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Since George W. Bush wasn't president of the U.S. during the publishing date of the current edition of Britannica (15th), which version did it say it dedicates to? |
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{{Short description|General knowledge encyclopaedia}}
{{Title language|la}}
{{Redirect|Britannica}}
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{{Use Oxford spelling |date=November 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
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{{Infobox book
| name
| italic title = no
| author = {{As of|2008}}, 4,411 named contributors
| language = [[British English]]
| country = {{Plainlist|
* [[United Kingdom]] (1768–1901)
* [[United States]] (1901–present)
}}
| genre =
| published = Since 1768
| publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]
| image = Britannica Inc logo.svg
| alt = Britannica's logo of a blue thistle next to the text "Britannica"
| illustrator = Several; initial engravings by Andrew Bell
| subject = [[General knowledge]]
| release_date = *1768–2010 (printed version)
* 1994–Present (online)
| media_type = *Multivolume print (discontinued in 2012), 15 named editions, see [[Encyclopædia_Britannica#Edition_summary|edition summary]]
*CD-ROM
* Online digital ([[Britannica.com]])
| awards =
| dewey = 031
| wikisource =
| website = {{URL|britannica.com}}
| release_number =
}}
The {{langnf|la|'''Encyclopædia Britannica'''|British Encyclopaedia}} is a [[general knowledge|general-knowledge]] English-language [[encyclopaedia]]. It has been published since 1768, and after several ownership changes is currently owned by [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition.<ref name="nytstop" /> Since 2016, it has been published exclusively as an [[online encyclopedia|online encyclopaedia]] at the website [[Britannica.com]].
Printed for 244 years, the ''Britannica'' was the longest-running in-print encyclopaedia in the English language. It was first published between 1768 and 1771 in [[Edinburgh]], Scotland, in weekly installments that came together to form in three volumes. At first, the encyclopaedia grew quickly in size. The second edition extended to 10 volumes, and by its fourth edition (1801–1810), the ''Britannica'' had expanded to 20 volumes. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, its size has remained roughly steady, with about 40 million words.<ref>Jeff Loveland, “Why Encyclopedias Got Bigger ... and Smaller,” ''Information and Culture'' 47 (2012): 244.</ref>
The ''Britannica'''s rising stature as a scholarly work helped recruit [[List of notable contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica|eminent contributors]], and the 9th (1875–1889) and [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|11th editions]] (1911) are landmark encyclopaedias for scholarship and literary style. Starting with the 11th edition and following its acquisition by an American firm, the ''Britannica'' shortened and simplified articles to broaden its appeal to the North American market. Though published in the United States since 1901, the ''Britannica'' has for the most part maintained [[American and British English spelling differences|British English spelling]].
In 1932, the ''Britannica'' adopted a policy of "continuous revision," in which the encyclopaedia is continually reprinted, with every article updated on a schedule.<ref>Paul Kruse, “The Story of the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 1768-1943,” PhD dissertation (University of Chicago, 1958), 389.</ref> The publishers of ''Compton's Pictured Encyclopedia'' had already pioneered such a policy.<ref>M. A. Khan, ''The Principles and Practice of Library Science'' (New Delhi: Sarup and Sons, 1996), 281.</ref>
The 15th edition (1974–2010) has a three-part structure: a 12-volume {{lang|la|Micropædia}} of short articles (generally fewer than 750 words), a 17-volume {{lang|la|[[Macropædia]]}} of long articles (two to 310 pages), and a single {{lang|la|[[Propædia]]}} volume to give a [[hierarchical]] outline of knowledge. The {{lang|la|Micropædia}} was meant for quick [[fact-checking]] and as a guide to the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}; readers are advised to study the {{lang|la|Propædia}} outline to understand a subject's context and to find more detailed articles.
