern-day [[Turkish Thrace]].<ref name="auto5">{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}</ref> It is not known if the [[Trojan War]] is based on historical events.<ref>{{harvnb|Jablonka|2012|pp=724–726}}</ref> [[Late Bronze Age Troy|Troy's Late Bronze Age]] layers matches most with ''[[Iliad]]''{{'}}s story.<ref>{{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=17}}</ref>
===Early classical antiquity===
{{Main|Classical Anatolia}}
{{See also|Phrygia|Lydia|Lycia|Caria|Urartu|Achaemenid Empire|Hellenistic period}}
[[File:The Lycian Way - 2014.10 - panoramio.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lycian Way]] is a {{convert|470|mi|km|order=flip|sp=us}} long hiking path in Southwestern Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/photo-story-turkey-lycian-way |title=Photo story: tombs, turquoise seas and trekking along Turkey's Lycian Way |last=Denisyuk |first=Yulia |date=29 October 2023 |website=National Geographic |publisher=National Geographic Traveller}}</ref>]]
Around 750 BC, [[Phrygia]] had been established, with its two centers in [[Gordium]] and modern-day [[Kayseri]].<ref name="Howard 2016-2">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=27}}</ref> [[Phrygians]] spoke an Indo-European language, which was closer to [[Greek language|Greek]] than Anatolian languages.<ref name="McMahon_Steadman_2012_p_522"/> Phrygians shared Anatolia with [[Syro-Hittite states|Neo-Hittites]] and [[Urartu]]. Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states.<ref>{{harvnb|Yakubovich|2012|p=538}}</ref> Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around [[Lake Van]].<ref>{{harvnb|Zimansky|2012|p=552}}</ref><ref name="Howard 2016-2"/> Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC.<ref name="Howard 2016-2"/><ref name="Howard 2016">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=28}}</ref> They were replaced by [[Carians]], [[Lycians]] and [[Lydians]].<ref name="Howard 2016"/> These three cultures "can be considered a reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia".<ref name="Howard 2016"/>
Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including [[Miletus]].<ref name="Britannica">{{Cite web|title=Anatolia – Greek colonies on the Anatolian coasts, c. 1180–547 bce|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce|access-date=2 February 2024|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en|quote=Before the Greek migrations that followed the end of the Bronze Age (c. 1200 BCE), probably the only Greek-speaking communities on the west coast of Anatolia were Mycenaean settlements at Iasus and Müskebi on the Halicarnassus peninsula and walled Mycenaean colonies at Miletus and Colophon. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321122314/https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia/Greek-colonies-on-the-Anatolian-coasts-c-1180-547-bce |archive-date=21 March 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around 1000 BC, [[Iron Age Greek migrations|Greeks started migrating]] to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization;<ref name="Howard 2016-2"/><ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|p=760}}: "Greek cities on the shores of Asia Minor and on the Aegean islands were the nexus
of trade and cultural exchange in the early Greek world, so Archaic Greek civilization was to a great extent the product of the Greek cities of Asia Minor."</ref> important [[polis|cities]] included [[Miletus]], [[Ephesus]], [[Halicarnassus]], [[Smyrna]] (now [[İzmir]]) and [[Byzantium]] (now [[Istanbul]]), the latter founded by colonists from [[Megara]] in the seventh century BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|pp=753–756}}</ref> These settlements were grouped as [[Aeolis]], [[Ionia]], and [[Doric hexapolis|Doris]], after the specific Greek groups that settled them.<ref>{{harvnb|Greaves|2012|p=505}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|p=753}}</ref> Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and [[Megara]] in 750–480 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Harl|2012|pp=753–754}}</ref> The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments.<ref name="y319">{{cite book | last=Rovelli | first=C. | title=Anaximander: And the Birth of Science | publisher=Penguin Publishing Group | year=2023 | isbn=978-0-593-54237-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huNxEAAAQBAJ | access-date=2024-06-01 | pages=20–30}}</ref> [[Thales of Miletus|Thales]] and [[Anaximander]] from Miletus founded the [[Ionian school (philosophy)|Ionian School of philosophy]], thereby laying the foundations of [[rationalism]] and [[Western philosophy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baird|2016|p=8}}</ref>
[[File:Ephesus_Celsus_Library_Façade.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Library of Celsus]] in [[Ephesus]] was built by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in 114–117.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Celsus_Library/|title=Celsus Library|publisher=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|author=Mark Cartwright|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151448/https://www.worldhistory.org/Library_of_Celsus/?arg1=Celsus_Library&arg2=&arg3=&arg4=&arg5=|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]] attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and [[Achaemenid Empire]] eventually [[Siege of Sardis (547 BC)|expanded into western Anatolia]].<ref name="Howard 2016"/> In the east, the [[Satrapy of Armenia|Armenian province]] was part of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="Howard 2016-2"/> Following the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of the interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire.<ref name="Howard 2016"/> Two of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]], the [[Temple of Artemis]] in Ephesus, and the [[Mausoleum of Halicarnassus]], were located in Anatolia.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: The Un-Greek Temple and Wonder|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/128/|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=17 February 2017|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328151417/https://www.worldhistory.org/Temple_of_Artemis_at_Ephesus/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Following the victories of Alexander in [[Battle of the Granicus|334 BC]] and [[Battle of Issus|333 BC]], the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the [[Macedon|Macedonian Empire]].<ref name="Howard 2016"/> This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and [[Hellenization]] of the Anatolian interior,<ref>{{harvnb|McMahon|Steadman|2012a|p=5}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McMahon|2012|p=16}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sams|2012|p=617}}</ref> which met resistance in some places.<ref name=Howard_2016_a>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}: "The sudden disappearance of the Persian Empire and the conquest of virtually the entire Middle Eastern world from the Nile to the Indus by Alexander the Great caused tremendous political and cultural upheaval." ... "statesmen throughout the conquered regions attempted to implement a policy of Hellenization. For indigenous elites, this amounted to the forced assimilation of native religion and culture to Greek models. It met resistance in Anatolia as elsewhere, especially from priests and others who controlled temple wealth."</ref> Following Alexander's death, the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|the kingdom of Armenia]] appeared. In third century BC, [[Celts]] invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as the [[Galatians (people)|Galatians]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mitchell|1995|pp=3–4}}</ref>
===Rome and Byzantine Empire===
{{Main|Classical Anatolia|Byzantine Anatolia}}
{{See also|Roman Republic|Roman Empire|Christianity in Turkey|Byzantine Empire}}
[[File:Justinian555AD.png|thumb|The [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire]] in 555 under [[Justinian the Great]], at its greatest extent]]
When [[Kingdom of Pergamon|Pergamon]] requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, [[Roman Republic|Rome]] intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as [[Asia (Roman province)|province of Asia]]. Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=29}}</ref> Following [[Asiatic Vespers]] massacre, and [[Mithridatic Wars]] with [[Kingdom of Pontus|Pontus]], Rome emerged victorious. Around the 1st century BC, [[Roman province|Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia]], while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyos|2019|pp=35–37}}</ref> Several [[Roman–Parthian Wars|conflicts with Parthians ensued]], with peace and wars alternating.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoyos|2019|pp=62, 83, 115}}</ref>
According to [[Acts of the Apostles]], early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of [[Paul the Apostle|St Paul]]'s efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the [[Early Christianity|oldest Christian literature]].<ref name="auto6">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=30}}</ref> Under Roman authority, [[ecumenical councils]] such as [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea (Iznik)]] in 325 served as a guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings".<ref name="auto6"/>
[[File:Aya_Sophia_(7144824757).jpg|thumb|The [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]] (now [[Istanbul]]) was built by the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] emperor [[Justinian the Great]] in 532–537.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://global.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia|title=Hagia Sophia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2 February 2017|archive-date=29 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429163151/https://global.britannica.com/topic/Hagia-Sophia|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the [[Roman Empire]] centered in [[Constantinople]] during [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the West]] in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the [[Mediterranean world]]. The term ''Byzantine Empire'' was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as ''Romans''. Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to [[Byzantium]], the [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|adoption of Christianity as the state religion]], and the predominance of [[Medieval Greek|Greek]] instead of [[Latin]], modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier ''Roman Empire'' and the later ''Byzantine Empire''.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}
In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as [[Goths]], [[Celts]], [[Persians]] and [[History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire|Jews]]. Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized".<ref name=Horrocks_pp_778-779>{{harvnb|Horrocks|2008|pp=778–779}}: "Thus the majority of traditional 'Greek' lands, including the coastal areas of Asia Minor, remained essentially Greek-speaking, despite the superimposition of Latin and the later Slavic incursions into the Balkans during the sixth and seventh centuries. Even on the Anatolian plateau, where Hellenic culture had come only with Alexander's conquests, both the extremely heterogeneous indigenous populations and immigrant groups (including Celts, Goths, Jews, and Persians) had become heavily Hellenized, as the steady decline in epigraphic evidence for the native languages and the great mass of public and private inscriptions in Greek demonstrate. Though the disappearance of these languages from the written record did not entail their immediate abandonment as spoken languages,..."</ref> [[Anatolian languages]] eventually became extinct after [[Hellenization]] of Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|van den Hout|2011|p=1}}</ref>
===Seljuks and Anatolian beyliks===
{{main|Seljuk Empire|Sultanate of Rum|Anatolian beyliks}}
{{further|Turkic migration|Oghuz Turks|Turkification}}
{{Location map+
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{{Annotation|270|05|[[AD 1090|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">1090</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|210|90|[[Ghaznavid Empire|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">GHAZNAVID<br />EMPIRE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|15|[[Kimek–Kipchak confederation|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">KIPCHAKS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|30|20|[[Pechenegs|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">PECHENEGS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|25|105|[[Fatimid Caliphate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">FATIMID<br />CALIPHATE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|97|120|[[Uyunid Emirate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">UYUNIDS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|51|[[Kingdom of Georgia|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">GEORGIA</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|1|40|[[Byzantine Empire|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">BYZANTINE<br />EMPIRE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|50|60|[[Sultanate of Rum|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">RUM</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|245|145|[[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">YADAVAS</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|186|45|[[Kara-Khanid Khanate|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">KARAKHANID KHANATE</span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6.5|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|272|155|[[Template:Continental Asia in 1000 CE|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"> ◁ </span>]] [[Template:Continental Asia in 1200 CE|<span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"> ▷ </span>]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=12|color=#000000}}
| caption=[[Seljuk Empire]] circa 1090, during the reign of [[Malik Shah I]]. To the west, Anatolia was under the independent rule of [[Suleiman ibn Qutalmish]] as the [[Sultanate of Rum]].
}}
According to historians and linguists, the [[Proto-Turkic language]] originated in Central-East Asia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uchiyama|first1=Junzo|last2=Gillam|first2=J. Christopher|last3=Savelyev|first3=Alexander|last4=Ning|first4=Chao|display-authors=1|date=21 May 2020 |title=Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume= 2|pages=e16 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.11 |pmid=37588381 |pmc=10427466 |doi-access=free |quote=Most linguists and historians agree that Proto-Turkic, the common ancestor of all ancient and contemporary Turkic languages, must have been spoken somewhere in Central-East Asia}}</ref> Initially, Proto-[[Turkic languages|Turkic speakers]] were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became [[nomadic]] [[Pastoralism|pastoralists]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Uchiyama|first1=Junzo|last2=Gillam|first2=J. Christopher|last3=Savelyev|first3=Alexander|last4=Ning|first4=Chao|display-authors=1|date=21 May 2020 |title=Populations dynamics in Northern Eurasian forests: a long-term perspective from Northeast Asia |journal=Evolutionary Human Sciences |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume= 2|pages=e16 |doi=10.1017/ehs.2020.11 |pmid=37588381 |pmc=10427466 |doi-access=free |quote=To sum up, the palaeolinguistic reconstruction points to a mixed subsistence strategy and complex economy of the Proto-Turkic-speaking community. It is likely that the subsistence of the Early Proto-Turkic speakers was based on a combination of hunting–gathering and agriculture, with a later shift to nomadic pastoralism as an economy basis, partly owing to the interaction of the Late Proto-Turkic groups with the Iranian-speaking herders of the Eastern Steppe.}}</ref> Early and medieval [[Turkic peoples|Turkic groups]] exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as [[Iranian peoples|Iranic]], [[Mongolic peoples|Mongolic]], [[Tocharians|Tocharian]], [[Uralic people|Uralic]], and [[Yeniseian people|Yeniseian]] peoples.<ref>
* {{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=4}}: "It should also be noted that even the early Turkic peoples, including the Tiele and the Türks, were made up of heterogeneous elements. Importantly, DNA studies demonstrate that the expansion process of the Turkic peoples involved the Turkicization of various non-Turkic-speaking groups. The "Turks" intermixed with and Turkicized various indigenous groups across Eurasia: Uralic hunter-gatherers in northern Eurasia; Mongolic nomads in Mongolia; Indo-European-speaking nomads and sedentary populations in Xinjiang, Transoxiana, Iran, Kazakhstan, and South Siberia; and Indo-European elements (the Byzantine subjects, among others) in Anatolia and the Balkans.11"
* {{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=18}}: "Moreover, Turks do not all physically look alike. They never did. The Turks of Turkey are famous for their range of physical types. Given the Turks' ancient Inner Asian origins, it is easy to imagine that they once presented a uniform Mongoloid appearance. Such traits seem to be more characteristic in the eastern Turkic world; however, uniformity of type can never have prevailed there either. Archeological evidence indicates that Indo-Europeans, or certainly Europoid physical types, inhabited the oases of the Tarim basin and even parts of Mongolia in ancient times. In the Tarim basin, persistence of these former inhabitants' genes among the modern Uyghurs is both observable and scientifically demonstrable.32 Early Chinese sources describe the Kirghiz as blue-eyed and blond or red-haired. The genesis of Turkic ethnic groups from earliest times occurred in confederations of diverse peoples. As if to prove the point, the earliest surviving texts in Turkic languages are studded with terms from other languages."
* {{Cite journal |last=Golden |first=Peter B. |date=25 July 2018 |title=The Ethnogonic Tales of the Türks |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |journal=The Medieval History Journal |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=291–327 |doi=10.1177/0971945818775373 |s2cid=166026934 |issn=0971-9458 |access-date=12 March 2024 |archive-date=14 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214053008/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0971945818775373 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}"Some DNA tests point to the Iranian connections of the Ashina and Ashide,133 highlighting further that the Turks as a whole 'were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations'.134 Geographically, the accounts cover the regions of Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Xinjiang, the Yenisei zone and the Altay, regions with Turkic, Indo-European (Iranian [Saka] and Tokharian), Yeniseic, Uralic and other populations. Wusun elements, like most steppe polities of an ethno-linguistic mix, may have also played a substratal role."
* {{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Joo-Yup |last2=Kuang |first2=Shuntu |date=18 October 2017 |title=A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y-DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples |journal=Inner Asia |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=197–239 |doi=10.1163/22105018-12340089 |issn=2210-5018 |doi-access=free |quote=Both Chinese histories and modern dna studies indicate that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous populations}}</ref> During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, [[Oghuz Turks|the Oghuz]] were a Turkic group that lived in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe|Caspian]] and [[Aral Sea|Aral]] steppes.<ref name=Lee_p84>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=84}}</ref> Partly due to pressure from the [[Kipchaks]], the Oghuz migrated into [[Iranian Plateau|Iran]] and [[Transoxiana]].<ref name=Lee_p84/> They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to [[Islam]].<ref name=Lee_p84/> Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkmen or [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]].<ref name="Howard 2016 34">{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=34}}</ref><ref name=Lee_p84/>
[[File:Beylicats d%u2019Anatolie vers 1330-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|A map of independent [[Anatolian beyliks|Turkish principalities]] in Anatolia during the 14th century]]
The ruling family of [[Seljuq dynasty|the Seljuks]] originated from the ''[[Kınık (tribe)|Kınık]]'' branch of the Oghuz Turks.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=90}}</ref> In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the [[Ghaznavids]] at the [[Battle of Dandanaqan]] and established the [[Seljuk Empire]] in [[Greater Khorasan]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=91}}</ref> [[Baghdad]], the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]'s capital and center of [[Islamic Golden Age|the Islamic world]], was taken by Seljuks in 1055.<ref name="Howard 2016 34"/> Given the role [[Greater Khorasan|Khurasani]] traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "[[Turko-Persian tradition|Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Peacock|2015|p=9}}</ref> In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into [[medieval Armenia]] and Anatolia.<ref name="Howard 2016 34"/> At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being [[Hellenization|Hellenized]].<ref name=Ahmed_2006_p1576_h>{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|p=1576}}: "Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region"</ref><ref name=Davison_1990_p3_4>{{harvnb|Davison|1990|pp=3–4}}: "So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek."</ref><ref name=Horrocks_pp_778-779/>
The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, and later established [[Sultanate of Rum|the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum]].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=34–36}}</ref> During this period, there were also [[Anatolian beyliks|Turkish principalities]] such as [[Danishmendids]].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=36}}</ref> Seljuk arrival started the [[Turkification]] process in Anatolia;<ref name=Davison_1990_p3_4/><ref name="auto5"/> there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.<ref>{{harvnb|Findley|2005|pp=71–73, 225}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=36–38}}</ref> The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=33}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|p=303}}</ref> Members of [[Mysticism#Islamic mysticism|Islamic mysticism]] orders, such as [[Mevlevi Order]], played a role in the [[Islamization]] of the diverse people of Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Davison|1990|p=4}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=37–39}}</ref> Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the [[Crusades]].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=35}}</ref> In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] expansion.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=38}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|pp=308–310}}</ref> Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the [[Battle of Köse Dağ]] in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.<ref name="Howard 2016 38–39"/><ref>{{harvnb|Leiser|2010|pp=309–310}}</ref>
===Ottoman Empire===
{{Main|Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:OttomanEmpireMain.png|thumb|The [[Ottoman Empire]] at its greatest European extent, in 1683, during the [[Battle of Vienna]]]]
Based around [[Söğüt]], [[Rise of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Beylik]] was founded by [[Osman I]] in the early 14th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fleet|2010|pp=313–314}}</ref> According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the ''[[Kayı (tribe)|Kayı]]'' tribe of the [[Oghuz Turks]].<ref name="Lee 2023 94">{{harvnb|Lee|2023|p=94}}</ref> Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the [[Balkans]].<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|pp=40–41}}</ref> [[Mehmed II]] completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by [[Fall of Constantinople|capturing its capital, Constantinople]], on 29 May 1453.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=43}}</ref> [[Selim I]] united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.<ref name="Howard_p45"/> Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.<ref name="Lee 2023 94"/>
The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of [[Selim I]] and [[Suleiman the Magnificent]].<ref name=Howard_p45>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=45}}</ref><ref name=Somel_p_xcvii>{{harvnb|Somel|2010|p=xcvii}}</ref> In the 16th and 17th centuries, [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Sephardic Jews]] moved into Ottoman Empire following their [[Reconquista#Conversions and expulsions|expulsion]] from Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Agoston|Masters|2009|p=302}}</ref> From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the [[Decline of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire began to decline]]. The [[Tanzimat]] reforms, initiated by [[Mahmud II]] in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The [[Ottoman constitution of 1876]] was the first among Muslim states, but was [[First Constitutional Era|short-lived]].<ref>{{harvnb|Hanioğlu|2012|p=19}}</ref><ref name="auto8">{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=194}}</ref>
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| caption2 = [[Topkapı Palace]] and [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] were the primary residences of the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman sultans]] in [[Istanbul]] between 1465 and 1856<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|title=Center of Ottoman Power|work=[[The New York Times]]|last=Simons|first=Marlise|access-date=4 June 2009|date=22 August 1993|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and 1856 to 1922,<ref name=dolmabahcepalace>{{cite web|title=Dolmabahce Palace|url=http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|website=dolmabahcepalace.com|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|url-status=live}}</ref> respectively.}}
As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the [[Great Eastern Crisis|Ottoman economic crisis and default]] in 1875<ref name=NiallFergusonFT>{{cite news|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6667a18a-b888-11dc-893b-0000779fd2ac.html|title=An Ottoman warning for indebted America|author=Niall Ferguson|newspaper=Financial Times|date=2 January 2008|access-date=5 September 2016|author-link=Niall Ferguson|archive-date=25 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140125174604/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6667a18a-b888-11dc-893b-0000779fd2ac.html|url-status=live}}</ref> which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]]. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a [[Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire|rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples]], leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the [[Hamidian massacres]] of [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenians]], which claimed up to 300,000 lives.<ref name=nzhistory.net.nz>{{cite web|title=Collapse of the Ottoman Empire, 1918–1920|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/ottoman-empire/collapse|website=nzhistory.net.nz|access-date=9 August 2014|archive-date=19 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219183629/http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/ottoman-empire/collapse|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=some of this information is not in the source|date=November 2024}} Ottoman territories in Europe ([[Rumelia]]) were lost in the [[First Balkan War]] (1912–1913).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/ottoman-refugees-1878-1939-9781472515360/|title=Ottoman Refugees, 1878–1939: Migration in a Post-Imperial World|author=Isa Blumi|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2013|isbn=978-1-4725-1536-0|access-date=23 April 2020|archive-date=29 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201229235331/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/ottoman-refugees-1878-1939-9781472515360/|url-status=live}}</ref> Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as [[Edirne]], in the [[Second Balkan War]] (1913).
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, [[persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction]] and [[Persecution of Muslims#Russian Empire|in the Russian Empire]] resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,<ref>{{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}</ref><ref name="Gibney 2005 437">{{harvnb|Fábos|2005|p=437}}</ref> with the casualties including Turks.<ref name="Gibney 2005 437"/> Five to seven or seven to nine million [[Muhacir|refugees]] migrated into modern-day Turkey from the [[Balkans]], [[Caucasus]], [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]], and [[Mediterranean]] islands,<ref>
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}</ref> shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=70}}</ref> In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as [[Circassians]] and [[Crimean Tatars]].<ref>{{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}</ref> [[Paul Mojzes]] has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mojzes|first=Paul|date=November 2013|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, why did it happen and could it happen again|url=https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|website=Cicero Foundation|access-date=23 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223191938/https://www.cicerofoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/Paul_Mojzes_Ethnic_Cleansing_In_The_Balkans.pdf|archive-date=23 February 2024|url-status=live}}</ref> Circassian refugees included the survivors of the [[Circassian genocide]].<ref>{{harvnb|Levene|2015|pp=430–431}}</ref>
Following the [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|1913 coup d'état]], the [[Three Pashas]] took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]] and was ultimately defeated.<ref>[[Roderic H. Davison]]; Review "From Paris to Sèvres: The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at the Peace Conference of 1919–1920" by Paul C. Helmreich in ''[[Slavic Review]]'', Vol. 34, No. 1 (March 1975), pp. 186–187</ref> During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were [[Temporary Law of Deportation|deported to Syria]] as part of the [[Armenian genocide]]. As a result, an estimated 600,000<ref name="britannica-ag">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=4 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}</ref> to more than 1 million,<ref name="britannica-ag"/> or up to 1.5 million<ref name="umichigan">{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="jfreedman">{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=3 April 2015|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="totten-et-al">Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|978-0-313-34642-2}}.</ref> [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenians]] were killed. The Turkish government has [[Armenian genocide denial|refused to acknowledge]]<ref name="Tatz">{{Cite book| publisher = ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-1-4408-3161-4| last1 = Tatz| first1 = Colin| last2 = Higgins| first2 = Winton| title = The Magnitude of Genocide| year=2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |website= Deutsche Welle |title= Erdogan: Turkey will 'never accept' genocide charges |access-date= 7 February 2018 |url= http://www.dw.com/en/erdogan-turkey-will-never-accept-genocide-charges/a-19307115 |archive-date= 7 February 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180207123001/http://www.dw.com/en/erdogan-turkey-will-never-accept-genocide-charges/a-19307115 |url-status= live }}</ref> the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only [[Population transfer|"relocated]]" from the eastern war zone.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11373115/Amal-Clooneys-latest-case-Why-Turkey-wont-talk-about-the-Armenian-genocide.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/turkey/11373115/Amal-Clooneys-latest-case-Why-Turkey-wont-talk-about-the-Armenian-genocide.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=ECHR: Why Turkey won't talk about the Armenian genocide|author=Raziye Akkoç|newspaper=The Daily Telegraph|date=15 October 2015|access-date=28 May 2016}}{{cbignore}}</ref> [[Late Ottoman genocides|Genocidal campaigns]] were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrians]] and [[Greek genocide|Greeks]].<ref name="Bloxham2005">{{cite book|author=Donald Bloxham|title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, And the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=TSRkGNoEPFwC |page=150 }}|access-date=9 February 2013|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-927356-0|page=150}}</ref><ref name=Levene>{{cite journal|last=Levene|first=Mark|title=Creating a Modern 'Zone of Genocide': The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923|journal=Holocaust and Genocide Studies|date=Winter 1998|volume=12|issue=3|pages=393–433|doi=10.1093/hgs/12.3.393}}</ref><ref name="Ferguson">{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall|title=The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Group|isbn=978-0-14-311239-6|page=180}}</ref> Following the [[Armistice of Mudros]] in 1918, the victorious [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] sought the [[partition of the Ottoman Empire]] through the 1920 [[Treaty of Sèvres]].<ref name="Treaty of Sèvres">{{Cite web|url=http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html|title=The Treaty of Sèvres, 1920|publisher=Harold B. Library, [[Brigham Young University]]|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=12 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112082305/http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Republic of Türkiye===
{{Main|History of the Republic of Turkey}}
[[File:Atatürk şapkasıyla selam verirken.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], the [[List of national founders|founder]] and the [[List of presidents of Turkey|first President]] of the Turkish Republic]]
The [[occupation of Istanbul]] (1918) and [[Occupation of Smyrna|İzmir]] (1919) by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] in the aftermath of World War I initiated the [[Turkish National Movement]]. Under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Pasha]], a military commander who had distinguished himself during the [[Gallipoli campaign|Battle of Gallipoli]], the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (1920).<ref name="Atatürk">{{Cite book|title=Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey|first=Andrew|last=Mango|publisher=Overlook|year=2000|isbn=978-1-58567-011-6|page=lxxviii}}</ref>
The [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Turkish Provisional Government]] in [[Ankara]], which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|23 April 1920]], started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled.<ref>Robert H. Hewsen. ''Armenia: A Historical Atlas'', p. 237. {{ISBN|0-226-33228-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Harry J. |last=Psomiades |title=The Eastern Question, the Last Phase: a study in Greek-Turkish diplomacy |publisher=Pella |year=2000 |pages=27–38 |isbn=0-918618-79-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=A. L. |last=Macfie |title=The Chanak affair (September–October 1922) |journal=Balkan Studies |volume=20 |issue=2 |year=1979 |pages=309–41}}</ref><ref name="18sep1922">{{cite book|last1=Heper|last2=Criss|first1=Metin|first2=Nur Bilge|title=Historical Dictionary of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKoanep9aBEC&q=18+september+1922+turkey&pg=PA317|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6281-4|year=2009|access-date=13 October 2020|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152525/https://books.google.com/books?id=mKoanep9aBEC&q=18+september+1922+turkey&pg=PA317#v=snippet&q=18%20september%201922%20turkey&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the [[Armistice of Mudanya]] on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of [[monarchy|monarchical]] Ottoman rule.
The [[Treaty of Lausanne]] of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,<ref name="Treaty of Sèvres"/><ref name="Atatürk"/> led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from [[Occupation of Istanbul|Istanbul]]. The Turkish Republic [[Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey|was officially proclaimed]] on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.<ref>{{cite book|title=Political Islam and the Secular State in Turkey: Democracy, Reform and the Justice and Development Party|publisher=I.B. Tauris|date=2014|last=Axiarlis|first=Evangelia|page=11}}</ref> The [[Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations|Lausanne Convention]] stipulated a [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]].<ref name="Clogg">{{cite book|last=Clogg|first=Richard|title=A Concise History of Greece|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5pyUIY4THYC|access-date=9 February 2013|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00479-4|page=101|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328152433/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5pyUIY4THYC|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Turkey-1658 (2215850337).jpg|thumb|left|[[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]] was completed in 1953 to become the mausoleum of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]]]]
Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first [[President of Turkey|president]] and introduced [[Atatürk's reforms|many reforms]]. The reforms aimed to transform the old [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|religion-based and multi-communal]] Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish [[nation state]] that would be governed as a [[parliamentary republic]] under a [[Turkish Constitution of 1924|secular constitution]].<ref name="BoweringCrone2012">{{cite book|author1=Gerhard Bowering|author2=Patricia Crone|author3=Wadad Kadi |author4=Devin J. Stewart |author5=Muhammad Qasim Zaman |author6=Mahan Mirza|title=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=JHcZlo12SGoC |page=49 }}|access-date=14 August 2013|year=2012|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3855-4|page=49|quote=Following the revolution, Mustafa Kemal became an important figure in the military ranks of the Ottoman Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) as a protégé ... Although the sultanate had already been abolished in November 1922, the republic was founded in October 1923. ... ambitious reform programme aimed at the creation of a modern, secular state and the construction of a new identity for its citizens.}}</ref> Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934.<ref>{{harvnb|Heper|2012|p=146}}</ref> With the [[Surname Law (Turkey)|Surname Law]], the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Turkish Parliament]] bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (''Father Turk'').<ref name="Atatürk" /> Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some [[Kurds|Kurdish]] and [[Zazas|Zaza]] tribes leading to the [[Sheikh Said rebellion]] in 1925<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Princeton University Press| isbn = 978-1-4008-8371-4| last = Hassan| first = Mona| title = Longing for the Lost Caliphate: A Transregional History| date = 10 January 2017| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168| access-date = 23 April 2020| archive-date = 17 January 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230117230856/https://books.google.com/books?id=pqqtDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168| url-status = live}}</ref> and the [[Dersim rebellion]] in 1937.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Reconfiguring the Turkish nation in the 1930s|journal=Nationalism and Ethnic Politics|publisher=Yale University|author=Soner Çağaptay|s2cid = 143855822|year=2002|volume = 8|issue = 2|pages=67–82|doi=10.1080/13537110208428662}}</ref>
[[İsmet İnönü]] became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the [[Hatay State|Republic of Hatay]] voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey [[Second Cairo Conference|remained neutral]] during almost all of [[World War II]],<ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|p=55}}</ref> but entered the war on the side of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] on [[Turkish declaration of war on Germany and Japan|23 February 1945]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00263208908700778 |title=The Turkish straits in the second world war, 1939–45 |date=1989 |last1=MacFie |first1=A.L. |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=238–248 }}</ref> Later that year, Turkey became a [[United Nations Charter|charter member]] of the United Nations.<ref name="Turkey_UN">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm |title=Growth in United Nations membership (1945–2005) |publisher=United Nations |access-date=30 October 2006 |date=3 July 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160117212320/http://www.un.org/Overview/growth.htm |archive-date=17 January 2016}}</ref> In 1950 Turkey became a member of the [[Council of Europe]]. After fighting as part of the [[United Nations|UN]] forces in the [[Korean War]], Turkey joined [[NATO]] in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]].
Military coups or memorandums, which happened in [[1960 Turkish coup d'état|1960]], [[1971 Turkish military memorandum|1971]], [[1980 Turkish coup d'état|1980]], and [[1997 Turkish military memorandum|1997]], complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic [[Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey|multiparty system]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sayarı|2012|p=1}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Karaosmanoğlu|2012|p=149}}</ref> Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were [[Süleyman Demirel]], [[Bülent Ecevit]] and [[Turgut Özal]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s.<ref>{{harvnb|Hale|2023|p=xiii}}</ref> It is designated as a [[list of designated terrorist groups|terrorist organization]] by Turkey,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa |title=PKK |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> the United States,<ref name="department-of-state-list">{{cite web|url=https://www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations|title=U.S. Department of State – Bureau of Counterterrorism: Foreign Terrorist Organizations|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=16 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216141450/https://www.state.gov/foreign-terrorist-organizations/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the European Union.<ref name="european-council-list">{{cite web|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019D1341&from=en|title=Council of the European Union: Council Decision (CFSP) 2019/1341 of 8 August 2019 updating the list of persons, groups and entities subject to Articles 2, 3 and 4 of Common Position 2001/931/CFSP on the application of specific measures to combat terrorism|publisher=Official Journal of the European Union|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218043108/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32019D1341&from=en|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tansu Çiller]] became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of the [[European Economic Community|EEC]] in 1987, joined the [[European Union Customs Union]] in 1995 and started [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|accession negotiations]] with the [[European Union]] in 2005.<ref name="TR_EUChrono">{{cite web|url=http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070515022203/http://www.abgs.gov.tr/en/tur-eu_relations_dosyalar/chronology.htm|archive-date=15 May 2007|title=Chronology of Turkey-EU relations|publisher=Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs|access-date=30 October 2006}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|pp=59–63}}</ref> Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector.<ref>{{harvnb|Yılmaz|2012|p=360}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |title=Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets |author=Bartolomiej Kaminski |author2=Francis Ng |publisher=World Bank |access-date=27 December 2006 |date=1 May 2006 |page=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614030216/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2006/05/03/000016406_20060503112446/Rendered/PDF/wps3908.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Visit of Tansu Çiller, Turkish Prime Minister, to the EC 6.jpg|thumb|[[Tansu Çiller]], Turkey's first female prime minister, attends a [[European Commission]] meeting in January 1994]]
In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct [[2014 Turkish presidential election|presidential election]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Recep Tayyip Erdogan wins Turkish presidential election |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28729234 |work=BBC News |date=10 August 2014 |access-date=25 November 2022 |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125234358/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28729234 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 15 July 2016, an [[2016 Turkish coup attempt|unsuccessful coup attempt]] tried to oust the government.<ref>{{cite news|title=Turkey rounds up thousands of suspected participants in coup attempt|first1=Erin|last1=Cunningham|first2=Liz|last2=Sly|first3=Zeynep|last3=Karatas|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-bloody-night-turkeys-president-declares-coup-attempt-foiled/2016/07/16/9b84151e-4af7-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=16 July 2016|access-date=17 July 2016|archive-date=18 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160718235759/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/after-bloody-night-turkeys-president-declares-coup-attempt-foiled/2016/07/16/9b84151e-4af7-11e6-8dac-0c6e4accc5b1_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.adalet.gov.tr/adalet-bakani-yilmaz-tunc-15-temmuzu-degerlendirdi |title=Adalet Bakanı Yılmaz Tunç, 15 Temmuz'u Değerlendirdi |date=12 July 2024 |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Adalet Bakanlığı |access-date=30 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Karakaş |first1=İsmet |last2=Sarica |first2=Abdullah |date=12 July 2024 |title=Adalet Bakanı Tunç: Demokrasiye müdahale olmasın diye hem yargımız hem yasamamız gerekli tedbirleri almaya devam ediyor |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/15-temmuz-darbe-girisimi/adalet-bakani-tunc-demokrasiye-mudahale-olmasin-diye-hem-yargimiz-hem-yasamamiz-gerekli-tedbirleri-almaya-devam-ediyor/3273261 |work=[[Anadolu Agency]]}}</ref> With a [[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum|referendum in 2017]], the parliamentary republic was replaced by an [[executive president|executive presidential system]]. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the [[Supreme Election Council (Turkey)|Supreme Electoral Council]] lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.<ref name="WasPostRef2017" /> The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million [[2017 Turkish constitutional referendum#Unstamped ballots|ballots without a stamp]] were accepted as valid.<ref name="WasPostRef2017">{{cite news|date=16 April 2017|title=Here's why Turkish opposition parties are contesting the referendum results|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/16/heres-why-turkish-opposition-parties-are-contesting-the-referendum-results/|newspaper=Washington Post|access-date=17 April 2017|archive-date=19 April 2017|archive-url=https://archive.today/20170419222645/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2017/04/16/heres-why-turkish-opposition-parties-are-contesting-the-referendum-results/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2025 the PKK declared a ceasefire.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2025-04-03 |title=Kurds in Turkey back PKK's response to jailed leader's peace call |url=https://www.duvarenglish.com/kurds-in-turkey-back-pkks-response-to-jailed-leaders-peace-call-news-65749 |access-date=2025-03-04 |website=[[Gazete Duvar]] |language=}}</ref>
==Administrative divisions==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Turkey}}
{{Further|Regions of Turkey|NUTS of Turkey}}
Turkey is a [[unitary state]]. Its administrative system includes central and local administration. Central administration consists of the [[central government]] in [[Ankara]], and local departments such as 81 [[Provinces of Turkey|provinces]] and [[Districts of Turkey|their subdivisions]]. Local administration authorities consist of metropolitan municipalities, municipalities, neighborhoods or villages, and special provincial administrations. For economic and geographic reasons, Turkey is also categorized into [[Geographical regions of Turkey|seven regions]] and 21 sub-regions.<ref>{{harvnb|Karabulut|2022|pp=712–718}}</ref>
<div class="center">{{Turkey Labelled Map}}</div>
==Government and politics==
{{Main|Government of Turkey|Politics of Turkey|Constitution of Turkey}}
{{See also|Law enforcement in Turkey}}
[[File:TBMM,_October_2021.jpg|thumb|The [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] is the [[legislative chamber]].]]
Turkey is a [[presidential system|presidential republic]] within a [[Multi-party period of the Republic of Turkey|multi-party system]].<ref name="CIAFactbookTurkey">{{cite web|title=CIA World Factbook: Turkey|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110073821/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey|archive-date=10 January 2021|access-date=29 August 2011|publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> The [[Constitution of Turkey|current constitution]] was [[1982 Turkish constitutional referendum|adopted in 1982]].<ref name="auto8"/> In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to [[Administrative divisions of Turkey|three levels of government]]: national, provincial, and local. The [[local government]]'s duties are commonly split between [[municipal corporation|municipal governments]] and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a [[Plurality voting|plurality vote]] of citizens by district.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The government comprises three branches: first is the [[Legislature|legislative]] branch, which is [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Duties and Powers |url=https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/13 |website=global.tbmm.gov.tr |publisher=The Grand National Assembly of Turkey |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405013028/https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/index.php/EN/yd/icerik/13 |url-status=live }}</ref> second is the [[Executive (government)|executive]] branch, which is the [[President of Turkey]];<ref>{{cite web |title=Duties and Powers |url=https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/presidency/power/ |publisher=Presidency Of The Republic Of Turkey |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=15 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515184321/https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/presidency/power/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and third is the [[Judicial system of Turkey|judicial]] branch, which includes the [[Constitutional Court of Turkey|Constitutional Court]],
the [[Court of Cassation (Turkey)|Court of Cassation]] and [[Court of Jurisdictional Disputes]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/|title=Law on Constitutional Court {{pipe}} Anayasa Mahkemesi|website=www.anayasa.gov.tr}}</ref><ref name="Constitution2019">{{cite web |title=Turkish Constitution |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/turkish-constiution/ |publisher=Anayasa Mahkemesi |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=10 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110193216/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/turkish-constiution/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among the provinces [[party-list proportional representation|proportionally to the population]]. The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is [[Turkish presidential elections|elected]] by [[Direct election|direct vote]] and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.<ref>{{cite web |title=Law on Constitutional Court |url=https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/ |website=anayasa.gov.tr |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307215646/https://www.anayasa.gov.tr/en/legislation/law-on-constitutional-court/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with [[democratic backsliding]], being described as a [[Hybrid regime|competitive authoritarian]] system.<ref name="Esen Gumuscu 2020 pp. 1075–1091">{{cite journal | last1=Esen | first1=Berk | last2=Gumuscu | first2=Sebnem | title=Why did Turkish democracy collapse? A political economy account of AKP's authoritarianism | journal=Party Politics | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=27 | issue=6 | date=11 May 2020 | issn=1354-0688 | doi=10.1177/1354068820923722 | pages=1075–1091| hdl=11693/75894 | s2cid=219458590 | hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Borsuk Levin 2021 pp. 175–187">{{cite journal | last1=Borsuk | first1=Imren | last2=Levin | first2=Paul T. | title=Social coexistence and violence during Turkey's authoritarian transition | journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=21 | issue=2 | date=3 April 2021 | issn=1468-3857 | doi=10.1080/14683857.2021.1909292 | pages=175–187| s2cid=233594832 | doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Parties and elections===
{{Main|Elections in Turkey|Political parties in Turkey|Electoral cycle of Turkey}}
[[File:2024 Turkish local elections.svg|thumb|Results of the [[2024 Turkish local elections]]]]
Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: [[Turkish presidential elections|presidential]] (national), parliamentary (national), [[Metropolitan municipalities in Turkey|municipality mayors]] (local), district mayors (local), provincial or [[List of municipalities in Turkey|municipal council members]] (local), and [[Muhtar (title)|muhtars]] (local). [[Referendum]]s are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the [[Suffrage|right to vote]] and stand as a candidate at elections.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} [[Universal suffrage]] for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934.<ref>{{cite news |date=5 December 2019 |title=Turkish women celebrate 85th anniversary of suffrage |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-women-celebrate-85th-anniversary-of-suffrage-149490 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412174514/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-women-celebrate-85th-anniversary-of-suffrage-149490 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |access-date=12 April 2022 |work=[[Hürriyet Daily News]]}}</ref> In Turkey, [[Voter turnout|turnout rates]] of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] is currently serving as the [[head of state]] and [[head of government]].<ref>{{cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Erdogan wins Turkey's election |url=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/turkey-election-runoff-results-intl/index.html |publisher=CNN |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221116/https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/turkey-election-runoff-results-intl/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=28 May 2023 |title=Erdogan wins five more years as Turkey's president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-65686238 |publisher=BBC |access-date=28 May 2023 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528221325/https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-65686238 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Özgür Özel]] is the [[List of the Main Opposition Leaders of Turkey|Main Opposition Leader]]. The last [[2023 Turkish parliamentary election|parliamentary]] and [[2023 Turkish presidential election|presidential]] elections were in 2023.
The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of [[List of political parties in Turkey|political parties]] that it deems [[secularism in Turkey|anti-secular]] or having ties to [[Terrorism in Turkey|terrorism]], or ban their existence altogether.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|title=Euro court backs Turkey Islamist ban|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 December 2006|date=31 July 2001|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707045403/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1466160.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|title=Turkey's Kurd party ban criticized|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 December 2006|date=14 March 2003|archive-date=7 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707042827/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2850601.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[electoral threshold]] for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/legislation/ak-party-mhp-announce-draft-for-turkeys-new-election-law|title=AK Party, MHP announce draft for Turkey's new election law|publisher=Daily Sabah|access-date=22 March 2022|date=14 March 2022|archive-date=21 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321234730/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/legislation/ak-party-mhp-announce-draft-for-turkeys-new-election-law|url-status=live}}</ref> Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. [[Independent politician|Independent candidates]] are not subject to an electoral threshold.
On the right side of the Turkish [[political spectrum]], parties like the [[Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)|Democrat Party]], [[Justice Party (Turkey)|Justice Party]], [[Motherland Party (Turkey)|Motherland Party]], and [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as [[conservatism]], [[nationalism]] or [[Islamism]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Yılmaz |first1=Hakan |title=Conservatism in Turkey |url=https://esiweb.org/pdf/esi_turkey_tpq_vol7_no1_HakanYilmaz.pdf |publisher=[[European Stability Initiative]] |access-date=12 April 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307223711/https://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_turkey_tpq_vol7_no1_HakanYilmaz.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the [[Republican People's Party]], [[Social Democratic Populist Party (Turkey)|Social Democratic Populist Party]] and [[Democratic Left Party (Turkey)|Democratic Left Party]] once enjoyed the largest electoral success. [[Left-wing politics|Left-wing]] parties are more likely to embrace the principles of [[socialism]], [[Kemalism]] or [[secularism]].<ref name="FleetFaroqhi2008p357">{{cite book|author1=Kate Fleet|author2=Suraiya Faroqhi|author3=Reşat Kasaba|title=The Cambridge History of Turkey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iOoGH4GckQgC&pg=PA357|access-date=13 June 2013|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62096-3|pages=357–358|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117224558/https://books.google.com/books?id=iOoGH4GckQgC&pg=PA357|url-status=live}}</ref>
===Law===
{{Main|Judicial system of Turkey}}
[[File:Court of Cassation in Ankara2.jpg|thumb|The [[Court of Cassation (Turkey)|Court of Cassation]] is the final court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.]]