In the 21st century, the ''Britannica'' suffered first from competition with the digital multimedia encyclopaedia [[Microsoft Encarta|Microsoft ''Encarta'']],<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Carmody |first=Tim |title=Wikipedia Didn't Kill Britannica. Windows Did |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/03/wikipedia-didnt-kill-brittanica-windows-did/ |date=14 March 2012 |url-access=subscription |access-date=15 July 2023 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> and later with the online [[Peer production|peer-produced]] encyclopaedia [[Wikipedia]].<ref name="Wired best">{{cite magazine |last=Cooke |first=Richard |title=Wikipedia Is the Last Best Place on the Internet |url=https://www.wired.com/story/wikipedia-online-encyclopedia-best-place-internet/ |access-date=30 March 2021 |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |date=17 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="NYT no print">{{cite news |last=Bosman |first=Julie |title=After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses |url=https://archive.nytimes.com/mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses/ |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=13 March 2012 |language=en |access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref><ref name="Atlantic no print">{{cite news |last=McArdle |first=Megan |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica Goes Out of Print, Won't Be Missed |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2012/03/encyclopaedia-britannica-goes-out-of-print-wont-be-missed/254529/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=7 June 2023 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=15 March 2012 |language=en}}</ref>
In March 2012, it announced it would no longer publish printed editions and would focus instead on the online version.<ref name="NYT no print" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/Latest-News-Wires/2012/0314/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-After-244-years-in-print-only-digital-copies-sold|title=Encyclopaedia Britannica: After 244 years in print, only digital copies sold|last=Kearney|first=Christine|date=14 March 2012|website=[[The Christian Science Monitor]]|agency=[[Reuters]]|access-date=31 May 2019|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531203954/https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/Latest-News-Wires/2012/0314/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-After-244-years-in-print-only-digital-copies-sold|url-status=live}}</ref>
== History ==
{{Main|History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|l1 = History of the Encyclopædia Britannica}}
[[File:Houghton Typ 705.71.363 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1771 - title page.jpg|thumb|The title page of the first edition of the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}}, published in 1768-71]]
Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Scottish printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, the Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, the Scottish publisher A. & C. Black, [[Horace Everett Hooper]], [[Sears]] Roebuck, [[William Benton (senator)|William Benton]], and [[Jacqui Safra]], a Swiss billionaire residing in [[New York City|New York]].
Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, ''Encarta'' and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias.<ref name="web" /> To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the ''Britannica'', reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on [[CD-ROM]], DVD, and the [[World Wide Web]]. Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.<ref name="encyclopaedia_1954">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1954 |title=Encyclopaedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=14th}} Aside from providing a summary of the ''Britannica''{{'s}} history and early spin-off products, this article also describes the life-cycle of a typical ''Britannica'' edition. A new edition typically begins with strong sales that decay as the encyclopaedia becomes outdated. When work on a new edition is begun, sales of the old edition stop, just when fiscal needs are greatest: a new editorial staff must be assembled, articles commissioned. Elkan Harrison Powell identified this fluctuation of income as a danger to any encyclopaedia, one he hoped to overcome with continuous revision.</ref>
=== Editions ===
The ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd edition and to the 4th, 5th, and 6th editions as a group (see the [[#Edition summary|Table]] below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, and the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. For the 15th edition (1974), the ''Britannica'' underwent a massive reorganization and became the ''New Encyclopaedia Britannica''. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were quite different from early ones.
Throughout its history, the ''Britannica'' has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material.<ref name="EB_encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2007 |title=Encyclopedias and Dictionaries |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |edition=15th |volume=18 |pages=257–286}}</ref> In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge.<ref name="propedia_preface">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |pages=5–8 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref>
The history of the ''Britannica'' can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management or reorganization of the encyclopaedia.
==== 1768–1824 ====
[[File:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|The early 19th-century editions of {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} included influential, original research such as [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young's]] article on Egypt, which included the translation of the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyphs]] on the [[Rosetta Stone]] (pictured).]]
In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1824), the ''Britannica'' was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others.
The ''Britannica'' was first published in serial installments between December 1768 and about August 1771 in [[Edinburgh]] as the ''Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan''.<ref>Richard Yeo, ''Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 176.</ref> The new plan in question was an organizational one, namely to include two kinds of typographically distinct entries (articles and longer "treatises") in a single alphabetical sequence. In principle, "treatises" were to cover the arts and sciences, leaving articles to deal with their subordinate objects. The idea may have been inspired by Dennis de Coetlogon's ''Universal History of Arts and Sciences'', an alphabetical encyclopedia that contained only treatises.<ref>Kafker and Loveland, "William Smellie's Edition," 23-24.</ref> Regardless, the ''Britannica'' continued to intermix formally distinguished articles and treatises through the 10th edition.<ref>Jeff Loveland, “Unifying Knowledge and Dividing Disciplines: The Development of Treatises in the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'',” ''Book History'' 9 (2006): 73-74.</ref>
According to Arthur Herman's book ''How the Scots Invented the Modern World'', the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' is one of the most enduring legacies of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Herman |first=Arthur |author-link=Arthur L. Herman |title=How the Scots Invented the Modern World |title-link=How the Scots Invented the Modern World |publisher=Three Rivers Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-609-80999-0}}</ref> It is important to be more specific, however, about how the early ''Britannica'' was and was not Scottish and a monument to the Scottish Enlightenment. The two publishers and [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]], whom they engaged to compile the work, were all Scots. Much of the first edition was compiled by Smellie from Scottish sources.<ref>Richard B. Sher, ''The Enlightenment & the Book: Scottish Authors & their Publishers in Eighteenth-Century Britain, Ireland & America'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 135-36.</ref> At the same time, despite working in Edinburgh, the center of the Scottish Enlightenment, neither Smellie nor James Tytler, the editor of the second edition, arranged for contributions from any local luminaries.<ref>Frank A. Kafker and Jeff Loveland, "William Smellie's Edition (1768-1771): A Modest Start," in ''The Early Britannica: The Growth of an Outstanding Encyclopedia'' (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2009), 67.</ref> Nor does the work seem to have been much noticed by participants in the Scottish Enlightenment before its third edition.<ref>Yeo, ''Encyclopaedic Visions'', 172-73.</ref> Likewise, it is significant that the title chosen was the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (and not the ''Encyclopaedia Scotorum'', or 'Scottish Encyclopaedia'). Indeed, by the time of the third edition, the ''Britannica'' was starting to evolve into a symbol of Britishness.<ref>Kathleen Hardesty Doig ''et al''., “Colin Macfarquhar, George Gleig, and Possibly James Tytler’s Edition (1788-97): The Attainment of Recognition and Eminence,” in ''Early Britannica'', 249.</ref>
In this era, the ''Britannica'' grew significantly in size, sales, and reputation. Just as important were changes to the way it was compiled and edited. On his tombstone, Smellie was characterized as the editor of the first edition of the ''Britannica'', but he was not an editor in anything like the sense in which Macvey Napier, who edited the ''Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions'', was. Smellie compiled nearly all the articles in the first edition himself, although we know he had minor help from at least one contributor, James Anderson, who wrote the articles "Dictionary, "Pneumatics," and "Smoke."<ref>Kafker and Loveland, "William Smellie's Edition," 19-20.</ref> For the third edition and its ''Supplement'', editors still compiled the bulk of the articles, but they were assisted by dozens of collaborators. We know of thirty-five who wrote for the third edition, for example, some of them named in the preface, including the chemist [[Joseph Black]] and the natural philosopher [[John Robison (physicist)|John Robison]].<ref>Doig ''et al''., "Colin Macfarquhar, George Gleig, and possibly James Tytler's Edition," 169-71.</ref> Then, by the time of the ''Supplement'', Napier had become mostly a managing editor. He still wrote some articles, but his main job was recruiting collaborators, for the prospectus stipulated that "the various articles, in the Supplement, shall be written by the most Eminent Men, in the different departments of Science."<ref>Yeo, ''Encyclopaedic Visions'', 251, 257.</ref>
Several other encyclopaedias competed with the ''Britannica'' throughout this period, among them editions of Ephraim Chambers' and [[Abraham Rees]]'s ''Cyclopædia'', [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge's]] ''[[Encyclopædia Metropolitana]]'', and [[David Brewster]]'s ''[[Edinburgh Encyclopædia]]''.