With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] legal system, replacing [[Sharia]]-derived [[Ottoman law]]. The [[Turkish civil code (1926)|Civil Code]], adopted in 1926, was based on the [[Swiss Civil Code]] of 1907 and the [[Swiss Code of Obligations]] of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The [[Criminal Code]], originally based on the [[Italian law codes#Penal Code|Italian Criminal Code]], was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the [[German Penal Code]] and German law generally. [[Administrative law]] is based on the French equivalent and [[procedural law]] generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.<ref>{{cite book|first=Z. Derya|last=Tarman|editor-first=Jan M.|editor-last=Smits|chapter=Turkey|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|title=Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-415-8|page=940|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012318/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|url-status=live}}</ref> Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.<ref>{{cite book|first=Z. Derya|last=Tarman|editor-first=Jan M.|editor-last=Smits|chapter=Turkey|edition=2nd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|title=Elgar Encyclopedia of Comparative Law|year=2012|publisher=Edward Elgar|isbn=978-1-84980-415-8|page=941|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=6 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012318/https://books.google.com/books?id=y_otpAA1EIoC&dq=Turkish+legal+system+european+civil+law&pg=PA940|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Law enforcement in Turkey]] is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of the Interior (Turkey)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]]. These agencies are the [[General Directorate of Security (Turkey)|General Directorate of Security]], the [[Gendarmerie General Command]] and the [[Coast Guard Command (Turkey)|Coast Guard Command]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://polis.osce.org/country-profiles/turkey|title=OSCE POLIS|access-date=16 April 2024|archive-date=16 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416223347/https://polis.osce.org/country-profiles/turkey|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.<ref name="EU2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/2015_turkey_report.pdf|title=European Commission: Turkey 2015 report|work=European Commission|date=10 November 2015|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818052601/http://www.ab.gov.tr/files/5%20Ekim/2015_turkey_report.pdf|archive-date=18 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="EP2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0133+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|title=European Parliament resolution of 14 April 2016 on the 2015 report on Turkey|work=European Parliament|date=14 April 2016|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-date=17 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817221313/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//NONSGML+TA+P8-TA-2016-0133+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TI2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles|title=Turkey's institutions are failing to comply with good governance principles and combat corruption|work=Transparency International|date=7 April 2016|access-date=6 July 2016|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203014904/https://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/turkeys_institutions_are_failing_to_comply_with_good_governance_principles|url-status=dead}}</ref>
===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Turkey}}
[[File:300622-SanchezOTANSegunda3.jpg|thumb|Turkey has been a member of [[NATO]] since 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of the [[Allied Land Command]] headquarters.]]
Turkey has been characterized as an [[emerging power|emerging]]<ref name=Acharya_2014>{{harvnb|Acharya|2014|loc=Emerging Powers}}</ref> or rising,<ref>{{harvnb|Oğuzlu|Dal|2016}}</ref> a [[middle power|middle]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1057/s41311-023-00511-2 |title=Beyond hierarchy: Regional orders in the twenty-first century |date=2023 |last1=Giedraityte |first1=Ieva |journal=International Politics }}</ref> a quasi-regional,<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/01436597.2021.1898280 |title=Do regional powers prioritise their regions? Comparing Brazil, South Africa and Turkey |date=2021 |last1=Mesquita |first1=Rafael |last2=Chien |first2=Jia Huei |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=1544–1565 }}</ref> and a [[regional power|regional]] power.<ref>{{harvnb|Bank|Karadag|2012|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kardaş|2016}}</ref> Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from [[terrorism in Turkey|internal terrorist]] and external threats.<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=227}}</ref> After the establishment of the Republic, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Atatürk]] and [[İsmet İnönü|İnönü]] followed the "[[peace at home, peace in the world]]" principle until the [[Cold War]]'s start.<ref name="auto4">{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=228}}</ref> Following [[Soviet territorial claims against Turkey|threats from the Soviet Union]], Turkey sought to [[Turkey–United States relations|ally with the United States]] and joined [[NATO]] in 1952.<ref>{{harvnb|Dodd|2012|p=56}}</ref><ref name="auto4"/>
[[File:Organization of Turkic States (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|Members and observers of the [[Organization of Turkic States]]]]
Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with [[Central Asia]], the [[Caucasus]], Russia, the [[Middle East]], and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements.<ref name="Martin 2012 234–235">{{harvnb|Martin|2012|pp=234–235}}</ref> By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth.<ref name="Martin 2012 234–235"/> Turkey joined the [[European Union Customs Union]] in 1995,<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=229}}</ref> but [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|its EU accession talks]] are frozen as of 2024.<ref>{{cite news |date=29 August 2024 |title=Turkey's top diplomat attends first EU meeting in 5 years in bid to boost ties |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/turkeys-top-diplomat-attends-eu-meeting-after-5-years-bid-boost-ties-2024-08-29/ |work=Reuters |access-date=}}</ref>
Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union.<ref name="Martin 2012 230">{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=230}}</ref> Closer [[Azerbaijan–Turkey relations|relations with Azerbaijan]], a culturally close country, was achieved.<ref name="Martin 2012 230"/> Turkey is a founding member of the [[International Organization of Turkic Culture]] and [[Organization of Turkic States]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.turksoy.org/en-US/about-turksoy |title=About TURKSOY |website=[[International Organization of Turkic Culture]] |access-date=23 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://turkicstates.org/en/turk-konseyi-hakkinda |title=Organization of Turkic States |website=[[Organization of Turkic States]] |access-date=23 September 2024 |archive-date=8 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240708195438/https://www.turkicstates.org/en/turk-konseyi-hakkinda |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is also a member of [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]], [[Council of Europe]], and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/synopsis-of-the-turkish-foreign-policy.en.mfa |title=National Foreign Policy in the "Century Of Türkiye": A Synopsis |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref>
Following the [[Arab Spring]], Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt.<ref name=Reuters_19_May_2023>{{cite news |date=19 May 2023 |title=In Middle East, once improbable ententes set new tone |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/middle-east-once-improbable-ententes-set-new-tone-2023-05-18/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> Relations with these countries have improved since then.<ref name=Reuters_19_May_2023/><ref>{{cite news |date=9 September 2024 |title=Turkey heads to Arab League ministerial for first time in 13 years, source says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/turkey-heads-arab-league-ministerial-first-time-13-years-source-says-2024-09-09/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 September 2024 |title=Egypt's Sisi makes first presidential visit to Turkey in 12 years |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/egypts-sisi-heads-turkey-first-presidential-visit-12-years-2024-09-04/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> There are disputes [[Aegean dispute|with Greece over maritime boundaries]] and [[Cyprus–Turkey maritime zones dispute|with Cyprus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=235}}</ref> In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an [[Operation Olive Branch|operation in Syria]] aimed at ousting US-backed [[People's Protection Units|YPG]] (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed [[PKK]])<ref name="Atlantic-Council">{{cite web|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection/|title=The YPG-PKK connection|author1=Aaron Stein|author2=Michelle Foley|publisher=Atlantic Council|date=26 January 2016|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=31 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221231150115/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/menasource/the-ypg-pkk-connection/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa|title=PKK|publisher=Republic of Türkiye, Ministry of Foreign Affairs|website=mfa.gov.tr|access-date=31 December 2022|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325204651/https://www.mfa.gov.tr/pkk.en.mfa|url-status=live}}</ref> from the enclave of [[Afrin, Syria|Afrin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-idUSKBN1H00OD|title=Turkey takes full control of Syria's Afrin: military source|website=reuters.com|publisher=Reuters|date=24 March 2018|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107144921/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-afrin-idUSKBN1H00OD|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TRT-World-25-05-2022">{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-ypg-menace-understanding-pkk-s-syria-offshoot-57427|title=The YPG menace: Understanding PKK's Syria offshoot|publisher=TRT World|website=trtworld.com|date=25 May 2022|access-date=7 January 2023|archive-date=7 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230107144923/https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/the-ypg-menace-understanding-pkk-s-syria-offshoot-57427|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], which was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dana Taib Menmy |date=23 June 2020 |title=Fear and anger greets Turkish air strikes in northern Iraq |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkish-airstrikes-northern-iraq-conflicts-civilian-fatalities |website=[[Middle East Eye]] |language=en |quote="Turkish incursions and air strikes on Iraqi territory have been a constant issue for the Iraqi foreign ministry since 2003, with no resolution in sight," Sajad Jiyad, a political analyst based in Baghdad, told MEE. |access-date=18 March 2024 |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318114659/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkish-airstrikes-northern-iraq-conflicts-civilian-fatalities |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Israel–Turkey relations|Diplomatic relations with Israel]] were damaged after the [[2010 Gaza flotilla raid]],<ref>{{harvnb|Martin|2012|p=234}}</ref> normalized in 2016,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36639834|title=Israel and Turkey end rift over Gaza flotilla killings|publisher=BBC|date=27 June 2016|access-date=27 June 2016|work=BBC News|archive-date=5 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505073331/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36639834|url-status=live}}</ref> and cut again following the [[Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip]].<ref name=Reuters_28_May_2024>{{cite news |date=28 May 2024 |title=Israeli-Turkish trade on life support as relations hit bottom |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israeli-turkish-trade-life-support-relations-hit-bottom-2024-05-27/ |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2024}}</ref> In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel.<ref name=Reuters_28_May_2024/>
===Military===
{{Main|Turkish Armed Forces}}
{{See also|Turkish Land Forces|Turkish Naval Forces|Turkish Air Force}}
[[File:IMG-TAI-TFX.jpg|thumb|The [[TAI TF Kaan]] is currently being produced by [[Turkish Aerospace Industries]] for the [[Turkish Air Force]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/turkish-future-fighter-comes-together-ahead-of-victory-day-roll-out|title=Turkish future fighter comes together ahead of 'victory day' roll-out|website=janes.com|author=Gareth Jennings|date=24 November 2022|access-date=4 December 2022|archive-date=17 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217140402/https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/turkish-future-fighter-comes-together-ahead-of-victory-day-roll-out|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/11/25/turkeys-domestic-5th-generation-tf-x-fighter-jet-is-on-the-final-assembly-line/|title=Turkey's Domestic 5th Generation TF-X Fighter Jet Is On The Final Assembly Line|website=overtdefense.com|date=25 November 2022|access-date=4 December 2022|archive-date=4 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204150849/https://www.overtdefense.com/2022/11/25/turkeys-domestic-5th-generation-tf-x-fighter-jet-is-on-the-final-assembly-line/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/unique-sensor-setup-emerges-on-turkeys-stealthy-new-fighter|title=Unique Sensor Setup Emerges On Turkey's Stealthy New Fighter|website=thedrive.com|author=Joseph Trevithick|date=10 January 2023|access-date=12 January 2023|archive-date=14 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314180926/https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/unique-sensor-setup-emerges-on-turkeys-stealthy-new-fighter|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The [[Turkish Armed Forces]] are responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is the President, [[General Staff of the Turkish Armed Forces|General Staff]], [[Turkish Air Force|Air Force]], [[Turkish Naval Forces|Naval Force]], and [[Turkish Land Forces|Land Force]] usually report to the Minister of National Defence.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tsk.tr/Sayfalar?viewName=Mission |title=Mission |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of National Defence General Staff |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> The [[Turkish Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie General Command]] and the [[Turkish Coast Guard|Coast Guard Command]] are under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of the Interior (Turkey)|Ministry of the Interior]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.icisleri.gov.tr/icisleri-bakanligi-teskilat-semasi |title=İçişleri Bakanlığı Teşkilat Şeması |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti İçişleri Bakanlığı |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> [[Conscription in Turkey|Military service is required]] for 6–12 months for men,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.msb.gov.tr/Content/Upload/Docs/7179_Askeralma_Kanunu_(%C4%B0ngilizce).pdf |title=Recruiting Law |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Millî Savunma Bakanlığı |access-date=29 September 2024}}</ref> which is reduced to one month after paying a fee.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 June 2019 |title=New military service law approved |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-parliament-ratifies-new-military-service-law-144475 |work=Hürriyet Daily News |___location=Ankara |access-date=}}</ref> Turkey does not recognize [[conscientious objector|conscientious objection]] and does not offer a [[alternative civilian service|civilian alternative]] to military service.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ebco-beoc.eu/|title=EBCO: European Bureau for Conscientious Objection|publisher=Ebco-beoc.eu|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-date=10 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110173525/http://ebco-beoc.eu/|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Baykar Bayraktar Kızılelma 2.png|thumb|[[Bayraktar Kızılelma|Baykar Kızılelma]] UCAV on [[TCG Anadolu]]]]
Turkey has the [[Member states of NATO#Military personnel|second-largest military force]] in NATO, after the [[United States Armed Forces|United States]], with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.<ref name="iiss-mb-2022">{{cite book |author1=[[The International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |title=The Military Balance |date=2022 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-032-27900-8 |issn=0459-7222}}</ref> Turkey is considered a significant power in [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/14751798.2022.2068562 |title=Turkey's rise as a drone power: Trial by fire |date=2022 |last1=Rossiter |first1=Ash |last2=Cannon |first2=Brendon J. |journal=Defense & Security Analysis |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=210–229 }}</ref> As part of the [[nuclear sharing]] policy of NATO, Turkey hosts approximately 20 United States [[B61 nuclear bomb]]s at the [[Incirlik Air Base]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00396338.2024.2403218 |title=Forum: Towards a European Nuclear Deterrent |date=2024 |last1=Fayet |first1=Héloïse |last2=Futter |first2=Andrew |last3=Kühn |first3=Ulrich |journal=Survival |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=67–98 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00963402.2020.1859865 |title=United States nuclear weapons, 2021 |date=2021 |last1=Kristensen |first1=Hans M. |last2=Korda |first2=Matt |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=43–63 |bibcode=2021BuAtS..77a..43K }}</ref> In recent years, [[Defense industry of Turkey|Turkey’s defense industry]] has developed rapidly.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/14683857.2025.2454722 |title=Evaluating the advances and challenges in Turkey's defence industry: A comparative analysis |date=2025 |last1=Baysal |first1=Başar |journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies |volume=25 |pages=31–52 }}</ref> [[Aselsan]], [[Turkish Aerospace Industries]], [[Roketsan]], and [[ASFAT]] are among the top 100 defense companies in the world.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/turkiye/turkiyes-4-defense-firms-included-in-worlds-top-100-list/2963037 |title=Türkiye's 4 defense firms included in world's top 100 list |website=Anadolu Ajansı |date=7 August 2023}}</ref>
Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO [[Turkish Brigade|since the Korean War]], including [[peacekeeping]] missions in [[United Nations Operation in Somalia I|Somalia]], [[United Nations Protection Force|Yugoslavia]] and the [[Operation Ocean Shield|Horn of Africa]]. It supported [[Coalition of the Gulf War|coalition forces]] in the [[Gulf War|First Gulf War]], contributed military personnel to the [[International Security Assistance Force]] in Afghanistan, and remains active in [[Kosovo Force]], [[Eurocorps]] and [[EU Battlegroup]]s.<ref name="Enter the EU Battle Groups">{{cite web|title=Enter the EU Battle Groups|url=http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp097.pdf|work=Chaillot Paper no. 97|publisher=European Union Institute for Security Studies|page=88|date=February 2007|access-date=18 February 2012|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001035/http://www.iss.europa.eu/uploads/media/cp097.pdf}}</ref><ref name=tskpeace>{{cite web|title=Contribution of Turkish Armed Forces to Peace Support Operations |url=http://www.tsk.tr/20_ingilizce_tsktr/5_international_relations/contribution-of-the-turkish-armed-forces-to-peace-support-operations.html |website=tsk.tr |publisher=Turkish Armed Forces |access-date=3 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150219001301/http://www.tsk.tr/20_ingilizce_tsktr/5_international_relations/contribution-of-the-turkish-armed-forces-to-peace-support-operations.html |archive-date=19 February 2015}}</ref> As of 2016, Turkey has assisted [[Peshmerga]] forces in northern [[Iraq]] and the [[Somali Armed Forces]] with security and training.<ref name="hurriyetdailynews.comq">{{cite web|title=Turkey finalizes military training base in Somalia|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizes-military-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510|website=hurriyetdailynews.com|date=3 October 2016|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-date=6 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406110403/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-finalizes-military-training-base-in-somalia.aspx?PageID=238&NID=104468&NewsCatID=510|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="reuters.comq">{{cite news|title=Turkey trains Kurdish peshmerga forces in fight against Islamic State|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-iraq-idUSKCN0J60B720141122|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=5 April 2017|date=22 November 2014|archive-date=23 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423092232/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-turkey-iraq-idUSKCN0J60B720141122|url-status=live}}</ref> The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 March 2019 |title=Mapping the Turkish Military's Expanding Footprint |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-03-07/mapping-the-turkish-military-s-expanding-footprint-quicktake |access-date=17 March 2022 |website=Bloomberg }}</ref> with [[List of countries with overseas military bases|military bases]] in [[Pasha Liman Base|Albania]],<ref name="LarrabeeLesser94">{{cite book|last1=Larrabee|first1=F. Stephen|last2=Lesser|first2=Ian O.|title=Turkish foreign policy in an age of uncertainty|year=2003|publisher=Rand Corporation|url=https://archive.org/details/turkishforeignpo00larr|url-access=registration|quote=albania.|isbn=978-0-8330-3404-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/turkishforeignpo00larr/page/94 94]}}</ref> [[Iraq–Turkey relations#Turkish military presence in Iraq|Iraq]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/what-is-turkey-doing-in-iraq.aspx?pageID=449&nID=104733&NewsCatID=466|title=What is Turkey doing in Iraq?|newspaper=Hürriyet Daily News|date=8 October 2016|access-date=5 April 2017|archive-date=19 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019211312/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/what-is-turkey-doing-in-iraq.aspx?pageID=449&nID=104733&NewsCatID=466|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Qatar–Turkey relations#Turkish military presence in Qatar|Qatar]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-qatar-turkey-military-idUSKCN0XP2IT|title=Seeing shared threats, Turkey sets up military base in Qatar|newspaper=Reuters|date=28 April 2016|access-date=2 July 2017|archive-date=8 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190208142004/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-qatar-turkey-military-idUSKCN0XP2IT|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Camp TURKSOM|Somalia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkey-to-open-it-s-largest-military-base-in-somalia-10967|title=Turkey to open its largest military base in Somalia|publisher=TRT World|date=30 September 2017|access-date=21 June 2018|archive-date=9 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909055110/https://www.trtworld.com/turkey/turkey-to-open-it-s-largest-military-base-in-somalia-10967|url-status=live}}</ref> The country also maintains a force of [[Turkish military forces in Northern Cyprus|36,000 troops]] in [[Northern Cyprus]] since 1974.<ref name="Richmond1998">{{cite book |last=Richmond |first=Oliver P. |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=_6wRdE2ZH4gC |page=260 }} |title=Mediating in Cyprus: The Cypriot Communities and the United Nations |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-7146-4877-4 |page=260 |access-date=9 February 2013}}</ref>
===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Turkey}}
[[File:Feminist_protest_from_Turkey.jpg|thumb|Women demonstrating and asking for non-interference with their clothing in [[Kadıköy]], [[Istanbul]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/kadikoyde-kiyafetime-karisma-eylemi-40534870 |last=Uçar |first=Burcu Purtul |title=Kadıköy'de "Kıyafetime Karışma" eylemi |work=Hürriyet |date=30 July 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116101420/https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/gundem/kadikoyde-kiyafetime-karisma-eylemi-40534870 |archive-date=16 November 2022 |access-date=23 June 2024}}</ref>]]
Article two of the Turkish Constitution includes references to upholding the rule of law and human rights.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbudun|2012|p=197}}</ref> In the 2000s, legal changes were made for public use of and teaching in the Kurdish language. This included opening a [[TRT Kurdî|Kurdish-language national TV channel]]. Various "openings" were made to address concerns of minorities such as [[Alevism|Alevi]], [[Kurds in Turkey|ethnic Kurds]], and [[Romani people in Turkey|ethnic Romani people]].<ref name=Toprak_2012_p222>{{harvnb|Toprak|2012|p=222}}</ref> Sentences for violence against women were strengthened.<ref name=Toprak_2012_p222/>
In 2013, [[Gezi Park protests|widespread protests]] erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish [[Taksim Gezi Park|Gezi Park]] but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.<ref>{{cite news |title=What's driving unrest and protests in Turkey? |author1=Mullen, Jethro |author2=Cullinane, Susannah |url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/europe/turkey-conflict-explainer/?hpt=hp_t1 |newspaper=CNN |date=4 June 2013 |access-date=6 June 2013 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014001050/http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/03/world/europe/turkey-conflict-explainer/?hpt=hp_t1 |url-status=live }}</ref> On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish [[Peoples' Democratic Party (Turkey)|HDP]] and the main opposition [[Republican People's Party|CHP]] party.<ref>"[http://www.dw.com/en/turkish-parliament-moves-to-strip-lawmakers-immunity-from-prosecution/a-19270449 Turkish parliament moves to strip lawmakers' immunity from prosecution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221044905/http://www.dw.com/en/turkish-parliament-moves-to-strip-lawmakers-immunity-from-prosecution/a-19270449 |date=21 December 2016 }}". [[Deutsche Welle]]. 20 May 2016.</ref><ref name="european court">{{cite news |title=Turkey Violated Pro-Kurdish MPs' Rights, European Court Rules |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2022/02/01/turkey-violated-pro-kurdish-mps-rights-european-court-rules/ |work=[[Balkan Insight]] |date=1 February 2022 |access-date=11 November 2022 |archive-date=11 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111080130/https://balkaninsight.com/2022/02/01/turkey-violated-pro-kurdish-mps-rights-european-court-rules/ |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]], there are 13 jailed journalists in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cpj.org/reports/2024/01/2023-prison-census-jailed-journalist-numbers-near-record-high-israel-imprisonments-spike/ |title=2023 prison census: Jailed journalist numbers near record high; Israel imprisonments spike |last=Getz |first=Arlene |website=[[Committee to Protect Journalists]] |access-date=30 September 2024}}</ref> In its 2023 report, the [[European Commission]] criticized how democratic institutions in Turkey operate.<ref>{{harvnb|EU Commission|2023|p=4}}</ref> The criticism was rejected by Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-291_-avrupa-birligi-komisyonu-2023-yili-turkiye-raporu-hk.en.mfa |title=No: 291, 8 November 2023, Press Release Regarding the European Commission 2023 Report on Türkiye |date=8 November 2023 |website=Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref> As of 2023, Turkey was the country with the highest number of [[European Court of Human Rights]] cases.<ref>{{harvnb|Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Justice Human Rights Department|2024|p=1}}</ref>
[[File:Gay_pride_Istanbul_2013_-_Taksim_Square.jpg|thumb|[[Istanbul Pride]] was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.<ref name="Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi"/>]]
Prior to 1858, Ottoman Empire had "a lenient legal accommodation of same-sex intimacy". When prosecuted, the punishment was monetary fines. In 1858, the 1810 French Penal Code was adopted by the Ottomans, which had no penalties for same-sex intimacy that is private.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/00918369.2020.1715142 |title=Decolonizing Decriminalization Analyses: Did the Ottomans Decriminalize Homosexuality in 1858? |date=2021 |last1=Ozsoy |first1=Elif Ceylan |journal=Journal of Homosexuality |volume=68 |issue=12 |pages=1979–2002 |pmid=32069182 |hdl=10871/120331 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Under the Republic, same sex acts have never been criminalized.<ref>{{harvnb|Özbek|2019|p=34}}</ref> However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/was-ahmet-yildiz-the-victim-of-turkeys-first-gay-honour-killing-871822.html|access-date=8 May 2021|title=Was Ahmet Yildiz the victim of Turkey's first gay honour killing?|work=Independent|date=19 July 2008|first=Nicholas|last=Birch}}</ref> In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2020/03/24/turkey-lgbt-acceptance-muslim-islam-kadir-has-university-istanbul-rights/|title=Almost half of people in Turkey think that LGBT+ people should have equal rights, nine percent more than last year, according to a survey|access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://bianet.org/english/lgbti/221831-survey-nearly-half-of-people-think-lgbti-s-should-have-equal-rights|title=Perceptions of Gender Equality|access-date=11 May 2010}}</ref>
When the annual [[Istanbul Pride]] was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turkey's LGBT community draws hope from Harvey Milk|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2013/12/turkey-lgbt-discrimination-legal-protection-public-awareness.html|access-date=27 January 2022|website=Al Monitor|date=17 June 2016}}</ref> Since 2015, parades at [[Taksim Square]] and [[İstiklal Avenue]] have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.<ref name="Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi"/> The bans were criticized.<ref name="Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi">{{Cite web|title=17th İstanbul LGBTI+ Pride Parade: Police Attack with Shields, Pepper Gas After Pride Parade Statement Read|url=https://www.bianet.org/english/lgbti/209921-police-attack-with-shields-pepper-gas-after-pride-parade-statement-read|website=Bianet – Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi}}</ref>
==
{{
{{See also|List of national parks of Turkey}}
[[File:Turkey topo.jpg|thumb|[[Topographic map]] of Turkey]]
Turkey covers an area of {{convert|783562|km2|sqmi|abbr=off}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/DYB2004/Table03.pdf|title=UN Demographic Yearbook|access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref> With [[Turkish straits]] and [[Sea of Marmara]] in between, Turkey bridges [[Western Asia]] and [[Southeastern Europe]].<ref name=Kuzucuoğlu_2019_p7>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|2019|p=7}}</ref> Turkey's Asian side covers 97% of its surface, and is often called [[Anatolia]].<ref name=anatolia_definition>
* {{harvnb|Waskey|2005|p=922}}: "Thrace, its European area, is about the size of VERMONT at 9,412 square mi (24,378 square km). Its Asian area (Asia Minor) is called Anatolia and covers 291,971 square mi (756,202 square km)"
* {{harvnb|Cohen|2008|p=125}}: "Anatolia, [Gr.=sunrise], Asiatic part of Turkey; its area covers 97% of all Turkey"
* {{harvnb|Akbulut|Bayarı|Akbulut|Özyurt|Sahin|2022|p=853}}: "About 97% of the country is in Asia Minor (Anatolia) and 3% in Europe (Thrace)"
* {{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#geography |title=Turkey (Turkiye) {{pipe}} Geography - note |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=31 May 2024}}: "the 97% of the country in Asia is referred to as Anatolia"
* {{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Anatolia |title=Anatolia |website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |access-date=29 February 2024}}: "Anatolia, the peninsula of land that today constitutes the Asian portion of Turkey"
* {{harvnb|Khatchadourian|2012|p=467}}
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=7}}
* {{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study {{pipe}} Geography |year=1995 |___location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}: "The Asian part of the country is known by a variety of names--Asia Minor, Asiatic Turkey, the Anatolian Plateau, and Anatolia (Anadolu)"</ref> Another definition of Anatolia's eastern boundary is an imprecise line from the [[Black Sea]] to [[Gulf of Iskenderun]].<ref>{{harvnb|Merriam-Webster, Inc|1997|p=46}}: "Anatolia: The part of Turkey in Asia equivalent to the peninsula of Asia Minor up to indefinite line on E from Gulf of Iskenderun to Black Sea comprising about three fifths of Turkey's provinces"</ref> [[Eastern Thrace]], Turkey's European side, includes around 10% of the population and covers 3% of the surface area.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/18.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study {{pipe}} Geography |year=1995 |___location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south.<ref name="Waskey 2005 922">{{harvnb|Waskey|2005|p=922}}</ref> Turkey is bordered by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Iran to the east.<ref name="Waskey 2005 922"/> To the south, it's bordered by Syria and Iraq.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://countrystudies.us/turkey/19.htm |editor=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Turkey: A Country Study {{pipe}} External Boundaries |year=1995 |___location=Washington |publisher=GPO for the Library of Congress |access-date=31 May 2024}}</ref> To the north, its Thracian area is bordered by Greece and Bulgaria.<ref name="Waskey 2005 922"/>
Turkey is divided into "[[Geographical regions of Turkey|seven major regions]]": [[Marmara Region|Marmara]], [[Aegean Region|Aegean]], [[Central Anatolia Region|Central Anatolia]], [[Black Sea Region|Black Sea]], [[Eastern Anatolia Region|Eastern Anatolia]], [[Southeastern Anatolia Region|Southeastern Anatolia]] and the [[Mediterranean Region, Turkey|Mediterranean]].<ref name="Waskey 2005 922"/> As a general trend, the inland [[Anatolian Plateau]] becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.<ref name="TRGeo_TRMinistryTourism">{{cite web |url=http://www.turizm.net/turkey/info/geography.html|title=Geography of Turkey|publisher=Turkish Ministry of Tourism|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2005}}</ref> Mountain ranges include [[Köroğlu Mountains|Köroğlu]] and [[Pontic Mountains|Pontic]] mountain ranges to the north, and the [[Taurus Mountains]] to the south. The [[Turkish Lakes Region|Lakes Region]] contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as [[Lake Beyşehir]] and [[Lake Eğirdir]].
[[File:Türkiye tectonic map.jpg|thumb|Tectonic map of Turkey.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10518-020-00793-4 |title=A practical probabilistic earthquake hazard analysis tool: Case study Marmara region |date=2020 |last1=Sianko |first1=Ilya |last2=Ozdemir |first2=Zuhal |last3=Khoshkholghi |first3=Soheil |last4=Garcia |first4=Reyes |last5=Hajirasouliha |first5=Iman |last6=Yazgan |first6=Ufuk |last7=Pilakoutas |first7=Kypros |journal=Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=2523–2555 |bibcode=2020BuEE...18.2523S |doi-access=free }}</ref> Straight lines and lines with triangles denote different types of [[fault (geology)|faults]], such as [[North Anatolian Fault]] and [[East Anatolian Fault]].]]
Geographers have used the eastern Anatolian plateau, Iranian plateau, and [[Armenian plateau]] terms to refer to the mountainous area around where [[Arabian Plate|Arabian]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]] tectonic plates merge. The eastern Anatolian plateau and Armenian plateau definitions largely overlap.<ref name=Oxford_Handbook_p466>{{harvnb|Khatchadourian|2012|p=467}}</ref> The [[Eastern Anatolia Region]] contains [[Mount Ararat]], Turkey's highest point at {{convert|5137|m|ft|abbr=off}},<ref name=mararat>{{cite web|title=Mount Ararat|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32131/Mount-Ararat|website=britannica.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> and [[Lake Van]], the largest lake in the country.<ref name=lvan>{{cite web|title=Lake Van|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/622548/Lake-Van|website=britannica.com|access-date=18 February 2015}}</ref> Eastern Turkey is home to the sources of rivers such as the [[Euphrates]], [[Tigris]] and [[Aras River|Aras]]. The [[Southeastern Anatolia Region]] includes the northern plains of [[Upper Mesopotamia]].
[[List of earthquakes in Turkey|Earthquakes]] happen frequently in Turkey.<ref name=Ahmed_2006_pp_1575_1576>{{harvnb|Ahmed|2006|pp=1575–1576}}</ref> Almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels, with around 70% in highest or second-highest seismic areas.<ref>{{harvnb|ISMEP Guide Books 4|2014|p=8}}</ref><ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/turkey/overview | title=Türkiye Overview |website=The World Bank |access-date=3 May 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503171625/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/turkey/overview |archive-date=3 May 2024}}</ref> [[Anatolian Sub-Plate|Anatolian plate]] is bordered by [[North Anatolian Fault]] zone to the north; [[East Anatolian Fault]] zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; [[Hellenic subduction zone|Hellenic]] and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and [[Aegean Sea Plate|Aegean extensional zone]] to the west.<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=41}}</ref> After [[1999 İzmit earthquake|1999 İzmit]] and [[1999 Düzce earthquake|1999 Düzce]] earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Şengör|Çiner|2019|p=33}}</ref> [[2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes]] were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://apnews.com/article/earthquakes-2023-turkey-syria-earthquake-government-8694408019fb13a8131cb146c347ec88 | title=Rising toll makes quake deadliest in Turkey's modern history | website=[[Associated Press News]] | date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231028102813/https://apnews.com/article/earthquakes-2023-turkey-syria-earthquake-government-8694408019fb13a8131cb146c347ec88 |archive-date=28 October 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to [[Chile]], a country with a similar [[List of countries by Human Development Index|developmental level]] that is more successful with [[earthquake preparedness]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/esra-akgemci-america-invertida/sili-ve-turkiye-binalar-yasatir-binalar-oldurur,38646 | title=Şili ve Türkiye: Binalar yaşatır, binalar öldürür | website=T24 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818082406/https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/esra-akgemci-america-invertida/sili-ve-turkiye-binalar-yasatir-binalar-oldurur,38646 |archive-date=18 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/703981/r%C3%B6portaj/profes%C3%B6r-mustafa-erdik-t%C3%BCrkiyede-imar-bar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1-olmasayd%C4%B1-da-%C3%A7ok-%C5%9Fey-de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fmezdi | title=Profesör Mustafa Erdik: Türkiye'de imar barışı olmasaydı da çok şey değişmezdi | website=Independent Türkçe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406122353/https://www.indyturk.com/node/703981/r%C3%B6portaj/profes%C3%B6r-mustafa-erdik-t%C3%BCrkiyede-imar-bar%C4%B1%C5%9F%C4%B1-olmasayd%C4%B1-da-%C3%A7ok-%C5%9Fey-de%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fmezdi |archive-date=6 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd125km7pzjo | title=Şili depremle mücadelede nasıl başarılı oldu? | date=29 August 2023 | website=BBC News Türkçe |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231229194006/https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/cd125km7pzjo |archive-date=29 December 2023}}</ref>
===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Wildlife of Turkey|Fauna of Turkey|Flora and vegetation of Turkey}}
{{See also|Environmental issues in Turkey}}
{{multiple image|perrow = 2 2|total_width=400| align = right
| image1 = Biodiversity Hotspots Map.jpg
| image2 = Uzungöl, Trabzon.jpg
| image3 = Cappadocia Aerial View Landscape.jpg
| image4 = Çıralı, Kemer cropped.jpg
| footer = Top left: Turkey encompasses rich biodiversity;<ref name=Kuzucuoğlu_2019_p7/> it includes three [[biodiversity hotspot]] areas out of 36 in the world.<ref name="Birben_2019">{{cite journal |last1=Birben |first1=Üstüner |date=2019 |title=The Effectiveness of Protected Areas in Biodiversity Conservation: The Case of Turkey |journal=CERNE |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=424–438 |doi=10.1590/01047760201925042644 |quote=Turkey has 3 out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots on Earth: the Mediterranean, Caucasus, and Irano-Anatolian hotspots|doi-access=free | issn = 0104-7760 }}</ref>
Three examples in the Caucasus, Mediterranean, and Irano-Anatolian hotspot areas are shown (clockwise starting with top right). The Eastern [[Black Sea Region]] is home to mountainous terrain and lush forests<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|pp=45–46}}</ref> ([[Uzungöl]] in [[Trabzon]] is shown). [[Mediterranean Region, Turkey|Mediterranean Region]] is "characterized by high relief contrasts and the proximity of the sea"<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=66}}</ref> ([[Çıralı]] village in [[Antalya Province|Antalya]] is shown). Landscapes in [[Central Anatolia Region]] was influenced by volcanic activity<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=96}}</ref> ([[Cappadocia]] in Central Anatolia<ref>{{harvnb|Çiner|Aydar|2019|p=535}}</ref> is shown).}}
Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three [[Old World]] continents and the variety of the habitats across [[List of ecoregions in Turkey|its ecoregions]] have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Biodiversity in Turkey|url=http://iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/?9778/Biodiversity-in-Turkey|access-date=9 August 2014|date=6 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407201045/http://iucn.org/about/union/secretariat/offices/europe/?9778%2FBiodiversity-in-Turkey|archive-date=7 April 2016}}</ref> Out of the 36 [[biodiversity hotspot]]s in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.<ref name="Birben_2019"/> These are the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]], [[Irano-Anatolian]], and [[Caucasus]] hotspots.<ref name=Birben_2019/>
The [[Forest in Turkey|forests of Turkey]] are home to the [[Quercus cerris|Turkey oak]]. The most commonly found species of the genus [[Platanus|''Platanus'' (plane)]] is the ''[[Platanus orientalis|orientalis]]''. The [[Pinus brutia|Turkish pine (''Pinus brutia'')]] is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. Several wild species of [[tulip]] are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first [[Tulip#Introduction to Western Europe|introduced to Western Europe]] with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.<ref name="Blunt 7">{{cite book|last=Blunt|first=Wilfrid|title=Tulipomania|page=7}}</ref><ref>E.S. Forster (trans. et ed.), ''The Turkish Letters of [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq]]'' (Oxford, 1927).</ref>
There are [[List of national parks of Turkey|40 national parks]], 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as [[Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park]], [[Mount Nemrut National Park]], [[Troy|Ancient Troy National Park]], [[Ölüdeniz Nature Park]] and [[Polonezköy Nature Park]].<ref name=ministryofforest>{{cite web|title=Statistics|url=http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/Anasayfa/istatistik.aspx?sflang=tr|website=milliparklar.gov.tr|publisher=Ministry of Forest and Water – General Directorare of Nature Conservation and National Parks|access-date=12 June 2014|archive-date=17 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151217050153/http://www.milliparklar.gov.tr/Anasayfa/istatistik.aspx?sflang=tr}}</ref> The [[Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests]] is an [[ecoregion]] which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the [[Caucasus mixed forests]] extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]], [[golden eagle]], [[eastern imperial eagle]], [[lesser spotted eagle]], [[Caucasian black grouse]], [[red-fronted serin]], and [[wallcreeper]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Couzens|first=Dominic|title=Top 100 Birding Sites of the World|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-520-25932-4|pages=73–75}}</ref>
The [[Panthera pardus tulliana|Anatolian leopard]] is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.<ref name=O.E.Can>Can, O.E. (2004). ''[http://www1.nina.no/lcie_new/pdf/635012243306881534_COE%20LCs%20in%20Turkey%202004.pdf Status, conservation and management of large carnivores in Turkey]''. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee, 24th meeting, 29 November-3 December 2004, Strasbourg.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknik/diyarbakirda-oldurulen-leopar-iran-parsi-cikti-109086.html|title=Diyarbakır'da öldürülen leopar İran Parsı çıktı|date=19 November 2013 |access-date=21 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023123101/http://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknik/diyarbakirda-oldurulen-leopar-iran-parsi-cikti-109086.html|archive-date=23 October 2016}}</ref> The [[Eurasian lynx]], the [[European wildcat]] and the [[caracal]] are other [[Felidae|felid]] species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The [[Caspian tiger]], now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.<ref name=O.E.Can /><ref name="Üstay">Üstay, A.H. (1990). ''Hunting in Turkey''. BBA, Istanbul.</ref> Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the [[Turkish Angora|Angora cat]], [[Angora rabbit]] and [[Angora goat]]; and from [[Van Province]] the [[Turkish Van|Van cat]]. The national dog breeds are the [[Kangal Shepherd Dog|Kangal]] ([[Anatolian Shepherd]]), [[Aksaray Malaklisi|Malaklı]] and [[Akbash|Akbaş]].<ref name="gateofturkey">{{cite web|title=Specific Animals of Turkey|url=http://www.gateofturkey.com/section/tr/741/5/turizm-nature-tourism-endemic-animals|website=gateofturkey.com|access-date=12 June 2014|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305111002/http://www.gateofturkey.com/section/tr/741/5/turizm-nature-tourism-endemic-animals}}</ref>
===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Turkey}}
{{See also|Climate change in Turkey}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map TUR present.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification system|Köppen climate types]] of Turkey for the 1980–2016 period<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |date=2018 |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |journal=Scientific Data |volume=5 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]]
There is a large variation in Turkey’s climate due to the rising overall elevation eastwards and the mountains that run alongside the coasts.<ref name=Kuzucuoğlu_2019_p7/> Average annual temperatures in entire Turkey range between {{convert|0|to|25|C|F}}.<ref name=Sensoy_etal_p1>{{harvnb|Sensoy|Demircan|Ulupinar|Balta|n.d.|p=1}}</ref> Some of the characteristics of Turkey's climate include warm to hot summers with milder winter temperatures compared to other [[Middle latitude|middle-latitude areas]], intense sunlight in summer, winters having around half of the annual [[precipitation]], and the influence of the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]]s.<ref name=Turunçoğlu_etal_2018_p27>{{harvnb|Turunçoğlu|Türkeş|Bozkurt|Önol|Şen|Dalfes|2018|p=27}}</ref> Exceptions to the milder climate are some of the interior and eastern parts of Turkey,<ref name=Turunçoğlu_etal_2018_p27/> which have cold winters and hot summers.<ref name=Sensoy_etal_p1/>
[[File:Lake Marmara.webp|thumb|[[Lake Marmara]] has almost dried out due to [[climate change in Turkey]] that has resulted in the redirecting of water for irrigation and drinking purposes.<ref name="j871">{{cite web | title=Lake Marmara dries up, villagers call for action | website=Hürriyet Daily News | date=June 11, 2024 | url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/lake-marmara-dries-up-villagers-call-for-action-197286 | access-date=March 4, 2025}}</ref> |alt=dried cracked mud with sparse metre-high green plants]]
There are several major climate types in Turkey under the [[Köppen climate classification]]. [[Mediterranean climate]] is found in the Mediterranean, Aegean, Marmara, and Southeastern Antolia regions. In the Black Sea area, [[Humid subtropical climate|humid subtropical climate]] or [[Oceanic climate|oceanic climate]] are usually found. Parts of Central Anatolia and Eastern Anatolia include [[semi-arid climate]] and [[continental climate]] types.<ref name=Turkes_2020_pp105–10>{{harvnb|Turkes|2020|pp=105–107}}</ref>
Turkey is highly [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]],<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change>{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=7}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Turunçoğlu|Türkeş|Bozkurt|Önol|Şen|Dalfes|2018|p=25}}</ref> due to socioeconomic, climatic, and geographic factors.<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change/> This applies to nine out of ten climate vulnerability dimensions, such as "average annual risk to wellbeing".<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change/> [[OECD]] median is two out of ten.<ref name=World_Bank_climate_change/> Inclusive and swift growth is needed for decreasing vulnerability.<ref>{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=28}}: "The first prerequisite for reducing vulnerability and impacts of climate change is rapid, robust, and inclusive growth"</ref> Turkey aims to achieve [[net zero emissions]] by 2053.<ref name="World Bank Türkiye">{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|p=6}}</ref><ref name="auto9"/> Accomplishing climate goals would require large investments, but would also result in net economic benefits, broadly due to reduced imports of fuel and due to better health from lowering air pollution.<ref>{{harvnb|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022|pp=9,51}}</ref>
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Turkey}}
{{See also|Tourism in Turkey}}
[[File:Türkiye-gdp-worldbank-constant-usd.png|thumb|Turkey's nominal [[gross domestic product]] between 1960 and 2023 in 2015 [[constant dollars|constant US dollars]]<ref>{{cite web |author1=World Bank |author2=OECD |date=24 January 2025 |title=Gross domestic product (GDP): In constant US$ |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gdp-worldbank-constant-usd?tab=chart&country=~TUR |website=Our World in Data |access-date=5 June 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=World Bank national accounts data, and OECD National Accounts data files |date=n.d. |title=GDP (constant 2015 US$) - Turkiye |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD?locations=TR |website=World Bank |access-date=14 April 2025}}</ref>]]
Turkey is an [[Gross national income|upper-middle]]-income country and an [[emerging market]].<ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024/><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2021/06/the-future-of-emerging-markets-duttagupta-and-pazarbasioglu.htm |last1=Duttagupta |first1=Rupa |last2=Pazarbasioglu |first2=Ceyla |title=Miles to Go: Emerging markets must balance overcoming the pandemic, returning to more normal policies, and rebuilding their economies | website =[[International Monetary Fund]] |access-date =5 May 2024
|url-status =live |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20240505173301/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2021/06/the-future-of-emerging-markets-duttagupta-and-pazarbasioglu.htm |archive-date =5 May 2024}}</ref> A founding member of the [[OECD]] and [[G20]], it has the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|16th-largest economy by nominal]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|12th-largest]] by [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]-adjusted GDP in the world.<ref name=IMF_WEO_Body>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c=512,914,612,171,614,311,213,911,314,193,122,912,313,419,513,316,913,124,339,638,514,218,963,616,223,516,918,748,618,624,522,622,156,626,628,228,924,233,632,636,634,238,662,960,423,935,128,611,321,243,248,469,253,642,643,939,734,644,819,172,132,646,648,915,134,652,174,328,258,656,654,336,263,268,532,944,176,534,536,429,433,178,436,136,343,158,439,916,664,826,542,967,443,917,544,941,446,666,668,672,946,137,546,674,676,548,556,678,181,867,682,684,273,868,921,948,943,686,688,518,728,836,558,138,196,278,692,694,962,142,449,564,565,283,853,288,293,566,964,182,359,453,968,922,714,862,135,716,456,722,942,718,724,576,936,961,813,726,199,733,184,524,361,362,364,732,366,144,146,463,528,923,738,578,537,742,866,369,744,186,925,869,746,926,466,112,111,298,927,846,299,582,487,474,754,698,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database |date=October 2024 |website=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> It is classified among [[newly industrialized countries]]. The [[service sector]] accounts for 61% of the economy, whereas industry accounts for 32% and agriculture contributes about 7%.<ref>{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=7}}</ref> According to [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $42,451 in 2025, while its nominal GDP per capita is $16,709.<ref name=IMF_WEO_Body/> [[Foreign direct investment]] in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD?locations=TR|title=Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) – Turkey|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=10 August 2021}}</ref> Potential growth is weakened by long-lasting structural and macro obstacles, such as slow rates of productivity growth and high inflation.<ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024/>
Turkey has a diversified economy; main industries include automobiles, electronics, textiles, construction, steel, mining, and food processing.<ref name=World_Factbook_Economy>{{cite web| url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#economy| title=Turkey (Turkiye) - Economy| date=May 2024 |publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]] |access-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> Machinery and manufacturing lead among products in Turkey's merchandise exports.<ref>{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=22}}</ref> Turkey is a [[List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities|major agricultural producer]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/turkiye/fao-in-turkiye/turkey-at-a-glance/en/ |title=FAO in Türkiye {{pipe}} Türkiye at a glance |website=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |access-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221220061208/https://www.fao.org/turkiye/fao-in-turkiye/turkey-at-a-glance/en/ |archive-date=20 December 2022}}</ref> It ranks [[List of countries by steel production|8th in crude steel production]], and [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|13th in motor vehicle production]], ship building (by [[tonnage]]), and annual industrial robot installation in the world.<ref>
*{{cite web |url=https://worldsteel.org/data/annual-production-steel-data/?ind=P1_crude_steel_total_pub/CHN/IND | title=Total production of crude steel |website=The World Steel Association |date=22 March 2024 }}
*{{Cite web|title=2022 Production Statistics|url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2022-statistics/|publisher=OICA|accessdate=18 April 2023|website=oica.net}}
*{{cite web |url=https://unctadstat.unctad.org/datacentre/dataviewer/US.ShipBuilding |title=Ships built by country of building, annual |date=8 November 2023 |publisher=[[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] |access-date=9 May 2024}}
*{{cite web| url=https://www.marinedealnews.com/in-world-ranking-we-are-6th-based-on-the-number-of-pieces-and-13th-based-on-tonnage |title='In world ranking, we are 6th based on the number of pieces, and 13th based on tonnage' |date=15 June 2022 |access-date=9 May 2024}}
*{{cite web| url=https://ifr.org/wr-industrial-robots/ |title=World Robotics - Industrial Robots |website=The International Federation of Robotics |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521174431/https://ifr.org/wr-industrial-robots/ |archive-date=21 May 2024}}</ref> [[Automotive industry in Turkey|Turkish automative companies]] include [[TEMSA]], [[Otokar]], [[BMC (Turkey)|BMC]] and [[Togg]]. Togg is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. [[Arçelik]], [[Vestel]], and [[Beko]] are major manufacturers of consumer electronics.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1274804 |title=Integration with the Global Economy: The Case of Turkish Automobile and Consumer Electronics Industries |date=2008 |last1=Taymaz |first1=Erol |last2=Yilmaz |first2=Kamil |hdl=10986/28034 |journal=SSRN|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Arçelik is one of the largest producers of household goods in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/256a6a6c-e355-44d3-b8b7-a6cc90996d3a |title=Beko owner warns of 'very tough' 2024 for Europe's home appliance market |publisher=Financial Times |date=31 October 2023 |access-date=10 May 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509230916/https://www.ft.com/content/256a6a6c-e355-44d3-b8b7-a6cc90996d3a |archive-date=9 May 2024}}</ref> In 2022, Turkey ranked second in the world in terms of the number of international contractors in the top 250 list.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tmb.org.tr/files/doc/TCIM_01022023.pdf |title= Turkish International Contracting Services: (1972-2022) |website=Turkish Contractors Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114161257/https://www.tmb.org.tr/files/doc/TCIM_01022023.pdf |archive-date=14 January 2024}}</ref> It is also the fifth largest in the world in terms of textile exports.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/tr/Sectoral_Roadmaps_Textile_Sector_in_Turkey-re2.pdf |title=Sectoral Roadmaps: Textile Sector in Turkey |website=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |year=2020}}</ref>
[[File:Bodrum - 39976741843.jpg|thumb|[[Bodrum]] in [[Turkish Riviera]]. Bodrum peninsula is a high-end spot for vacationers.<ref>{{harvnb|Kuzucuoğlu|Çiner|Kazancı|2019a|p=62}}</ref>]]
Turkey's services exports are mostly transport and tourism.<ref>{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=114}}</ref> Tourism accounts for about 8% of Turkey's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wttc.org/news-article/turkeys-travel-and-tourism-sector-to-grow-at-twice-the-rate-of-the-national-economy |title=Turkey's Travel & Tourism Sector to Grow at Twice the Rate of the National Economy |website=[[World Travel and Tourism Council]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121043536/https://wttc.org/news-article/turkeys-travel-and-tourism-sector-to-grow-at-twice-the-rate-of-the-national-economy |archive-date=21 January 2024}}</ref> In 2024, Turkey [[World Tourism rankings#Most visited destinations by international tourist arrivals|ranked fourth in the world]] in the number of international tourist arrivals with 60.6 million foreign tourists.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/UNWTO_Barom23_02_May_EXCERPT_final.pdf?VersionId=gGmuSXlwfM1yoemsRrBI9ZJf.Vmc9gYD |title=International Tourism – 2023 starts on a strong note with the Middle East recovering 2019 levels in the first quarter|website=UNWTO|access-date=25 August 2023}}</ref> Turkey has [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|22 UNESCO World Heritage Sites]] and [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey (Tentative list)|84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list]]. Turkey is home to 625 [[Blue Flag beaches]], third most in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.blueflag.global/all-bf-sites|title=Blue Flag sites|website=Blue Flag}}</ref> In 2024, [[Euromonitor International]] ranked [[Istanbul]] and [[Antalya]] among [[List of cities by international visitors|the top ten most visited cities in the world]].<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=4 December 2024 |title=Euromonitor International reveals world’s Top 100 City Destinations for 2024 |url=https://www.euromonitor.com/press/press-releases/december-2024/euromonitor-international-reveals-worlds-top-100-city-destinations-for-2024 |website=Euromonitor International |access-date=19 May 2025}}</ref> [[Turkish Airlines]] is one of the [[largest airlines in the world]].