==== 1827–1901 ====
During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the ''Britannica'' was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably [[Macvey Napier]], others were attracted by the ''Britannica''{{'s}} reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index of all articles was included for the first time in the 7th edition, a practice maintained until 1974.
Production of the 9th edition was overseen by Thomas Spencer Baynes, the first English-born editor-in-chief. Dubbed the "Scholar's Edition", the 9th edition is the most scholarly of all ''Britannicas''.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="kogan_1958">{{cite book |last=Kogan |first=Herman |url=https://archive.org/details/greatebstoryo00koga_1 |title=The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |year=1958 |___location=Chicago, Illinois |language=en |lccn=58008379 |url-access=registration}}</ref> After 1880, Baynes was assisted by [[William Robertson Smith]].<ref>{{Cite SBDEL|wstitle=Baynes, Thomas Spencer}}</ref> No biographies of living persons were included.<ref>{{Cite EB9|wstitle=Editor's Advertisement|volume=1}}</ref> [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[Thomas Huxley]] were special advisors on science.<ref>{{Cite EB9|wstitle=Prefatory Notice}}</ref> However, by the close of the 19th century, the 9th edition was outdated, and the ''Britannica'' faced financial difficulties.
==== 1901–1973 ====
[[File:EncycBrit1913.jpg|thumb|An advertisement for the 11th edition, published in the May 1913 issue of ''[[National Geographic]]'']]
[[File:Shipping box for the encyclopedia Britannica 2013-04-13 12-24.jpg|alt=A wooden crate reading "THE / ENCYCLOPAEDIA / BRITANNICA / STANDARD OF THE WORLD / FOURTEENTH EDITION / BLUE CLOTH / BOOKS KEEP DRY"|thumb|A wooden shipping crate for the 14th edition of the ''Britannica'']]
In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the ''Britannica'' was managed by American businessmen who introduced [[direct marketing]] and [[door-to-door]] sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was an eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25–35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on the project.<ref name="kogan_1958" />
When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the ''Britannica'' was managed by [[Sears Roebuck]] for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the vice-president of Sears, Elkan Harrison Powell, assumed presidency of the ''Britannica''; in 1936, he began the policy of continuous revision. This was a departure from earlier practice, in which the articles were not changed until a new edition was produced, at roughly 25-year intervals, some articles unchanged from earlier editions.<ref name="encyclopaedia_1954" /> Powell developed new educational products that built upon the ''Britannica''{{'s}} reputation.
In 1943, Sears donated the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} to the [[University of Chicago]]. [[William Benton (senator)|William Benton]], then a vice president of the university, provided the working capital for its operation. The stock was divided between Benton and the university, with the university holding an option on the stock.<ref>''Chicago Tribune'', 22 February 1945.</ref> Benton became chairman of the board and managed the ''Britannica'' until his death in 1973.<ref>''Chicago Tribune'', 28 January 1943.</ref> Benton set up the Benton Foundation, which managed the ''Britannica'' until 1996, and whose sole beneficiary was the University of Chicago.<ref>{{cite news |last=Feder |first=Barnaby J. |date=19 December 1995 |title=Deal Is Set for Encyclopaedia Britannica |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/19/business/deal-is-set-for-encyclopaedia-britannica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521234943/https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/19/business/deal-is-set-for-encyclopaedia-britannica.html |archive-date=21 May 2020 |access-date=2 May 2020 |work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> In 1968, the ''Britannica'' celebrated [[Bicentennial of the Encyclopædia Britannica|its bicentennial]].
==== 1974–1994 ====
<!-- "Encyclopædia Britannica Fifteenth Edition" (and several alt spellings) redirect here. See MOS:HIDDENLINKADVICE -->
In the fourth era (1974–1994), the ''Britannica'' introduced its 15th edition, which was reorganized into three parts: the {{lang|la|Micropædia}}, the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}, and the {{lang|la|Propædia}}. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of ''Britannica'' from 1965),<ref>Mortimer J. Adler, ''A Guidebook to Learning: for the lifelong pursuit of wisdom''. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, 1986, p. 88.</ref> the ''Britannica'' sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of a separate index and the grouping of articles into parallel encyclopaedias (the {{lang|la|Micro-}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}) provoked a "firestorm of criticism" of the initial 15th edition.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="15th_criticism">{{multiref2|{{cite news | last = Baker | first = John F. | title = A New Britannica Is Born | work = [[Publishers Weekly]] | date = 14 January 1974 | pages = 64–65}}|{{cite news | last = Wolff | first = Geoffrey | title = Britannica 3, History of | work = [[The Atlantic Monthly|The Atlantic]] |date = June 1974| pages = 37–47}}|{{cite news | last = Cole | first = Dorothy Ethlyn | title = Britannica 3 as a Reference Tool: A Review | publisher = Wilson Library Bulletin |date = June 1974| pages = 821–825 | quote = ''Britannica 3'' is difficult to use ... the division of content between {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}} makes it necessary to consult another volume in the majority of cases; indeed, it was our experience that even simple searches might involve eight or nine volumes.}}|{{cite news | last = Davis | first = Robert Gorham | title = Subject: The Universe | work = [[The New York Times Book Review]] | date = 1 December 1974 | pages = 98–100}}|{{cite news | last = Hazo | first = Robert G. | title = The Guest Word | work = [[The New York Times Book Review]] | date = 9 March 1975 | page = 31}}|{{cite magazine | last = McCracken| first = Samuel | title = The Scandal of 'Britannica 3' | magazine = [[Commentary (magazine)|Commentary]] |date = February 1976| pages = 63–68 | quote = This arrangement has nothing to recommend it except commercial novelty.}}|{{cite news | last = Waite | first = Dennis V. | title = Encyclopædia Britannica: EB 3, Two Years Later | work = [[Publishers Weekly]] | date = 21 June 1976 | pages = 44–45}}|{{cite news | last = Wolff | first = Geoffrey | title = Britannica 3, Failures of | work = [[The Atlantic Monthly|The Atlantic]] |date = November 1976| pages = 107–110 | quote = It is called the {{lang|la|Micropædia}}, for 'little knowledge', and little knowledge is what it provides. It has proved to be grotesquely inadequate as an index, radically constricting the utility of the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}.}}
}}</ref> In response, the 15th edition was completely reorganized and indexed for a re-release in 1985. This second version of the 15th edition continued to be published and revised through the release of the 2010 print version. The official title of the 15th edition is the ''New Encyclopædia Britannica'', although it has also been promoted as ''Britannica 3''.<ref name="kister_1994" />
On 9 March 1976 the US [[Federal Trade Commission]] entered an opinion and order enjoining Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. from using: a) deceptive advertising practices in recruiting sales agents and obtaining sales leads, and b) deceptive sales practices in the door-to-door presentations of its sales agents.<ref>{{cite web |title=In the Matter of Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. et al. |url=https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-87/ftc_volume_decision_87_january_-_june_1976pages_400-541.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025095028/https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/commission_decision_volumes/volume-87/ftc_volume_decision_87_january_-_june_1976pages_400-541.pdf |archive-date=25 October 2015 |access-date=11 December 2015 |pages=421–541}}</ref>
==== 1994–present ====
[[File:Eb advert 1898.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|An 1898 advertisement for the 9th edition]]
In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on [[Optical disc|optical media]] and online.