Between 2007 and 2021, the share of population below the PPP-$6.85 per day [[poverty threshold|international poverty threshold]] declined from 20% to 7.6%.<ref name=WorldBank_Overview_April_2024/> In 2023, 13.9% of the population was below the national at-risk-of-poverty rate.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Poverty-and-Living-Conditions-Statistics-2023-53713&dil=2 | title=Poverty and Living Conditions Statistics, 2023 |publisher=[[Turkish Statistical Institute]] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=30 January 2024 |access-date=5 May 2024}}</ref> In 2021, 34% of the population were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, using [[Eurostat]] definition.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_peps01n/default/table?lang=en
|title=Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion by age and sex
|date=2022
|publisher=[[Eurostat]]
|access-date=5 May 2024
|doi=10.2908/ILC_PEPS01N
|author1=Eurostat
}}</ref> Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (national estimate) – Turkey {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.NE.ZS?locations=TR|access-date=14 April 2021|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> In 2021, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Income-and-Living-Conditions-Survey-2021-45581&dil=2|date=6 May 2022|title=Income and Living Conditions Survey, 2021|author-link=Turkish Statistical Institute|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|access-date=6 January 2023}}</ref> Compared to the OECD average, [[labor force participation]] of women is lower. Affordable [[childcare]] and better [[parental leave]] policies are needed to lift women's employment.<ref name="auto9">{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=9}}</ref>
===Infrastructure===
{{Main|Energy in Turkey|Renewable energy in Turkey|Transport in Turkey}}
{{See also|Communications in Turkey|Water supply and sanitation in Turkey}}
[[File:Türkiye installed electricity capacity.png|thumb|Installed electricity capacity in Turkey between 2000 and 2024 in terms of gigawatts<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date= |title=Ember Electricity Data Explorer |url=https://ember-energy.org/data/electricity-data-explorer/ |website=Ember |access-date=13 May 2025}}</ref>]]
Turkey is the [[List of countries by electricity production|15th-largest electricity]] and [[List of countries by renewable electricity production|13th-largest renewable electricity]] producer in the world. [[Energy in Turkey|Turkey's energy generation]] capacity increased significantly, with [[Renewable energy in Turkey|electricity generation from renewable sources]] tripling in the past decade.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/12/30-years-of-world-bank-group-partnership-with-turkey-achieving-development-results-together |title=30 Years of World Bank Group Partnership with Turkey: Achieving Development Results Together |website=World Bank |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508085807/https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2019/04/12/30-years-of-world-bank-group-partnership-with-turkey-achieving-development-results-together |archive-date=8 May 2023}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=3}}</ref> It produced 43.8% of [[Electricity sector in Turkey|its electricity]] from such sources in 2019.<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=73}}</ref> Turkey is also the [[Geothermal power#Utility-grade stations|fourth-largest producer]] of [[Geothermal energy in Turkey|geothermal power]] in the world.<ref name="2019 Capacity">{{cite news|last=Richter|first=Alexander|url=https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/|title=The Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2019 – based on installed generation capacity (MWe)|publisher=Think GeoEnergy – Geothermal Energy News|date=27 January 2020|access-date=19 February 2021|archive-date=26 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126085813/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey's first nuclear power station, [[Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant|Akkuyu]], will increase diversification of its energy mix.<ref name="IEA 2021">{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=11}}</ref> When it comes to [[World energy supply and consumption#Final consumption|total final consumption]], fossil fuels still play a large role, accounting for 73%.<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|pp=18–19}}</ref> A major reason of [[greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey|Turkey's greenhouse gas emissions]] is the [[coal in Turkey|large proportion of coal]] in the energy system.<ref>{{harvnb|IEA|2021|p=172}}</ref> As of 2017, while the government had invested in low carbon energy transition, [[Fossil fuel subsidies|fossil fuels were still subsidized]].<ref>{{harvnb|Taranto|Saygın|2019|p=7}}</ref> By 2053, Turkey aims to have [[net zero emissions]].<ref name="World Bank Türkiye"/><ref name="auto9"/>
[[File:İstanbul Yeni Havalimanı airport Dec 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Istanbul Airport]] is one of the [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|top 10 busiest airports in the world]]]]
Turkey has made security of its energy supply a top priority, given its heavy reliance on gas and oil imports.<ref name="IEA 2021"/> Turkey's main energy supply sources are [[Energy in Russia|Russia]], West Asia, and Central Asia.<ref name="Martin 2012 234–235"/> [[Gas in Turkey|Gas production]] began in 2023 in the recently discovered [[Sakarya gas field]]. When fully operational, it will supply about 30% of the natural gas needed domestically.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/news/tpao-production-sakarya/ |title=Turkey's TPAO begins gas production from Sakarya field in Black Sea |date=21 April 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240310035925/https://www.offshore-technology.com/news/tpao-production-sakarya/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.offshore-technology.com/projects/sakarya-gas-field-development-black-sea-turkey/ |title=Sakarya Gas Field Development, Black Sea, Turkey |date=1 February 2023}}</ref> Turkey aims to become a hub for regional energy transportation.<ref name="Novikau_Muhasilović_2023">{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21535|doi-access=free |title=Turkey's quest to become a regional energy hub: Challenges and opportunities |date=2023 |last1=Novikau |first1=Aliaksandr |last2=Muhasilović |first2=Jahja |journal=Heliyon |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=e21535 |pmid=38027852 |pmc=10660518 |bibcode=2023Heliy...921535N }}</ref> Several oil and gas pipelines span the country, including the [[Blue Stream]], [[TurkStream]], and [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline|Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan]] pipelines.<ref name="Novikau_Muhasilović_2023"/>
As of 2023, Turkey has 3,726 kilometers of [[Otoyol|controlled-access highways]] and 29,373 kilometers of [[Dual carriageway|divided highways]].<ref>{{harvnb|KGM|2023|pp=12, 14}}</ref> Multiple bridges and tunnels connect Asian and European sides of Turkey; the [[Çanakkale 1915 Bridge]] on the [[Dardanelles]] strait is the [[List of longest suspension bridge spans#Completed suspension bridges|longest suspension bridge in the world]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60823822 |title=Turkey opens record breaking 1915 Canakkale Bridge |newspaper=BBC Newsround |date=22 March 2022 |url-status=live |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327010256/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/60823822}}</ref> [[Marmaray]] and [[Eurasia Tunnel|Eurasia]] tunnels under the [[Bosporus]] connect both sides of Istanbul.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aa.com.tr/en/economy/istanbuls-13bn-eurasia-tunnel-prepares-to-open/709440|title=Istanbul's $1.3BN Eurasia Tunnel prepares to open|publisher=[[Anadolu Agency]]|date=19 December 2016}}</ref> The [[Osman Gazi Bridge]] connects the northern and southern shores of the [[Gulf of İzmit]].
[[Turkish State Railways]] operates both conventional and high speed trains, with the government expanding both.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/turkiye-cumhuriyetin-100-yilinda-hizli-tren-aglariyla-oruluyor-806423.html |title=Türkiye, Cumhuriyet'in 100. Yılında hızlı tren ağlarıyla örülüyor |website=TRT Haber |date=25 October 2023 |url-status=live |archive-date=3 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231103231440/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/ekonomi/turkiye-cumhuriyetin-100-yilinda-hizli-tren-aglariyla-oruluyor-806423.html}}</ref> [[High-speed rail in Turkey|High-speed rail]] lines include the [[Ankara-Istanbul high-speed railway|Ankara-Istanbul]], [[Ankara-Konya high-speed railway|Ankara-Konya]], and [[Ankara–Sivas high-speed railway|Ankara-Sivas]] routes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tcddtasimacilik.gov.tr/seferler/yuksek-hizli-tren |title=Yüksek Hızlı Tren |website=TCDD Taşımacılık |access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref> [[Istanbul Metro]] is the largest subway network in the country with around 704 million annual ridership in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.metro.istanbul/Content/assets/uploaded/Y%C4%B1llara-G%C3%B6re-Hat-Bazl%C4%B1-Ayl%C4%B1k-Yolcu-Say%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.pdf |title=Istanbul Metro Passenger Statistics |newspaper=Istanbul Metro |language=tr |date=6 January 2020 |access-date=16 January 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727060224/https://www.metro.istanbul/Content/assets/uploaded/Y%C4%B1llara-G%C3%B6re-Hat-Bazl%C4%B1-Ayl%C4%B1k-Yolcu-Say%C4%B1lar%C4%B1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are [[List of airports in Turkey|115 airports]] as of 2024.<ref name=CIA_transport>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkey-turkiye/#transportation |title=Turkey (Turkiye) |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=14 May 2024}}</ref> [[Istanbul Airport]] is one of the [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|top 10 busiest airports]] in the world. Turkey aims to become a transportation hub.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-is-advancing-on-path-to-becoming-logistics-super-power-erdogan-172956 |title=Erdoğan reveals 2053 'Transport and Logistics Master Plan' |date=13 April 2022 |website=[[Hürriyet Daily News]]}}</ref><ref name="Atlı_2018">{{cite journal |last1=Atlı |first1=Altay |year=2018 |title=Turkey as a Eurasian Transport Hub: Prospects for Inter-Regional Partnership |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/perception/issue/39593/468106 |journal=PERCEPTIONS: Journal of International Affairs |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=117–134}}</ref> It is part of various routes that connect Asia and Europe, including [[Trans-Caspian International Transport Route|the Middle Corridor]].<ref name="Atlı_2018"/> In 2024, Turkey, Iraq, UAE, and Qatar signed an agreement to link Iraqi port facilities to Turkey via road and rail connections.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-turkey-qatar-uae-sign-preliminary-deal-cooperate-development-road-project-2024-04-22/ |title=Iraq, Turkey, Qatar, UAE sign preliminary deal to cooperate on Development Road project |website=Reuters |date=22 April 2024}}</ref>
===Science and technology===
{{Main|Science and technology in Turkey}}
{{See also|Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey}}
[[File:TaiIDEF2015 (8).JPG|thumb|[[Göktürk-1]], [[Göktürk-2]] and [[Göktürk-3]] are the [[Earth observation satellite]]s of the [[Ministry of National Defense (Turkey)|Turkish Ministry of National Defense]], while state-owned [[Türksat (company)|Türksat]] operates the [[Türksat (satellite)|Türksat series]] of [[communications satellite]]s.]]
Turkey's spending on [[research and development]] as a share of GDP has risen from 0.47% in 2000 to 1.40% in 2023,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |author=OECD |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D (indicator) |year=2024 |access-date=9 May 2025}}</ref> although it is still around half of the average for the OECD.<ref name="auto2">{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=92}}</ref> [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|Turkey ranks 16th in the world]] in terms of article output in scientific and technical journals, and 35th in [[Nature Index]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IP.JRN.ARTC.SC?most_recent_value_desc=true | title=Scientific and technical journal articles |website=The World Bank |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nature.com/nature-index/country-outputs/generate/all/global |title=Nature Index {{pipe}} Country/Territory tables |website=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref> Turkish patent office ranks 21st worldwide in overall patent applications, and 3rd in industrial design applications. Vast majority of applicants to the Turkish patent office are Turkish residents. In all patent offices globally, [[World Intellectual Property Indicators#Latest filing trends by country of origin|Turkish residents rank 21st for overall patent applications]].<ref name="WIPO_Türkiye">{{Cite web |ref={{harvid|WIPO Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye|2023}} |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2023 |title=Intellectual property statistical country profile 2022: Türkiye |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328212456/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/statistics-country-profile/en/tr.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2024, Turkey ranked 37th in the world and 3rd among its upper-middle income group in the [[Global Innovation Index]].<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2024|p=18}}</ref> [[Istanbul]] and [[Ankara]] rank among the top 100 science and technology clusters in the world.<ref>{{harvnb|World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)|2024|pp=76–77}}</ref> [[Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey|TÜBİTAK]] is one of the main agencies for funding and carrying out research.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tubitak.gov.tr/en/institutional/about-us/who-we-are |title=Who we are |publisher=TÜBİTAK |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="euraxess_Türkiye">{{cite web |url=https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/worldwide/north-america/news/country-profile-turkiye |title=EURAXESS {{pipe}} Country profile: Türkiye |website=The European Union |date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240419174635/https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/worldwide/north-america/news/country-profile-turkiye |archive-date=19 April 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|OECD|2025|p=94}}</ref>
Although Turkey needs more national innovation,<ref>{{harvnb|OECD|2025|pp=9, 14}}</ref> it is improving in areas such as high technology and defense.<ref name="auto2"/> To boost the output of high-[[value-added]] products, Turkey launched its National Technology Initiative in 2019.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48720513 |jstor=48720513 |title=Insights into Türkiye's Technology Development Journey |last1=Temel |first1=Serdal |journal=Insight Turkey |date=2023 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=47–62 |doi=10.25253/99.2023251.3 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> In line with its research priorities, Turkey developed roadmaps in various areas such as [[Materials science|advanced materials]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[biotechnology]], [[internet of things]], [[nanoelectronics]], [[robotics]], and [[quantum technology]].<ref name="euraxess_Türkiye"/> Some of the main science and technology programs include the National Research Program, Industry and Technology Strategy, Climate Change Strategy, National Artificial Intelligence Strategy, and [[Space program of Turkey|National Space Program]].<ref name="euraxess_Türkiye"/> In 2024 and 2025, Turkey's first [[particle accelerator|electron accelerator]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknoloji/yerli-super-iletken-elektron-hizlandiricisi-devreye-alindi-856187.html |title=Yerli süper iletken elektron hızlandırıcısı devreye alındı |date=8 May 2024 |website=TRT Haber |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511083602/https://www.trthaber.com/haber/bilim-teknoloji/yerli-super-iletken-elektron-hizlandiricisi-devreye-alindi-856187.html |archive-date=11 May 2024}}</ref> [[quantum computing|quantum computer]],<ref>{{cite news |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=21 November 2024 |title=Türkiye'nin ilk kuantum bilgisayarı 'QuanT' tanıtıldı |url=https://tr.euronews.com/next/2024/11/21/turkiyenin-ilk-kuantum-bilgisayari-quant-tanitildi |work=[[Euronews]] |access-date=9 May 2025}}</ref> and [[Türksat 6A|communication satellite manufactured domestically]] became operational.<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=21 April 2025 |title=İlk Yerli ve Milli Haberleşme Uydumuz TÜRKSAT 6A Resmi Olarak Görevine Başladı |url=https://tubitak.gov.tr/tr/haber/ilk-yerli-ve-milli-haberlesme-uydumuz-turksat-6a-resmi-olarak-gorevine-basladi |website=[[Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey|TÜBİTAK]] |language=TR |access-date=9 May 2025}}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Turkey}}
{{see also|Turkish people}}
[[File:Historical peninsula and modern skyline of Istanbul.jpg|thumb|right|[[Istanbul]] is Turkey's largest city,<ref name="2021stat">{{cite web |date=6 February 2023 |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2022 |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2022-49685&dil=2 |access-date=22 May 2023 |publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute}}</ref> and its economic and financial center.]]