In 1996, the ''Britannica'' was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Incorporated, developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, [[Ilan Yeshua]], who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the ''Britannica'' name. In March 2012, Britannica's president, [[Jorge Cauz]], announced that it would not produce any new print editions of the encyclopaedia, with the 2010 15th edition being the last. The company will focus only on the online edition and other educational tools.<ref name="nytstop" /><ref name="cnn-stop">{{cite news |last=Pepitone |first=Julianne |date=13 March 2012 |title=Encyclopedia Britannica to stop printing books |url=https://money.cnn.com/2012/03/13/technology/encyclopedia-britannica-books/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314232429/http://money.cnn.com/2012/03/13/technology/encyclopedia-britannica-books/ |archive-date=14 March 2012 |access-date=14 March 2012 |publisher=[[CNN]]}}</ref>
''Britannica''{{'s}} final print edition was in 2010, a 32-volume set.<ref name="nytstop" /> ''Britannica Global Edition'' was also printed in 2010, containing 30 volumes and 18,251 pages, with 8,500 photographs, maps, flags, and illustrations in smaller "compact" volumes, as well as over 40,000 articles written by scholars from across the world, including Nobel Prize winners. Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain {{lang|la|Macro-}} and {{lang|la|Micropædia}} sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up through the 14th had. The following is ''Britannica''{{'s}} description of the work:<ref name="store.britannica.com" />
{{blockquote|The editors of {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}}, the world standard in reference since 1768, present the ''Britannica Global Edition''. Developed specifically to provide comprehensive and global coverage of the world around us, this unique product contains thousands of timely, relevant, and essential articles drawn from the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} itself, as well as from the ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia'', the ''Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions'', and Compton's by Britannica. Written by international experts and scholars, the articles in this collection reflect the standards that have been the hallmark of the leading English-language encyclopedia for over 240 years.}}
In 2020, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. released the ''Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia: What We Know and What We Don't'', an encyclopaedia aimed primarily at younger readers, covering major topics. The encyclopedia was widely praised for bringing back the print format. It was ''Britannica''<nowiki/>'s first encyclopaedia for children since 1984.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The new Children's Britannica: a fantastic voyage through the history of the world |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/non-fiction/new-childrens-britannica-fantastic-voyage-history-world/amp/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/books/non-fiction/new-childrens-britannica-fantastic-voyage-history-world/amp/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 November 2020 |title=Why printed encyclopedias for children are more important than ever |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/britannica-encyclopedia-children-universe-facts-book-b1720986.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110131928/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/britannica-encyclopedia-children-universe-facts-book-b1720986.html |archive-date=10 January 2021 |access-date=6 January 2021 |website=The Independent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=8 October 2020 |title=Britannica All New Children's Encyclopedia edited by Christopher Lloyd |url=https://schoolreadinglist.co.uk/childrens-book-reviews/britannica-childrens-encyclopedia/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214215003/https://schoolreadinglist.co.uk/childrens-book-reviews/britannica-childrens-encyclopedia/ |archive-date=14 December 2021 |access-date=17 July 2021 |website=The School Reading List}}</ref>
=== Dedications ===
The ''Britannica'' was [[Dedication (publishing)|dedicated]] to the reigning [[British monarchy|British monarch]] from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States.<ref name="kister_1994" /> Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty [[George V of the United Kingdom|George the Fifth]], [[King of Great Britain and Ireland]] and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, [[Emperor of India]], and to [[William Howard Taft]], President of the United States of America."<ref name="EB_1911">{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=1910 |edition=11th |page=3}}</ref> The order of the dedications has changed with the relative power of the United States and Britain, and with relative sales; the 1954 version of the 14th edition is "Dedicated by Permission to the Heads of the Two English-Speaking Peoples, [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Dwight David Eisenhower]], President of the United States of America, and Her Majesty, [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth the Second]]."<ref name="EB_1954">{{cite book |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=1954 |edition=14th |page=3}}</ref>
== Print version ==
[[File:Encyclopaedia Britannica 15 with 2002.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The 15th edition of the ''Britannica''; the initial volume with the green spine is the {{lang|la|Propædia}}; the red-spined and black-spined volumes are the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}, respectively. The last three volumes are the 2002 Book of the Year (black spine) and the two-volume index (cyan spine).]]
From 1985, the ''Britannica'' consisted of four parts: the {{lang|la|Micropædia}}, the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}, the {{lang|la|Propædia}}, and a two-volume index. The ''Britannica''{{'s}} articles are contained in the {{lang|la|Micro-}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}, which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 {{lang|la|Macropædia}} has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from two pages to 310 pages, with references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 {{lang|la|Micropædia}} has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors.<ref name="library_association_1996" /> The {{lang|la|Micropædia}} articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}. The {{lang|la|Macropædia}} articles are meant as authoritative, well-written commentaries on their subjects, as well as storehouses of information not covered elsewhere.<ref name="kister_1994" /> The longest article (310 pages) is on the subject of the United States, and it resulted from merging separate articles on the individual [[US state]]s. A 2013 "Global Edition" of ''Britannica'' contained approximately 40,000 articles.<ref name="store.britannica.com">{{cite web |url=https://store.britannica.com/products/043009100 |title=Britannica Global Edition |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705002524/https://store.britannica.com/products/043009100 |archive-date=5 July 2014 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Store }}</ref>
Information can be found in the ''Britannica'' by following the [[cross-reference]]s in the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}; these are sparse, however, averaging one cross-reference per page.<ref name="sader_1995" /> Readers are instead recommended to consult the alphabetical index or the {{lang|la|Propædia}}, which organizes the ''Britannica''{{'s}} contents by topic.<ref name="index_preface">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, ''Index'' preface |___location=Chicago, Illinois |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref>
The core of the {{lang|la|Propædia}} is its "Outline of Knowledge", which aims to provide a logical framework for all human knowledge.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> Accordingly, the Outline is consulted by the ''Britannica''{{'s}} editors to decide which articles should be included in the {{lang|la|Micro-}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> The Outline can also be used as a study guide, as it puts subjects in their proper perspective and suggests a series of ''Britannica'' articles for the student wishing to learn a topic in depth.<ref name="propedia_preface" /> However, libraries have found that it is scarcely used for this purpose, and reviewers have recommended that it be dropped from the encyclopaedia.<ref name="library_association_1992">{{cite book | year = 1992 | title = Purchasing an Encyclopedia: 12 Points to Consider | edition = 4th | publisher = Booklist | ___location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-0-8389-5754-7 | author = [[American Library Association]] | others = Revised introduction by Sandra Whiteley}}</ref> The {{lang|la|Propædia}} contains colour transparencies of human anatomy and several appendices listing the staff members, advisors, and contributors to all three parts of the ''Britannica''.
Taken together, the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}} comprise roughly 40 million words and 24,000 images.<ref name="index_preface" /> The two-volume index has 2,350 pages, listing the 228,274 topics covered in the ''Britannica'', together with 474,675 subentries under those topics.<ref name="sader_1995" /> The ''Britannica'' generally prefers [[British English|British spelling]] over [[American English|American]];<ref name="sader_1995" /> for example, it uses ''colour'' (not ''color''), ''centre'' (not ''center''), and ''encyclopaedia'' (not ''encyclopedia''). There are some exceptions to this rule, such as ''defense'' rather than ''defence''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Defense mechanism | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | edition= 15th | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. | year = 2007 | volume = 3 | pages = 957}}</ref>{{Original research inline | date=June 2023}} Common alternative spellings are provided with cross-references such as "Color: ''see'' Colour."