According to the ''Address-Based Population Recording System'', the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> 93% lived in [[urban area|province and district centers]].<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> People within the 15–64 and 0–14 age groups corresponded to 68.3% and 21.4% of the total population, respectively. Those aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb_id=39&ust_id=11 |title=Population Statistics And Projections |publisher=Turkstat.gov.tr |access-date=24 July 2023}}</ref> however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> In 2023, the [[total fertility rate]] was 1.51 children per woman, [[Sub-replacement fertility|below the replacement rate of 2.10 per woman]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Birth-Statistics-2023-53708 |title=Birth Statistics, 2023 |publisher=[[Turkish Statistical Institute]] |website=www.tuik.gov.tr |date=15 May 2024 |access-date=19 May 2024}}</ref> In a 2018 health survey, the ideal children number was 2.8 children per woman, rising to 3 per married woman.<ref>{{harvnb|Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies|2019|p=72}}</ref>
===Ethnicity and language===
{{see also|Turkish people|Minorities in Turkey|Languages of Turkey|Turkish language}}
[[File:Kurdish population by region (KONDA 2010).png|upright=1.3|thumb|Percentage of [[Kurds in Turkey|ethnic Kurds in Turkey]] by region (2010)<ref name=KONDAkurd>{{cite web|title=Kürt Meselesi̇ni̇ Yeni̇den Düşünmek|url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2010_12_KONDA_Kurt_Meselesini_Yeniden_Dusunmek.pdf|publisher=KONDA|access-date=11 June 2013|pages=19–20|date=July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160122110447/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2010_12_KONDA_Kurt_Meselesini_Yeniden_Dusunmek.pdf|archive-date=22 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Article 66 of the [[Turkish Constitution]] defines a ''Turk'' as anyone who is a citizen.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bayir|first=Derya|title=Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law|date=22 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-09579-8|pages=144–145}}</ref> It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.<ref name=mutlu>{{cite journal |doi=10.1017/S0020743800063819 |title=Ethnic Kurds in Turkey: A Demographic Study |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=517–541 |year=1996 |last1=Mutlu |first1=Servet |s2cid=154212694}}</ref> Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the [[1965 Turkish census]].<ref name="Turkey_Ethnic_groups">{{Cite book|title=The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational Perspectives|first=Guus|last=Extra|author2=Gorter, Durk |publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2001|isbn=978-1-85359-509-7|url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=hvmy_skUPNYC |page=RA1-PA422}}}}</ref> According to [[the World Factbook]], 70–75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.<ref name="cia"/> Based on a survey, [[KONDA Research and Consultancy|KONDA]]'s estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as ''Turk''.<ref name="KONDA 2006 17">{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=17}}</ref> In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.<ref name=Konda_100>{{cite web |url=https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/rapor/if-turkey-were-100-people/10 |title=If Turkey Had 100 People |website=[[KONDA Research and Consultancy|KONDA]] |access-date=7 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307190745/https://interaktif.konda.com.tr/rapor/if-turkey-were-100-people/10 |archive-date=7 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Kurds in Turkey|Kurds]] are the largest ethnic minority.<ref name="Kirişci 1997 119–121">{{harvnb|Kirişci|Winrow|1997|pp=119–121}}</ref> Their exact numbers remain disputed,<ref name="Kirişci 1997 119–121"/> with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-1-139-45236-6| last = Migdal| first = Joel S.| title = Boundaries and Belonging: States and Societies in the Struggle to Shape Identities and Local Practices|year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pbmTC-Nm8nEC&pg=PA129 |page=129}}</ref> The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of [[Ağrı Province|Ağrı]], [[Batman Province|Batman]], [[Bingöl Province|Bingöl]], [[Bitlis Province|Bitlis]], [[Diyarbakır Province|Diyarbakır]], [[Hakkari Province|Hakkari]], [[Iğdır Province|Iğdır]], [[Mardin Province|Mardin]], [[Muş Province|Muş]], [[Siirt Province|Siirt]], [[Şırnak Province|Şırnak]], [[Tunceli Province|Tunceli]] and [[Van Province|Van]]; a near majority in [[Şanlıurfa Province|Şanlıurfa]] (47%); and a large minority in [[Kars Province|Kars]] (20%).<ref>{{cite book|last=Watts|first=Nicole F.|title=Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey (Studies in Modernity and National Identity)|date=2010|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-99050-7|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yXWl40KJfKEC&dq=Kars+%28about+20+percent+Kurdish%29&pg=PA167 167]}}</ref> In addition, internal migration has resulted in [[Kurdish diaspora]] communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.<ref name="Nachmani2003">{{cite book|author=Amikam Nachmani|title=Turkey: Facing a New Millenniium: Coping With Intertwined Conflicts|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xxp61eBvGzMC&pg=PA90|access-date=5 May 2013|year=2003|publisher=Manchester University Press|isbn=978-0-7190-6370-1|pages=90–}}</ref> 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.<ref name=Konda_100/> Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.<ref>{{harvnb|Kirişci|Winrow|1997|p=3}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Heper|2007|p=54}}</ref> In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.<ref>{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=18}}</ref>
[[File:Map-TurkicLanguages.png|upright=1.3|thumb|Areas with speakers of [[Turkic languages]]]]
According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.<ref name="cia"/> In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people who gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with [[Turkic people|other Turkic backgrounds]], [[Arabs in Turkey|Arabs]], and others.<ref name="KONDA 2006 17"/> In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.<ref name=Konda_100/> According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized [[minorities in Turkey]]: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] ([[Armenians in Turkey|Armenians]], [[Greeks in Turkey|Greeks]], and [[Jews in Turkey|Jews]]{{efn|Even though they are not explicitly mentioned in the Treaty of Lausanne.<ref name="Bayır2013"/>}}) and the [[Bulgarians in Turkey|Bulgarians]].{{efn|The [[Bulgarians in Turkey|Bulgarian community in Turkey]] is now so small that this disposition is ''de facto'' not applied.<ref name="Bayır2013">{{Cite book |last=Bayır |first=Derya |title=Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law |date=2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-4094-7254-4 |series=Cultural Diversity and Law|url=https://www.academia.edu/37557239| pages=88–90, 203–204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Köksal |first=Yonca |date=2006 |title=Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14683850601016390 |journal=Southeast European and Black Sea Studies|volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=501–521 |doi=10.1080/14683850601016390 |s2cid=153761516 |issn=1468-3857|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Özlem2019>{{Cite journal |first=Kader |last=Özlem |date=2019 |title=An Evaluation on Istanbul's Bulgarians as the "Invisible Minority" of Turkey |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=802933 |journal=Turan-Sam|volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=387–393 |issn=1308-8041}}</ref>}}<ref name="Toktaş2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Toktaş |first1=Şule |last2=Araş |first2=Bulent |date=2009 |title=The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25655744 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=124 |issue=4 |pages=697–720 |doi=10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x |jstor=25655744 |issn=0032-3195|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Yağmur2001">{{Citation |last=Yağmur |first=Kutlay |title=Turkish and other languages in Turkey |date=2001 |url=https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/turkish-and-other-languages-in-turkey |work=The Other Languages of Europe |pages=407–427 |editor-last=Extra |editor-first=G. |access-date=6 October 2023 |place=Clevedon |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-85359-510-3 |editor2-last=Gorter |editor2-first=D.|quote="Mother tongue" education is mostly limited to Turkish teaching in Turkey. No other language can be taught as a mother tongue other than Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew, as agreed in the Lausanne Treaty [...] Like Jews and Greeks, Armenians enjoy the privilege of an officially recognized minority status. [...] No language other than Turkish can be taught at schools or at cultural centers. Only Armenian, Greek, and Hebrew are exceptions to this constitutional rule.}}</ref><ref name=Zetler2014>{{cite journal|first=Reyhan|last= Zetler|url=https://www.sagw.ch/fileadmin/redaktion_judaistik/dokumente/Judaistik/2014/III.%20R.%20Zetler%20-%20Bulletin%20SGJF%20Nr.%2023%20%282014%29.pdf |title=Turkish Jews between 1923 and 1933 – What Did the Turkish Policy between 1923 and 1933 Mean for the Turkish Jews?|journal=Bulletin der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Judaistische Forschung|issue= 23 |oclc=865002828|page=26|year=2014}}</ref> In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to [[Assyrians in Turkey]] and the [[Syriac language]].<ref>Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court, 18 June 2013 (E. 2012/1746, K. 2013/952).</ref><ref name=Akbulut2023>{{Cite journal |last=Akbulut |first=Olgun |date=19 October 2023 |title=For Centenary of the Lausanne Treaty: Re-Interpretation and Re-Implementation of Linguistic Minority Rights of Lausanne |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ijgr/aop/article-10.1163-15718115-bja10134/article-10.1163-15718115-bja10134.xml |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=-1 |issue=aop |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1163/15718115-bja10134 |s2cid=264412993 |issn=1385-4879|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=Erdem2021>{{Cite journal |last1=Erdem |first1=Fazıl Hüsnü |last2=Öngüç |first2=Bahar |date=30 June 2021 |title=Süryanıce Anadılınde Eğıtım Hakki: Sorunlar Ve Çözüm Önerılerı |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/duhfd/issue/63313/959939 |journal=Dicle Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi |language=tr |volume=26 |issue=44 |pages=3–35 |issn=1300-2929}}</ref> Other unrecognized ethnic groups include [[Albanians in Turkey|Albanians]], [[Bosniaks in Turkey|Bosniaks]], [[Circassians in Turkey|Circassians]], [[Georgians in Turkey|Georgians]], [[Laz people|Laz]], [[Pomaks]], and [[Romani people|Roma]].<ref name="Roopnarine2015">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffpPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA328 |title=Fathers Across Cultures: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads: The Importance, Roles, and Diverse Practices of Dads|author=Jaipaul L. Roopnarine|year=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3232-1|page=328|quote=Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group (about 20%), and Armenians, Greeks, Sephardic Jews,...}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/politics/2015/6/8/turkeys-ethnic-make-up-a-complex-melting-pot|title=Turkey's ethnic make-up: A complex melting pot|first=Abubakr|last=al-Shamahi|website=alaraby|date=8 June 2015 |access-date=3 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013139/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/politics/2015/6/8/turkeys-ethnic-make-up-a-complex-melting-pot|archive-date=7 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-ethnic-groups-of-turkey.html|title=The Ethnic Groups Of Turkey|website=WorldAtlas|date=18 July 2019}}</ref>
The [[official language]] is [[Turkish language|Turkish]], which is the most widely spoken [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] in the world.<ref name=katzner>{{cite book|last=Katzner|first=Kenneth|author-link=Kenneth Katzner|title=Languages of the World, Third Edition|publisher=Routledge|date=2002|isbn=978-0-415-25004-7}}</ref><ref name=minorityrights.org>{{cite web|title=Turkey Overview |date=19 June 2015 |url=http://minorityrights.org/4387/turkey/turkey-overview.html |publisher=minorityrights.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909185440/http://www.minorityrights.org/4387/turkey/turkey-overview.html |archive-date= 9 September 2015}}</ref> It is spoken by 85%<ref name="KONDA 2006 19">{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=19}}</ref><ref name=milliyet-languages>{{cite web|url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2007/03/22/guncel/agun.html |title=Türkiye'nin yüzde 85'i 'anadilim Türkçe' diyor|publisher=Milliyet.com.tr|access-date=4 November 2012}}</ref> to 90%<ref name="Kornfilt 2018 537">{{harvnb|Kornfilt|2018|p=537}}</ref> of the population as a [[first language]]. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.<ref name="Kornfilt 2018 537"/> A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.<ref name="KONDA 2006 19"/> Other minority languages include Arabic, [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]], and [[Gagauz language|Gagauz]].<ref name="Kornfilt 2018 537"/> The [[linguistic rights]] of the officially recognized minorities are ''de jure'' recognized and protected for [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]],{{efn|The Turkish government considers that, for the purpose of the Treaty of Lausanne, the language of [[History of the Jews in Turkey|Turkish Jews]] is [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], even though the mother tongue of Turkish Jews was not Hebrew but historically [[Judaeo-Spanish]] (Ladino) or other [[Jewish languages]].<ref name="Yağmur2001"/><ref name=Zetler2014/>}}<ref name="Bayır2013"/><ref name="Toktaş2009"/><ref name="Yağmur2001"/><ref name=Zetler2014/> and [[Syriac language|Syriac]].<ref name=Akbulut2023/><ref name=Erdem2021/> There are multiple [[List of endangered languages in Asia#Turkey|endangered languages in Turkey]].
{{Largest cities in Turkey|class=info}}
===Immigration===
{{Main|Immigration to Turkey}}
Excluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.<ref name="Population of Turkey"/> Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the [[Gulf War]] in 1991. [[Turkey's migrant crisis]] in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.<ref name=esa.un.org>{{cite web|title=Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revision|url=http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstocks2013.htm?mtotals|website=esa.un.org|publisher=United Nations|access-date=14 August 2014|archive-date=10 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210154150/http://esa.un.org/unmigration/migrantstocks2013.htm?mtotals|url-status=dead}}</ref> Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.<ref name="unhcr-syrian-refugees">{{Cite web |title=Syria Regional Refugee Response: Turkey |url=https://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/syria/___location/113 |access-date=21 April 2020 |publisher=unhcr.org}}</ref> The [[Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency]] manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the [[Syrian civil war]] in 2011, the estimated number of [[Arabs in Turkey]] varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.<ref>{{cite web |author=Luke Coffey |date=18 February 2016 |title=Turkey's demographic challenge |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/02/turkey-demographic-challenge-arabs-syria-refugees-isis-160218063810080.html |publisher=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref>
In November 2020, there were 3.6 million [[Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey|Syrian refugees]] in Turkey;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/83698 |title=UNHCR Turkey Operational Update November 2020 |date=15 December 2020 |website=UNHCR |access-date=10 March 2024 }}</ref> these included other [[ethnic groups of Syria]], such as [[Syrian Kurds]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/number-syrian-kurds-fleeing-turkey-nears-140000-humanitarian-needs-mount |title=Number of Syrian Kurds fleeing to Turkey nears 140,000; humanitarian needs mount |date=23 September 2014 |website=UNHCR |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231027202735/https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/number-syrian-kurds-fleeing-turkey-nears-140000-humanitarian-needs-mount |archive-date=27 October 2023}}</ref> and [[Syrian Turkmen]]s.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pamuk |first=Humeyra |date=29 January 2016 |title=Syrian Turkmens cross to Turkey, fleeing advances of pro-Assad forces |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkmens-idUSKCN0V720O/ |work=Reuters |access-date=10 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715213553/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-turkmens-idUSKCN0V720O/ |archive-date=15 July 2023}}</ref> As of August 2023, the number of these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.<ref>{{cite web |title=Number of Syrians in Turkey July 2023 – Refugees Association |url=https://multeciler.org.tr/eng/number-of-syrians-in-turkey/ |website=multeciler.org.tr}}</ref> The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.<ref>{{cite news |date=9 November 2023 |title=İçişleri Bakanı Yerlikaya, Türk vatandaşı olan Suriyelilerin sayısının 238 bine yaklaştığını açıkladı |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/c1e29v09d3eo |work=BBC |access-date=10 March 2024}}</ref> As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian [[Ukrainian refugee crisis (2022–present)|refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]] have sought refuge in Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |title=Uncertain Futures: Ukrainian Refugees in Turkey, One Year On |url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/uncertain-futures-ukrainian-refugees-turkey-one-year |website=pulitzercenter.org |access-date=11 May 2023}}</ref> In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Airport |first1=Turkish Airlines planes are parked at the new Istanbul |title=Russian migration to Turkey spikes by 218% in aftermath of Ukraine war – Al-Monitor: Independent, trusted coverage of the Middle East |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/07/russian-migration-turkey-spikes-218-aftermath-ukraine-war |website=al-monitor.com|date=24 July 2023}}</ref>
===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Turkey}}
{{Multiple image
| total_width = 300
| align = right
| image1 = Camlica Mosque Bosporus Istanbul.jpg
| image2 = Deyrulzaferan P1030925 20080501122627.JPG
| footer = Left: [[Çamlıca Mosque]] in Istanbul was designed by two female architects.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/istanbuls-giant-mosque-to-be-women-friendly-architects-say-74329 |title=Istanbul's giant mosque to be 'women-friendly,' architects say |website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=14 November 2014}}</ref> Right: [[Mor Hananyo Monastery]] near [[Mardin]]. From 1293 to 1932, it was the headquarters of [[Syriac Orthodox Church]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6534/ |title=Late Antique and Medieval Churches and Monasteries of Midyat and Surrounding Area (Tur 'Abdin) |website=[[UNESCO]] |date=15 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Markessini |first=J. |title=Around the World of Orthodox Christianity – Five Hundred Million Strong: The Unifying Aesthetic Beauty |publisher=Dorrance Publishing Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4349-1486-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eVkphDtrW3AC |access-date=25 October 2019|page=31}}</ref>
}}
Turkey is a [[secular state]] with no official [[state religion]]; the constitution provides for [[freedom of religion]] and [[Freedom of conscience|conscience]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Axel Tschentscher|url=http://servat.unibe.ch/icl/tu00000_.html|title=International Constitutional Law: Turkey Constitution|publisher=Servat.unibe.ch|access-date=1 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf |title=Turkey: Islam and Laicism Between the Interests of State, Politics, and Society |publisher=[[Peace Research Institute Frankfurt]] |access-date=19 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081028211305/http://www.hsfk.de/downloads/prif78.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2008}}</ref> According to the [[CIA World Factbook]], Muslims constitute 99.8% of the population, most of them being [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]].<ref name="cia"/> Based on a survey, [[KONDA Research and Consultancy|KONDA]]'s estimate for Muslims was 99.4% in 2006.<ref name="KONDA 2006">{{harvnb|KONDA|2006|p=24}}</ref> According to [[Minority Rights Group International]], estimates of share of [[Alevi]] are between 10% and 40% of the population.<ref name=refworld.org1>{{cite web|title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Turkey: Alevis |url=http://www.refworld.org/docid/49749c9950.html|website=refworld.org|access-date=22 April 2015}}</ref> KONDA's estimate was 5% in 2006.<ref name="KONDA 2006"/> 4% of adult citizens identified as Alevi in a survey in 2021, while 88% identified as Sunni.<ref name=Konda_100/>
The percentage of non-Muslims in modern-day Turkey was 19.1% in 1914, but fell to 2.5% in 1927.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=İçduygu|first1=Ahmet|last2=Toktaş|first2=Şule|last3=Ali Soner |first3=B. |s2cid=143541451 |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=https://www.academia.edu/761694|date=1 February 2008|volume=31|issue=2|pages=358–389|doi=10.1080/01419870701491937|hdl=11729/308 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> Currently, non-Muslims constitute 0.2% of the population according to the World Factbook.<ref name="cia"/> In 2006, KONDA's estimate was that 0.18% of the population adhered to non-Islamic religions.<ref name="KONDA 2006"/> Some of the non-Muslim communities are Armenians, [[Assyrians in Turkey|Assyrians]], Bulgarian Orthodox, [[Catholic Church in Turkey|Catholics]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy in Turkey|Greeks]], Jews, and [[Protestantism in Turkey|Protestants]].<ref>{{harvnb|Grigoriadis|2012|p=290}}</ref> Sources estimate that the [[Christianity in Turkey|Christian population in Turkey]] ranges between 180,000 and 320,000.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Türkiye farklı inançlara sağlanan ibadet yeri sayısında Batı'nın 5 kat önünde |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/ayasofya-camii/turkiye-farkli-inanclara-saglanan-ibadet-yeri-sayisinda-batinin-5-kat-onunde/1907134 |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.aa.com.tr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|title=Global Christianity - A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|publisher=Pew Research Center|access-date=June 2, 2022|archive-date=February 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201151952/https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Turkey has [[Jewish population by country|the largest Jewish community]] among the Muslim-majority countries.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DellaPergola|first=Sergio|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783030039066|title=The American Jewish Year Book, 2018|publisher= Springer |___location=Cham, Switzerland |year=2018|isbn=978-3-030-03906-6|editor-last=Dashefsky|editor-first=Arnold|volume=118|pages=361–452|chapter=World Jewish Population, 2018|editor-last2=Sheskin|editor-first2=Ira M.|chapter-url=https://www.jewishdatabank.org/content/upload/bjdb/2018-World_Jewish_Population_(AJYB,_DellaPergola)_DB_Final.pdf |oclc=1090130084}}</ref> Currently, there are 439 churches and synagogues in Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.indyturk.com/node/88486/haber/t%C3%BCrkiye%E2%80%99de-hristiyan-ve-yahudilere-ait-439-ibadethane-ve-24-dernek-var|title=Türkiye'de Hristiyan ve Yahudilere ait 439 ibadethane ve 24 dernek var|website=Independent Türkçe}}</ref>
In 2006, KONDA estimated that 0.47% of the population had no religion.<ref name="KONDA 2006"/> According to KONDA, the share of adult citizens who identified as nonbelievers increased from 2% in 2011 to 6% in 2021.<ref name=Konda_100/> A 2020 Gezici Araştırma poll found that 28.5% of the [[Generation Z]] [[Irreligion in Turkey|identified as irreligious]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2020/gundem/gezici-arastirma-merkezi-baskani-murat-gezici-sozcuye-acikladi-turkiyenin-kaderi-z-kusaginin-elinde-5867771/|title=Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici SÖZCÜ'ye açıkladı: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde|website=sozcu.com.tr|date=11 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gercekgundem.com/siyaset/188215/gezici-arastirma-merkezi-baskani-murat-gezici-turkiyenin-kaderi-z-kusaginin-elinde|title=Gezici Araştırma Merkezi Başkanı Murat Gezici: Türkiye'nin kaderi Z kuşağının elinde|website=gercekgundem.com|date=11 June 2020}}</ref>
===Education===
{{Main|Education in Turkey}}
[[File:Turkey primary-secondary-tertiary-enrollment-completion-rates.png|thumb|Enrollment rates for [[Primary education|primary]], [[Secondary education|secondary]] and [[tertiary education]] in Turkey between 1971 and 2022. Completion rates for primary and lower secondary education<ref>{{cite web |author=UNESCO Institute for Statistics |date=1 May 2025 |title=Primary, secondary and tertiary education enrolment and completion rates, Turkey |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/primary-secondary-enrollment-completion-rates?country=~TUR |website=Our World in Data |access-date=14 May 2025}}</ref>]]
In the past 20 years, Turkey has improved quality of education and has made significant progress in increasing education access.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p3">{{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=3}}</ref> From 2011 to 2021, improvements in education access include significant rise in the rates of [[Secondary education|upper secondary]] and [[tertiary education]] completion, and quadrupling of pre-school institutions.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p35">{{harvnb|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023|p=35}}</ref> [[Programme for International Student Assessment|PISA]] results suggest improvements in education quality.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p35"/> There is still a gap with OECD countries. Significant challenges include differences in student outcomes from different schools, differences between rural and urban areas, pre-primary education access, and arrival of students who are Syrian refugees.<ref name="OECD Taking stock p35"/>
The [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of National Education]] is responsible for pre-tertiary education.<ref name=wesed>{{cite web|title=Education in Turkey|url=http://www.wes.org/ewenr/12sept/feature.htm|publisher=World Education Services|access-date=12 June 2013}}</ref> Compulsory education is free at public schools and lasts 12 years, divided into three parts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Turkish Higher Education System |url=https://www.studyinturkiye.gov.tr/StudyinTurkey/ShowDetail?rID=Ec/rgHEN8Zg=&&cId=PE4Nr0mMoY4= |website=Study in Türkiye |access-date=21 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="OECD Taking stock p3"/> There are 208 [[List of universities in Turkey|universities in Turkey]].<ref name="euraxess_Türkiye"/> Students are placed to universities based on their [[Student Selection and Placement System|YKS]] results and their preferences, by the [[Measuring, Selection and Placement Center]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/turkiye/bachelor |title=Eurydice {{pipe}} Türkiye |website=The European Union |date=27 November 2023}}</ref> All state and private universities are under the control of the [[Council of Higher Education (Turkey)|Higher Education Board]]. Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Turkish universities latest domino in Erdogan's path|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/11/turkey-erdogan-took-full-control-of-universities.html|author=Mustafa Akyol|publisher=Al-Monitor|date=7 November 2016}}</ref>
According to the 2024 [[Times Higher Education World University Rankings|Times Higher Education ranking]], the top universities were [[Koç University]], [[Middle East Technical University]], [[Sabancı University]], and [[Istanbul Technical University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking#!/length/25/locations/TUR/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats |title=World University Rankings 2024 |website=Times Higher Education |date=25 September 2023 |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref> According to [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]], the top ones were [[Istanbul University]], [[University of Health Sciences (Turkey)]], and [[Hacettepe University]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2023 |title=2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities |website=Shanghai Ranking |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref> For foreign students, Turkey has become a regional hub,<ref>{{harvnb|Oz|2021|loc=Abstract}}</ref> with a large number of international students<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ntv.com.tr/egitim/turkiyedeki-yabanci-ogrenci-sayisi-795-bin-962ye-ulasti,OpnWuWDZLkyNsTNv5cZTpg|title=Türkiye'deki yabancı öğrenci sayısı 795 bin 962'ye ulaştı|access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref>
and [[Türkiye Scholarships|international scholarships]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unze.ba/download/Turkey%20Scholarships.pdf |title=Türkıye Scholarships – Türkıye for Education |access-date=30 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkiyeburslari.gov.tr/index.php/en/sss-2 |title=Türkiye Scholarships-FAQ |access-date=30 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://turkeyscholarship.com/|title=Scholarships|website=Turkey Scholarship|access-date=7 January 2019}}</ref>
===Health===
{{Main|Health care in Turkey}}
[[File:BaşakşehirCityHospital (1).jpg|thumb|[[Başakşehir Çam and Sakura City Hospital]] in Istanbul. It contains 2,068 [[seismic base isolation]] units to [[Earthquake-resistant structures|withstand earthquakes]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://camsakurasehir.saglik.gov.tr/TR-899525/basaksehir-cam-ve-sakura-sehir-hastanesinde-2-bin-68-sismik-izolator-var.html |title=Başakşehir Çam ve Sakura Şehir Hastanesi'nde 2 bin 68 sismik izolatör var |date=14 February 2023 |website=Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Sağlık Bakanlığı}}</ref>]]
The [[Ministry of Health (Turkey)|Ministry of Health]] has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.<ref name="njm">{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1410433 |title=Transforming Turkey's Health System — Lessons for Universal Coverage |date=2015 |last1=Atun |first1=Rifat |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=373 |issue=14 |pages=1285–1289 |pmid=26422719}}</ref> Known as Universal Health Insurance ({{lang|tr|Genel Sağlık Sigortası}}), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.<ref name="njm"/> Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.<ref name="njm"/> Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.<ref name="njm"/> There are many private hospitals in the country.<ref name=Oguz_2020>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/19371918.2020.1806167 |title=Turkish Health Policies: Past, Present, and Future |date=2020 |last1=Oguz |first1=Ahmet Bunyan |journal=Social Work in Public Health |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=456–472 |pmid=32811368 |hdl=11729/2369 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The government planned several hospital complexes, known as city hospitals, to be constructed since 2013.<ref name=Oguz_2020/> Turkey is one of the top 10 destinations for [[Medical tourism#Turkey|health tourism]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.trtworld.com/turkiye/turkiye-ranks-among-top-10-health-tourism-destinations-globally-17798805 |title=Türkiye ranks among top 10 health tourism destinations globally |website=TRT World |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref>
Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.<ref name="njm"/> Turkey has high rates of [[obesity]], with 29.5% of its adult population having a [[body mass index]] (BMI) value of 30 or above.<ref name="WHO Mean Body Mass Index BMI">{{cite web |title=WHO Mean Body Mass Index (BMI) |url=https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/bmi_text/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=5 February 2019}}</ref> [[Air pollution in Turkey|Air pollution is a major cause]] of early death.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Akyuz|first1=Ezgi|last2=Samavati|first2=Mehrdad|last3=Kaynak|first3=Burcak|date=14 August 2020|title=Spatial distribution of health risks associated with PM2.5 in Turkey and Iran using satellite and ground observations |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1309104220302312 |journal=Atmospheric Pollution Research|volume=11|issue=12|pages=2350–2360 |doi=10.1016/j.apr.2020.08.011|bibcode=2020AtmPR..11.2350A |s2cid=225477420|issn=1309-1042|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Turkey}}
{{see also|Arts in Turkey|Turkish folklore|Festivals in Turkey}}
In the 19th century, Turkish identity was debated in the [[Ottoman Empire]], with three main views: Turkism, Islamism and Westernism.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|pp=57–59}}</ref> In addition to Europe or Islam, Turkish culture was also influenced by Anatolia's native cultures.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|p=58}}</ref> After the establishment of the republic, [[Kemalism]] emphasized Turkish culture, attempted to make "Islam a matter of personal conviction", and pursued modernization.<ref>{{harvnb|Kaya|2004|p=63}}</ref> Currently, Turkey has various local cultures. Things such as music, [[Turkish folk dance|folk dance]], or [[Kebab|kebap]] variety may be used to identify a local area. Turkey also has a national culture, such as national sports leagues, music bands, film stars, and trends in fashion.<ref>{{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=6}}</ref> Turkey is home to [[List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|21 UNESCO World Heritage]] sites and [[Intangible cultural heritage|31 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage]] inscriptions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/tr |title=Türkiye |date= |website=UNESCO |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302171641/https://www.unesco.org/en/countries/tr |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Literature, theatre, and visual arts===
{{Main|Turkish literature|Theatre of Turkey|Turkish art}}
[[File:Orhan Pamuk.jpg|thumb|[[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel]]-laureate Turkish novelist [[Orhan Pamuk]] and his [[Turkish Angora|Turkish Angora cat]] at his personal writing space]]
[[File:Süreyya Opera House in Istanbul, Turkey.jpg|thumb|[[Süreyya Opera House]] is on the Asian side of [[Istanbul]] and [[Atatürk Cultural Center]] is the main [[opera house]] on the European side. [[Zorlu PSM]] is the city's largest [[performing arts|performing arts theater]] and [[concert hall]].]]
[[Turkish literature]] goes back more than a thousand years. The Seljuk and Ottoman periods include numerous works of literature and poetry. Turkic tales and poetry from Central Asia were also kept alive. [[Book of Dede Korkut|Tales of Dede Korkut]] is an example of the [[Oral storytelling|oral narrative]] tradition. [[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk]], from the 11th century, contains Turkish linguistic information and poetry. [[Yunus Emre]], influenced by [[Rumi]], was one of the most important writers of Anatolian Turkish poetry. Ottoman [[Diwan (poetry)|Divan]] poetry used "refined diction" and complex vocabulary. It included [[Sufism|Sufi mysticism]], romanticism, and formal elements.<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature>{{harvnb|Halman|2012|pp=76–85}}</ref>
Beginning in the 19th century, Ottoman literature was influenced by the West. New genres, such as novels and journalistic style, were introduced. {{lang|tr|[[Aşk-ı Memnu (novel)|Aşk-ı Memnu]]}}, written by [[Halid Ziya Uşaklıgil]], was the "first truly refined Turkish novel". [[Fatma Aliye Topuz]], the first female Turkish novelist, wrote fiction. After the proclamation of the republic in 1923, [[Atatürk's reforms|Atatürk instituted reforms]] such as the [[Turkish language reform|language reform]] and [[Turkish alphabet reform|alphabet reform]]. Since then, Turkish literature reflected the socioeconomic conditions in Turkey with increasing variety. "Village Novel" genre appeared in the mid-1950s, which talked about difficulties faced from poverty.<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature/> An example is [[Memed, My Hawk]] by [[Yaşar Kemal]], which was [[1973 Nobel Prize in Literature|Turkey's first Nobel Prize in Literature nominee in 1973]].<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature/><ref>{{cite news |date=27 February 2021 |title=Turkey commemorates master author Yaşar Kemal |url=https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-commemorates-master-author-yasar-kemal-162737 |work=Hürriyet Daily News}}</ref> [[Orhan Pamuk]] won the [[2006 Nobel Prize in Literature]].<ref name=Halman_2012_Literature/>
Turkey has four "major theatrical traditions": "folk theatre, popular theatre, court theater, and Western theater." Turkish folk theatre goes back thousands of years and has survived among rural communities. Popular theatre includes plays by live actors, puppet and [[shadow play|shadow]] plays, and [[Meddah|storytelling performances]]. An example for shadow play is {{lang|tr|[[Karagöz and Hacivat]]}}. Court theatre was the refined version of popular theatre. Beginning in the 19th century, Western theatre tradition started appearing in Turkey. Following the establishment of Turkish Republic, a state conservatory and the State Theatre Company were formed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=And |first1=M. |year=1983 |title=Theatre in Turkey |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43385121 |journal=Turkish Studies Association Bulletin |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=20–31|jstor=43385121 }}</ref>
Turkey's visual arts scene can be categorized into two, as "decorative" and "fine" arts. Fine arts, or {{lang|tr|güzel sanatlar}}, includes sculpture and [[history of Modern Turkish painting|painting]]. Turkish artists in these areas have gained global recognition. Photography, fashion design, graphic arts, and graphic design are some of the other areas Turkish artists are known for in the world. The inaugural contemporary Turkish art sale by [[Sotheby's|Sotheby's London]] was in 2009. [[Istanbul Modern]] and the [[Istanbul Biennial]] are examples of art galleries or exhibitions of contemporary Turkish art. Turkey has also seen a resurgence of traditional arts. This includes Ottoman-era traditional arts, such as [[Iznik pottery|ceramics]] and [[Anatolian rug|carpets]]. Textile and carpet design, glass and ceramics, [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Paper marbling|paper marbling (ebru)]] are some of the art forms for which modern-day Turkish artists are recognized as leaders in the Islamic world.<ref name=Denny_2012_Fine_Arts>{{harvnb|Denny|2012|pp=94–95}}</ref>
===Music and dance===
{{Main|Turkish folk dance|Music of Turkey}}
[[File:Baris Manco.jpg|thumb|[[Barış Manço]] was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of the [[Anatolian rock]] genre.]]
Although classifying genres of Turkish music can be problematic, three broad categories can be considered. These are "[[Turkish folk music]]", "[[Turkish art music]]", and multiple popular music styles. These Popular music styles include [[Arabesque (Turkish music)|arabesque]], pop, and [[Anatolian rock]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stokes|2010|p=14}}</ref>
The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as [[Ajda Pekkan]], [[Sezen Aksu]], [[Erol Evgin]], [[MFÖ]], [[Tarkan (singer)|Tarkan]], [[Sertab Erener]], [[Teoman (singer)|Teoman]], [[Kenan Doğulu]], [[Levent Yüksel]] and [[Hande Yener]].{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} Internationally acclaimed Turkish [[jazz]] and [[blues]] musicians and composers include [[Ahmet Ertegun]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Award Winning Legends |date=28 February 2018 |url=https://www.jazzdergisi.com/en/odullu-ustalar-ahmet-ertegun/}}</ref>
===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Turkey}}
{{See also|Ottoman architecture}}
{{Multiple image
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| image1 = Selimiye... - panoramio.jpg
| image2 = Istanbul asv2020-02 img05 Crowne Plaza Old City.jpg
| image3 = Eskisehir Odunpazarı tour in 2018 8523.jpg
| caption1 = Built by [[Mimar Sinan]], [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]] in [[Edirne]] is an example of [[classical Ottoman architecture]].
| caption2 = [[Tayyare Apartments]] in [[Istanbul]], an example of the [[first national architectural movement]]
| caption3 = With its traditional Turkish houses, [[Odunpazarı]] district in [[Eskişehir]] is a [[Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey|tentative UNESCO World Heritage site]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5733/ |title=Odunpazari Historical Urban Site |website=[[UNESCO]] |date=13 April 2012}}</ref>
}}
Turkey is home to numerous [[Neolithic]] settlements, such as [[Çatalhöyük]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sagona|Zimansky|2015|pp=44–46; 82–86}}</ref><ref name="Howard 2016-3"/> From the [[Bronze Age]], important architectural remnants include [[Alaca Höyük]] and the [[Troy#Troy II|2nd layer of Troy]].<ref name="Howard 2016-3"/> There are various examples of [[Ancient Greek architecture|Ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman architecture|Ancient Roman]] architectures, especially in the Aegean region.<ref>{{harvnb|Matthews|2014|pp=9–13}}</ref> [[Byzantine architecture]] dates back to the 4th century AD. Its best example is [[Hagia Sophia]]. Byzantine architectural style continued to develop after the [[Fall of Constantinople|conquest of Istanbul]], such as [[Neo-Byzantine architecture|Byzantine Revival architecture]].<ref>{{harvnb|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=Byzantine architecture}}</ref> During [[Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk Sultanate of Rum]] and [[Anatolian beyliks|Turkish principalities]] period, a distinct architecture emerged, which incorporated Byzantine and [[Armenian architecture|Armenian]] architectures with architectural styles found in [[West Asia]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} V. c. 900–c. 1250 {{pipe}} C. Anatolia}}</ref> [[Anatolian Seljuk architecture|Seljuk architecture]] often used stones and bricks, and produced numerous [[caravanserai]]s, [[madrasa]]s and [[mausoleum]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Curl|Wilson|2021|loc=Seljuk or Saljuk architecture}}</ref>
[[Ottoman architecture]] emerged in northwest Anatolia and Thrace. [[Early Ottoman architecture]] mixed "traditional Anatolian Islamic architecture with local building materials and techniques".<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VI. c. 1250–c. 1500 {{pipe}} B. Anatolia {{pipe}} 2. Ottomans to 1453 }}</ref> Following the conquest of Istanbul, [[classical Ottoman architecture]] emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref name="auto1">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 {{pipe}} A. Ottoman Empire}}</ref> The most important architect of the classical period is [[Mimar Sinan]], whose major works include the [[Şehzade Mosque]], [[Süleymaniye Mosque]], and [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]].<ref name="auto1"/> Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was influenced by European elements, resulting in development of [[Ottoman Baroque architecture|Ottoman baroque style]].<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 {{pipe}} A. Ottoman Empire {{pipe}} 2. Turkey}}</ref> European influence continued in the 19th century; examples include works of [[Balyan family]] such as [[Baroque Revival architecture|neo-Baroque]] style [[Dolmabahçe Palace]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bloom|Blair|2009|loc=Architecture {{pipe}} VII. c. 1500–c. 1900 {{pipe}} A. Ottoman Empire {{pipe}} 2. Turkey; Balyan [ Balian]}}</ref> The last period of Ottoman architecture consists of the [[First National Architectural Movement]], including works of [[Vedat Tek]] and [[Mimar Kemaleddin]].<ref name="auto"/>
Since 1918, Turkish architecture can be divided into three parts. From 1918 to 1950, the first one includes the First National Architectural Movement period, which transitioned into [[Modern architecture|modernist architecture]]. Modernist and monumental buildings were preferred for public buildings, whereas "Turkish house" type [[vernacular architecture]] influenced private houses. From 1950 to 1980, the second part includes urbanization, modernization, and internationalization. For residential housing, "reinforced concrete, slab-block, medium-rise apartments" became prevalent. Since 1980, the third part is defined by consumer habits and international trends, such as shopping malls and office towers. Luxury residences with "Turkish house style" have been in demand.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozdogan|2009|loc=Turkey, since 1918}}</ref> In the 21st century, [[urban renewal]] projects have become a trend.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozdogan|Akcan|2013|p=284}}</ref> Resilience against natural disasters such as earthquakes is one of the main goals for urban renewal projects.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuğaç|2023|p=1469}}</ref>
Around one-third of Turkey's building stock, corresponding to 6.7 million units, were assessed risky and needing urban renewal.<ref>{{harvnb|Tuğaç|2023|p=1465}}</ref>
==
{{Main|Turkish cuisine}}
{{see also|Ottoman cuisine}}
[[File:Turkish coffee in Istanbul.jpg|thumb|[[Turkish coffee]] with [[Turkish delight]]. Turkish coffee is a [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|UNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage]] of [[Turkish people|Turks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00645 |title= Turkish coffee culture and tradition|publisher=UNESCO |date=5 December 2013|access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Çakır Morin |first=Arzu |date=5 December 2013 |title=Türk kahvesi Unesco korumasında |language= tr |url=http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/kultur-sanat/25284675.asp |newspaper=Hürriyet |access-date=18 August 2014}}</ref>]]
Turkey has a diverse and rich cuisine, varying geographically.<ref name="Yayla_Aktaş_2021">{{cite journal |last1=Yayla |first1=Önder |last2=Aktaş |first2=Semra Günay |year=2021 |title=Mise en place for gastronomy geography through food: Flavor regions in Turkey |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X21000834 |journal=International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science |volume=26 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100384 |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302171641/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878450X21000834 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Anatolian, [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]], [[Iranian cuisine|Iranian]], [[Central Asian cuisine|Central Asian]], and [[Asian cuisine#East Asian cuisine|East Asian]] cuisines.<!-- Do not add to this list without a reliable source --><ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey>{{harvnb|Algar|2014|loc=Turkey}}</ref> Turkish and Ottoman cuisine have also influenced others. [[Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk]], from the 11th century, documents "the ancient lineage of much of present-day Turkish cuisine".<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> [[Güveç]], [[Bulgur]], and [[Börek]] are some of the earliest recorded examples of Turkish cuisine. Even though [[kebab]] as a word comes from [[Persian language|Persian]], Turkic people had been familiar with using skewers to cook meat. Turkish cuisine can be distinguished by its various kinds of kebabs. Similarly, [[pilaf]] dishes were influenced by Turkish cuisine. Further information about cuisine during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods comes from the works of [[Rumi]] and [[Evliya Çelebi]]. The latter describes "food-related guilds of Istanbul".<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/>
Food staples in Turkey include [[bread]] and [[yogurt]]. Some of bread varieties are [[lavash]] and {{lang|tr|pide}} (a type of [[pita]] bread). [[Ayran]] is a drink made of yoghurt. In western parts of Turkey, [[olive oil]] is used. Grains include wheat, maize, barley, oats, and millet. Beans, chickpeas, nuts, aubergines, and lamb are some of the commonly used ingredients.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> [[Doner kebab]], originally from Turkey, is marinated lamb slices cooked vertically.<ref>{{harvnb|Jaine|2014|loc=doner kebab}}</ref> Seafood includes [[anchovy]] and others. [[Dolma]] varieties and {{lang|tr|[[Manti (food)|mantı]]}} are made by stuffing vegetables or pasta.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> [[Sarma (food)|Sarma]] is made by rolling edible leaf over the filling.<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|2014a|loc=dolma}}</ref> [[Yahni]] dishes are vegetable stews.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> Turkey is one of the countries with the [[meze]] tradition.<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|Jaine|2014|loc=mezze}}</ref> Honey, [[pekmez]], dried fruit, or fruit are used for sweetening.<ref name=Oxford_Companion_to_Food_loc_Turkey/> [[Filo]] is an originally Turkish [[dough]] that is used to make [[baklava]].<ref>{{harvnb|Perry|2014b|loc=filo}}: "Although known to Europeans and N. Americans by a Greek name, the dough is clearly of Turkish origin."</ref> [[Turkish delight]] is a "delicate but gummy jelly".<ref>{{harvnb|Davidson|Jaine|2014|loc=Turkish delight}}</ref>
==
{{
{{
[[File:AUT vs. TUR 2016-03-29 (001).jpg|thumb|[[Turkey national football team|Turkey]] at [[UEFA Euro 2016]]]]
<!--- Caution should be taken to ensure that the sections are not simply a listing of names. Good example Canada#Sports.--->
The most popular sport is [[association football]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/sports.htm|title=Sports in Turkey|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2006}}</ref> [[Galatasaray S.K. (football)|Galatasaray]] won the [[2000 UEFA Cup Final|UEFA Cup]] and [[2000 UEFA Super Cup|UEFA Super Cup]] in 2000.<ref name=uefa.com>{{cite web|title=Galatasaray AŞ|url=https://www.uefa.com/nationalassociations/teams/50067--galatasaray/|website=[[UEFA]]|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> The [[Turkey national football team]] won the bronze medal at the [[2002 FIFA World Cup]], the [[2003 FIFA Confederations Cup]] and [[UEFA Euro 2008]].<ref name=tff.org1>{{cite web|title=Historical Achievements.|url=http://www.tff.org/default.aspx?pageID=297|website=tff.org|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref>
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.espn.co.uk/basketball/sport/story/206057.html|title=Basketball Capitals: Cities in Focus – Istanbul|website=espn.co.uk|author=Ian Whittell|publisher=[[ESPN]] Sports Media Ltd.|access-date=22 December 2022}}</ref> The [[Turkey men's national basketball team|men's national basketball team]] and [[Turkey women's national basketball team|women's national basketball team]] have been successful. [[Anadolu Efes S.K.]] is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.efesbasket.org/the_clup/icerik.aspx?SectionId=103 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503203721/http://en.efesbasket.org/the_clup/icerik.aspx?SectionId=103 |archive-date=3 May 2008 |title=Historic achievements of the Efes Pilsen Basketball Team |publisher=Anadolu Efes Spor Kulübü |access-date=9 February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.efesbasket.org/Efes-Pilsen-History/Our-Successes.aspx |title=Anadolu Efes S.K.: Our successes |access-date=9 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324184003/http://en.efesbasket.org/Efes-Pilsen-History/Our-Successes.aspx |archive-date=24 March 2012}}</ref> [[Fenerbahçe Men's Basketball|Fenerbahçe]] reached the final of the [[EuroLeague]] in three consecutive seasons ([[2015–16 Euroleague|2015–2016]], [[2016–17 EuroLeague|2016–2017]] and [[2017–18 EuroLeague|2017–2018]]), becoming the European champions in 2017.
[[File:Vakifbanksk2018cl.jpg|thumb|[[VakıfBank S.K.]] is one of the best women's volleyball team in the world, having won the [[FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship|FIVB World Championship]] four times and the [[CEV Women's Champions League|CEV Champions Cup]] six times.]]
The final of the [[2013–14 EuroLeague Women]] basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, [[Galatasaray S.K. (women's basketball)|Galatasaray]] and [[Fenerbahçe Women's Basketball|Fenerbahçe]], and won by Galatasaray.<ref name="fibaeurope.com2">{{cite web|title=Galatasaray Lift EuroLeague Women Title|url=http://www.fibaeurope.com/euroleaguewomen/cid_-tmRPCfrIrYRSO2M5V49E1.compID_jr6ZiXqeGhMBtfq1yxqV83.roundID_9680.season_2014.gameID_9752-16-A-1.html|website=fibaeurope.com|access-date=10 August 2014}}</ref> Fenerbahçe won the [[2023 FIBA Europe SuperCup Women]] after two consecutive Euroleague wins in the [[2022–23 EuroLeague Women|2022–23]] and [[2023–24 EuroLeague Women|2023–24]] seasons.
The [[Turkey women's national volleyball team|women's national volleyball team]] has won several medals.<ref name="tvf.org.tr">{{cite web|title=National Team's Activities|url=http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/36/|website=tvf.org.tr|access-date=10 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829153101/http://www.tvf.org.tr/icerik/36/|archive-date=29 August 2014}}</ref> Women's volleyball clubs, namely [[VakıfBank S.K.]], [[Fenerbahçe Women's Volleyball|Fenerbahçe]] and [[Eczacıbaşı Dynavit|Eczacıbaşı]], have won numerous European championship titles and medals.<ref name="CEV-2023">{{cite web|url=https://championsleague.cev.eu/en/match-centres/cev-champions-league-volley-2023/cev-champions-league-volley-2023-women/clvw-93-vakifbank-istanbul-v-eczacibasi-dynavit-istanbul/|title=2023 CEV Women's Champions League Super Final: VakifBank Istanbul – Ezcacibasi Dynavit Istanbul|website=championsleague.cev.eu|date=20 May 2023}}</ref>
The traditional national sport of Turkey has been [[Oil wrestling|yağlı güreş]] (''[[olive oil|oil]] [[wrestling]]'') since Ottoman times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/yagligures.htm|title=Oiled Wrestling|author=Burak Sansal|publisher=allaboutturkey.com|access-date=13 December 2006|year=2006}}</ref> Edirne Province has hosted the annual [[Kırkpınar]] oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/sports/2018/07/13/historical-kirkpinar-oil-wrestling-festival-kicks-off-in-northwestern-turkey|title=Historical Kırkpınar oil wrestling festival kicks off in northwestern Turkey|website=Daily Sabah|date=13 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en|title=Kırkpınar Oiled Wrestling Tournament: History|publisher=Kirkpinar.com|date=21 April 2007|access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080801224941/http://www.kirkpinar.com/home.php?link=history&dil=en|archive-date=1 August 2008}}</ref> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as [[Yusuf İsmail|Koca Yusuf]], [[Nurullah Hasan]] and [[Kızılcıklı Mahmut]] acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by [[International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles|FILA]] such as [[freestyle wrestling]] and [[Greco-Roman wrestling]] are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.<ref>{{cite web|first=Christiane |last=Gegner |url=https://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbfoeldeak/start.php |title=FILA Wrestling Database |publisher=Iat.uni-leipzig.de |access-date=1 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090313024550/http://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/datenbanken/dbwrest/start.php/ |archive-date=13 March 2009}}</ref>
===
{{Main|Media in Turkey}}
{{See also|Cinema of Turkey}}
Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable [[cinema of Turkey|national cinema]] and a rapid growth of [[broadband]] Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.<ref name=tesevmedya>{{cite web|title=The Political Economy of the Media in Turkey: A Sectoral Analysis |url=http://www.tesev.org.tr/Upload/Publication/67e244dd-5c21-4d34-8361-4c7f3d003140/11461ENGmedya2WEB21_09_11.pdf |website=tesev.org.tr |access-date=18 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716153048/http://www.tesev.org.tr/Upload/Publication/67e244dd-5c21-4d34-8361-4c7f3d003140/11461ENGmedya2WEB21_09_11.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=45587&dil=2|title=Survey on Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Usage in Households and by Individuals, 2022|publisher=Turkish Statistical Institute|website=data.tuik.gov.tr|date=26 August 2022}}</ref> The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster [[Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|TRT]] and the network-style channels such as [[Kanal D]], [[Show TV]], [[ATV (Turkey)|ATV]] and [[Star TV (Turkey)|Star TV]]. The [[broadcast media]] have a very high penetration as [[satellite dishes]] and [[cable television|cable]] systems are widely available.<ref name=cp>[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Turkey.pdf Turkey country profile]. [[Library of Congress]] [[Federal Research Division]] (January 2006). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public ___domain]].''</ref> The [[RTÜK|Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK)]] is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.<ref name=cp/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/en/about-rtuk/5297/5083/about-rtuk.html|title=About RTÜK|publisher=The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK)|access-date=18 April 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806210918/https://www.rtuk.gov.tr/en/about-rtuk/5297/5083/about-rtuk.html}}</ref> By circulation, the [[List of newspapers in Turkey|most popular newspapers]] are ''[[Posta (newspaper)|Posta]]'', ''[[Hürriyet]]'', ''[[Sözcü]]'', ''[[Sabah (newspaper)|Sabah]]'' and ''[[Habertürk]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html|title=Gazete Tirajları 02.05.2016 – 08.05.2016|access-date=1 August 2016|work=Gazeteciler.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151219145010/http://www.gazeteciler.com/gazete-tirajlari.html|archive-date=19 December 2015}}</ref>
{{Multiple image
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| footer = [[Nuri Bilge Ceylan]] (left), [[Beren Saat]] (middle), and [[Türkan Şoray]] (right)
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[[Filiz Akın]], [[Fatma Girik]], [[Hülya Koçyiğit]], and [[Türkan Şoray]] represent their period of Turkish cinema.<ref name="Magnan">{{harvnb|Akser|2018|p=156}}</ref> Turkish directors like [[Metin Erksan]], [[Nuri Bilge Ceylan]], [[Yılmaz Güney]], [[Zeki Demirkubuz]] and [[Ferzan Özpetek]] won numerous international awards such as the {{Lang|fr|[[Palme d'Or]]|italic=no}} and [[Golden Bear]].<ref name="berlinale 1964">{{cite web |url=http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1964/03_preistr_ger_1964/03_Preistraeger_1964.html |title=Berlinale 1964: Prize Winners |access-date=20 February 2010 |work=berlinale.de |archive-date=19 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319032841/http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1964/03_preistr_ger_1964/03_Preistraeger_1964.html}}</ref> [[Turkish television drama]]s are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jenna Krajeski|url=http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakir-kurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi|title=Turkey: Soap Operas and Politics|work=Pulitzer Center |access-date=15 January 2013|date=30 March 2012|archive-date=17 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117025311/http://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/turkey-diyarbakir-kurdish-roles-soap-opera-politics-ayrilik-olmasaydi}}</ref> After sweeping the [[Middle East]]'s television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]]n countries in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/telenovelas-turkish-dramas-why-turkeys-soap-operas-are-captivating-latin-america-2296321|title=Turkish Dramas Sweep Latin America|website=[[International Business Times]]|date=9 February 2016|access-date=1 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/heres-why-turkish-soaps-are-a-cultural-force-to-reckon-with/articleshow/57289530.cms|title=Here's why Turkish soaps are a cultural force to reckon with! – The Economic Times|website=[[The Economic Times]]|date=22 February 2017 |last1=Irani |first1=Delshad }}</ref> Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-worlds-second-highest-tv-series-exporter-after-us.aspx?pageID=238&nID=73478&NewsCatID=345|title=Turkey world"s second highest TV series exporter after US – Business|website=Hürriyet Daily News |date=27 October 2014 |access-date=14 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/business/turkiye-marches-toward-600-million-in-worldwide-tv-series-sales/news|title=Türkiye marches toward $600 million in worldwide TV series sales|author=Betül Alakent|date=17 October 2022|website=dailysabah.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2019/sep/13/turkish-tv-magnificent-century-dizi-taking-over-world|title=How Turkish TV is taking over the world|author=Fatima Bhutto|date=13 September 2019|website=The Guardian}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Turkey}}
* [[Outline of Turkey]]{{Clear}}
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
{{Clear}}
==References==
{{
=== Sources ===
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* {{cite book |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521620963 |title=The Cambridge History of Turkey |volume=4: Turkey in the Modern World |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-139-05421-8 |editor-last1=Kasaba |editor-first1=Reşat |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}
** {{harvc |last1=Findley |first1=Carter |chapter=The Tanzimat II |in1=Kasaba |year=2008 |pages=9–37 |author-link1=Carter V. Findley}} {{doi|10.1017/CHOL9780521620963.003}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kayali |first1=Hasan |chapter=The struggle for independence |in1=Kasaba |year=2008 |pages=112–146}} {{doi|10.1017/CHOL9780521620963.006}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kirişci |first1=Kemal |chapter=Migration and Turkey: the dynamics of state, society and politics |in1=Kasaba |year=2008 |pages=173–198 |author-link1=Kemal Kirişci}} {{doi|10.1017/CHOL9780521620963.008}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kaser | first1=Karl | title=The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History | publisher=LIT Verlag Münster | publication-place=Berlin Wien |year=2011 | isbn=978-3-643-50190-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC |author-link1=Karl Kaser (historian)}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kaya | first1=Ibrahim | title=Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience | publisher=Liverpool University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-78138-845-7 | doi=10.2307/j.ctt5vjm76}}
* {{cite book | last1=Kirişci | first1=Kemal | last2=Winrow | first2=Gareth M. | title=The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict | publisher=Routledge | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-7146-4304-5 |doi=10.4324/9781315036649 |author-link1=Kemal Kirişci}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Krieger |editor-first1=Joel |year=2014 |title=The Oxford Companion to International Relations |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199738878 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LfFpygEACAAJ}}
** {{harvc |last1=Acharya |first1=Amitav |chapter=Emerging Powers |in1=Krieger |year=2014}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315745190 |title=Turkey's Rise as an Emerging Power |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-59445-1 |editor-last1=Kubicek |editor-last2=Dal |editor-last3=Oğuzlu |editor-first1=Paul |editor-first2=Emel Parlar |editor-first3=H. Tarik |publisher=Routledge}}
** {{harvc |last1=Oğuzlu |first1=Tarik |last2=Dal |first2=Emel Parlar |chapter=Decoding Turkey's Rise: An Introduction |in1=Kubicek |in2=Dal |in3=Oğuzlu |year=2016}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kardaş |first1=Şaban |chapter=Turkey: A Regional Power Facing a Changing International System |in1=Kubicek |in2=Dal |in3=Oğuzlu |year=2016}}
* {{cite book | title=Landscapes and Landforms of Turkey |series=World Geomorphological Landscapes |editor-last1=Kuzucuoğlu |editor-first1=Catherine |editor-last2=Çiner |editor-first2=Attila |editor-last3=Kazancı |editor-first3=Nizamettin | publisher=Springer Cham | year=2019 | isbn=978-3-030-03513-6 | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0 |url=https://paris1.hal.science/hal-03939323 }}
** {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |chapter=The Physical Geography of Turkey: An Outline |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=7–15}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_2}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |last2=Şengör |first2=A. M. Celâl |last3=Çiner |first3=Attila |chapter=The Tectonic Control on the Geomorphological Landscapes of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=17–40 |author-link2=Celâl Şengör}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_3}}
** {{harvc |last1=Kuzucuoğlu |first1=Catherine |last2=Çiner |first2=Attila |last3=Kazancı |first3=Nizamettin |chapter=The Geomorphological Regions of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=41–178 |anchor-year=2019a}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_4}}
** {{harvc |last1=Altunel |first1=Erhan |last2=D'Andria |first2=Francesco |chapter=Pamukkale Travertines: A Natural and Cultural Monument in the World Heritage List |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=219–229}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_8}}
** {{harvc |last1=Çiner |first1=Attila |chapter=Coastal Landforms and Landscapes of Turkey |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=233–247}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_9}}
** {{harvc |last1=Çiner |first1=Attila |last2=Aydar |first2=Erkan |chapter=A Fascinating Gift from Volcanoes: The Fairy Chimneys and Underground Cities of Cappadocia |in1=Kuzucuoğlu |in2=Çiner |in3=Kazancı |year=2019 |pages=535–549}} {{doi|10.1007/978-3-030-03515-0_31}}
* {{cite book | last=Lee | first=Joo-Yup | title=The Turkic Peoples in World History | publisher=Routledge | year=2023 | isbn=978-1-000-90421-5 |doi=10.4324/9781003256496}}
* {{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World |year=2006 |editor-first1=Thomas M. |editor-last1=Leonard |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781579583880 |doi=10.4324/9780203943373}}
** {{harvc |last1=Ahmed |first1=Ali |chapter=Turkey |in1=Leonard |year=2006 |pages=1575–1578}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Magnan-Park |editor-first1=Aaron Han Joon |editor-last2=Marchetti |editor-first2=Gina |editor-last3=Tan |editor-first3=See Kam | title=The Palgrave Handbook of Asian Cinema | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-349-95821-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MQ92DwAAQBAJ |doi=10.1057/978-1-349-95822-1}}
** {{harvc |last1=Akser |first1=Murat |chapter=Locating Turkish Cinema Between Populist Tendencies and Art Cinema |in1=Magnan-Park |in2=Marchetti |in3=Tan |year=2018 |pages=151–170}}
* {{cite book | last=Matthews | first=Henry | title=Greco-Roman Cities of Aegean Turkey: History, Archaeology, Architecture | publisher=Ege Yayınları | publication-place=Istanbul, Türkiye | year=2014 | isbn=978-605-4701-41-4 | oclc=885231214}}
* {{cite book | editor-last1=McColl | editor-first=R. W. | title=Encyclopedia of World Geography | publisher=Facts On File | year=2005 | isbn=9780816057863 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C}}
** {{harvc |last1=Waskey |first1=Andrew J |chapter=Turkey |in1=McColl |year=2005 |pages=922–923}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.001.0001 |date=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-537614-2 |editor-last1=McMahon |editor-last2=Steadman |editor-first1=Gregory |editor-first2=Sharon |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia: (10,000-323 BCE) |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
** {{harvc |last1=McMahon |first1=Gregory |last2=Steadman |first2=Sharon |chapter=Introduction: The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=3–12 |anchor-year=2012a}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0001}}
** {{harvc |last1=McMahon |first1=Gregory |chapter=The Land and Peoples of Anatolia through Ancient Eyes |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=15–33}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0002}}
** {{harvc |last1=Matthews |first1=Roger |chapter=A History of the Preclassical Archaeology of Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=34–55}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0003}}
** {{harvc |last1=Steadman |first1=Sharon |chapter=The Early Bronze Age on the Plateau |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=229–259}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0010}}
** {{harvc |last1=Michel |first1=Cécile |chapter=The Kārum Period on the Plateau |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=313–336}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0013}}
** {{harvc |last1=Khatchadourian |first1=Lori |chapter=The Iron Age in Eastern Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=464–499}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0020}}
** {{harvc |last1=Greaves |first1=Alan M. |chapter=The Greeks in Western Anatolia |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=500–514}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0021}}
** {{harvc |last1=Beckman |first1=Gary |chapter=The Hittite Language: Recovery and Grammatical Sketch |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=517–533}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0022}}
** {{harvc |last1=Yakubovich |first1=Ilya |chapter=Luwian and the Luwians |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=534–547}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0023}}
** {{harvc |last1=Zimansky |first1=Paul |chapter=Urartian and the Urartians |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=548–559}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0024}}
** {{harvc |last1=Sams |first1=G. Kenneth |chapter=Anatolia: The First Millennium B.C.E. in Historical Context |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=604–622}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0027}}
** {{harvc |last1=Melchert |first1=H. Craig |chapter=Indo-Europeans |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=704–716}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0031}}
** {{harvc |last1=Jablonka |first1=Peter |chapter=Troy in Regional and International Context |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=717–733}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0032}}
** {{harvc |last1=Harl |first1=Kenneth W. |chapter=The Greeks in Anatolia: From the Migrations to Alexander the Great |in1=McMahon |in2=Steadman |year=2012 |pages=752–774}} {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195376142.013.0034}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=McNeill |editor1-first=J. R. |editor1-link=J. R. McNeill |editor2-last=Pomeranz |editor2-first=Kenneth |editor2-link=Kenneth Pomeranz |date=2015 |series=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=7 |title=Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |issue=1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139196079 |isbn=978-1-108-40775-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRL0CAAAQBAJ}}
** {{harvc |last1=Levene |first1=Mark |author1-link=Mark Levene |chapter=Genocide |pp=420–440 |in1=McNeill |in2=Pomeranz |year=2015 |author-link1=Mark Levene}}
* {{cite book |editor= Merriam-Webster, Inc |year=1997 |title=Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary |isbn=978-0-87779-546-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Co_VIPIJerIC |publisher=Merriam-Webster}}
* {{cite book | last1=Mitchell | first1=Stephen | title=Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor Volume I: The Celts and the Impact of Roman Rule |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1995 | isbn=978-0-19-815029-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RpjunQEACAAJ |author-link1=Stephen Mitchell (historian)}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|OECD Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye|2023}} |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5ea7657e-en.pdf?expires=1716318314&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=226A1C567787D096D48B8815985C91BE |title=Taking stock of education reforms for access and quality in Türkiye |author=OECD |year=2023 |doi=10.1787/5ea7657e-en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521185110/https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/5ea7657e-en.pdf?expires=1716318314&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=226A1C567787D096D48B8815985C91BE |archive-date=21 May 2024 |url-status=live |series=OECD Education Policy Perspectives |volume=68 |publisher=OECD Publishing |___location=Paris}}
* {{cite report |doi=10.1787/d01c660f-en |title=OECD Economic Surveys: Türkiye 2025 |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-64-38915-1 |author=OECD |series=OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey |publisher=OECD Publishing |___location=Paris}}
* {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-19-1208-5 |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Comparative Public Administration |date=2022 |isbn=978-981-19-1207-8 |editor-last1=Önder |editor-last2=Nyadera |editor-last3=Islam |editor-first1=Murat |editor-first2=Israel Nyaburi |editor-first3=Md. Nazmul |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan Singapore}}
** {{harvc |last1=Karabulut |first1=Niyazi |chapter=Republic of Turkey |in1=Önder |in2=Nyadera |in3=Islam |year=2022 }} {{doi|10.1007/978-981-19-1208-5_25}}
* {{cite book |last=Özbek |first=Çağlar |title=LGBT+ Studies in Turkey |publisher=Transnational Press London |year=2019 | isbn=978-1-912997-11-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XyFDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Özerdem |editor-first1=Alpaslan |editor-last2=Öztürk |editor-first2=Ahmet Erdi |year=2023 |title=A Companion to Modern Turkey's Centennial: Political, Sociological, Economic and Institutional Transformations since 1923 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-9254-6 |doi=10.1515/9781474492546 }}
** {{harvc |last1=Hale |first1=William |chapter=Foreword |in1=Özerdem |in2=Öztürk |year=2023 |pages=xii–xv}}
* {{cite book | last1=Peacock | first1=A. C. S. | title=The Great Seljuk Empire | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | publication-place=Edinburgh | year=2015 | isbn=978-0-7486-3827-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAndCQAAQBAJ |author-link1=A. C. S. Peacock}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|url= http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans |title= Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans |last= Pekesen |first= Berna |date= 7 March 2012 |encyclopedia=[[European History Online]] |publisher=[[Leibniz Institute of European History]] |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220192047/http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/forced-ethnic-migration/berna-pekesen-expulsion-and-emigration-of-the-muslims-from-the-balkans |archive-date=20 February 2024|url-status=live}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|ISMEP Guide Books 4|2014}} |year=2014 |title=Retrofitting and Reconstruction Works |series=ISMEP Guide Books |volume=4 |url=https://www.ipkb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ISMEP4_GUCLENDIRME_EN140214.pdf |access-date=23 April 2024}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sagona |first1=Antonio |last2=Zimansky |first2=Paul |title=Ancient Turkey |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-134-44027-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsLKBgAAQBAJ |doi=10.4324/9780203880463 |author-link1=Antonio Sagona}}
* {{cite report |first1=Serhat |last1=Sensoy |first2=Mesut |last2=Demircan |first3=Yusuf |last3=Ulupinar |first4=İzzet |last4=Balta |title=Climate of Turkey |year=n.d. |url=http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/en-US/climateofturkey.pdf |publisher=General Directorate of Meteorology |access-date=11 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328192740/http://www.dmi.gov.tr/files/en-US/climateofturkey.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2014}}
* {{cite book | last=Somel | first=S.A. | title=The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire | publisher=Scarecrow Press | series=The A to Z Guide Series | year=2010 | isbn=978-1-4617-3176-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UU8iCY0OZmcC}}
* {{cite book | last1=Stokes | first1=Martin | title=The Republic of Love: Cultural Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music |year=2010 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |series=Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology |isbn=978-0-226-77506-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwnpAkCTo88C |author-link1=Martin Stokes}}
* {{cite report |url=https://shura.org.tr/en/energy-pricing-and-non-market-flows-in-turkeys-energy-sector/ |title=Energy pricing and non-market flows in Turkey's energy sector |last1=Taranto |first1=Yael |last2=Saygın |first2=Değer |others=Metin Koşar |year=2019 |url-status=live|archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806205126/https://www.shura.org.tr/energy_pricing_and_non-market_flows_in_turkeys_energy_sector-2/}}
* {{cite book | editor-last1=Tasar | editor-first1=Eren | editor-last2=Frank | editor-first2=Allen J. | editor-last3=Eden | editor-first3=Jeff | title=From the Khan's Oven: Studies on the History of Central Asian Religions in Honor of Devin Deweese | publisher=BRILL | year=2021 | isbn=978-90-04-47018-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4stKEAAAQBAJ |doi=10.1163/9789004471177}}
** {{harvc |last1=Golden |first1=Peter B. |chapter=Reflections on the Ethnonym Türk |in1=Tasar |in2=Frank |in3=Eden |year=2021 |pages=1–50 |author-link1=Peter Benjamin Golden}} {{doi|10.1163/9789004471177_002}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Tockner | editor-first1=Klement | editor-last2=Zarfl | editor-first2=Christiane | editor-last3=Robinson | editor-first3=Christopher T. |title=Rivers of Europe |edition=2nd |year=2022 |doi=10.1016/C2017-0-03745-X |isbn=978-0-08-102612-0 }}
** {{harvc |last1=Akbulut |first1=Nuray (Emir) |last2=Bayarı |first2=Serdar |last3=Akbulut |first3=Aydın |last4=Özyurt |first4=Naciye Nur |last5=Sahin |first5=Yalcın |chapter=Rivers of Turkey |in1=Tockner |in2=Zarfl |in3=Robinson |year=2022 |pages=853–882}} {{doi|10.1016/B978-0-08-102612-0.00021-3}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|KONDA|2006}} |url=http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |title=Toplumsal Yapı Araştırması 2006 |date=2006 |publisher=[[KONDA Research and Consultancy]] |access-date=21 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215004933/http://www.konda.com.tr/tr/raporlar/2006_09_KONDA_Toplumsal_Yapi.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2017}}
* {{cite book | last1=van den Hout | first1=Theo | title=The Elements of Hittite | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-521-13300-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C |author-link1=Theo van den Hout}}
*{{cite book |doi=10.1108/S1479-3679202140 |title=Annual Review of Comparative and International Education 2020 |series=International Perspectives on Education and Society |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-80071-908-8 |editor-last1=Wiseman |editor-first1=Alexander W.}}
**{{harvc |last1=Oz |first1=Yakup |chapter=The Emergence of Turkey as a Regional Hub for International Students: A Macro-Level Analysis |pages=307–328 |in1=Wiseman |year=2021}} {{doi|10.1108/S1479-367920210000040017}}
* {{Cite report |author=World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/assets/67729/2000%20Global%20Innovation%20Index%202024_WEB3lite.pdf |___location=Geneva |publisher=WIPO |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |author-link=World Intellectual Property Organization}}
* {{cite report |ref={{harvid|World Bank Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report|2022}} |author=World Bank Group |url=http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf | hdl=10986/37521 | title=Türkiye - Country Climate and Development Report | year=2022 |___location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=World Bank Group |access-date =5 May 2024 |url-status =live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240505172225/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099006106072221642/pdf/P177479041cc100c80bacc031005338a440.pdf |archive-date =5 May 2024 |author-link=World Bank Group}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
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