Since 1936, the ''Britannica'' has been revised on a regular schedule, with at least 10% of the articles considered for revision each year.<ref name="sader_1995" /><ref name="encyclopaedia_1954" /> According to one Britannica website, 46% of the articles in the 2007 edition were revised over the preceding three years;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eb.com/library/print/eb.html |title=Encyclopædia Britannica: School & Library Site, promotional materials for the 2007 ''Britannica'' |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=11 April 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070322035443/https://www.eb.com/library/print/eb.html |archive-date=22 March 2007 }}</ref> however, according to another Britannica website, only 35% of the articles were revised over the same period.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com.au/product.asp?prod=HLMPKG07 |title=Australian Encyclopædia Britannica, promotional materials for the 2007 ''Britannica'' |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Australia |access-date=10 April 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830124610/https://www.britannica.com.au/product.asp?prod=HLMPKG07 |archive-date=30 August 2007 }}</ref>
The alphabetization of articles in the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}} follows strict rules.<ref name="micropedia_preface">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Micropædia}} preface |___location=Chicago, Illinois |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref> [[Diacritic]]al marks and non-English letters are ignored, while numerical entries such as "[[War of 1812|1812, War of]]" are alphabetized as if the number had been written out ("Eighteen-twelve, War of"). Articles with identical names are ordered first by persons, then by places, then by things. Rulers with identical names are organized first alphabetically by country and then by chronology; thus, [[Charles the Simple|Charles III]] of France precedes [[Charles I of England]], listed in ''Britannica'' as the ruler of Great Britain and Ireland. (That is, they are alphabetized as if their titles were "Charles, France, 3" and "Charles, Great Britain and Ireland, 1".) Similarly, places that share names are organized alphabetically by country, then by ever-smaller political divisions.
In March 2012, the company announced that the 2010 edition would be the last printed version. This was part of a move by the company to adapt to the times and focus on its future using digital distribution.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://blogs.britannica.com/2012/03/change/|title=Change: It's OK. Really.|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=13 March 2012|access-date=14 November 2016|archive-date=7 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210507183247/https://blogs.britannica.com/2012/03/change/|url-status=live}}</ref> The peak year for the printed encyclopaedia was 1990, when 120,000 sets were sold, but sales had dropped to 40,000 per annum by 1996.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.foxnews.com/us/encyclopaedia-britannica-to-end-print-editions/|title=Encyclopaedia Britannica to end print editions|work=Fox News|agency=Associated Press|date=14 March 2012|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924170738/http://www.foxnews.com/us/2012/03/14/encyclopaedia-britannica-to-end-print-editions/|url-status=live}}</ref> There were 12,000 sets of the 2010 edition printed, of which 8,000 had been sold by March 2012.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses/|title=After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses|first=Julie|last=Bosman|work=The New York Times|date=13 March 2012|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124214708/https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses|url-status=live}}</ref> By late April 2012, the remaining copies of the 2010 edition had sold out at Britannica's online store. {{as of|2016}}, a replica of Britannica's 1768 first edition is available via the online store.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://store.britannica.com/collections/featuredproducts/products/052700000 |title=1768 Encyclopaedia Britannica Replica Set |website=Encyclopædia Britannica Store |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921032104/https://store.britannica.com/collections/featuredproducts/products/052700000 |archive-date=21 September 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref>
=== Related printed material ===
[[File:Children's Britannica.jpg|thumb|''Children's Britannica'']]
''Britannica Junior'' was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed ''Britannica Junior Encyclopædia'' in 1963.<ref>Britannica Junior Encyclopædia, 1984.</ref> It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.
A British ''Children's Britannica'' edited by [[John Armitage (editor)|John Armitage]] was issued in London in 1960.<ref>''Children's Britannica''. 1960. Encyclopædia Britannica Limited. London, England.</ref> Its contents were determined largely by the [[eleven-plus]] standardized tests given in Britain.<ref name="EB1988">''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1988.</ref> Britannica introduced the ''Children's Britannica'' to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.
In 1961, a 16-volume ''Young Children's Encyclopaedia'' was issued for children just learning to read.<ref name="EB1988" /> ''My First Britannica'' is aimed at children ages six to 12, and the ''Britannica Discovery Library'' is for children aged three to six (issued 1974 to 1991).<ref>{{cite web |title=Britannica Discovery Library (issued 1974–1991) |url=https://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/CHLD_PRNT_0551 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928061220/https://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=%2FShops%2FBritannicashop%2FProducts%2FCHLD_PRNT_0551 |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=11 April 2007 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Limited}}</ref> ''Compton's by Britannica'', first published in 2007, incorporating the former ''[[Compton's Encyclopedia]]'', is aimed at 10- to 17-year-olds and consists of 26 volumes and 11,000 pages.<ref>{{cite web |title=2007 Compton's by Britannica |url=https://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/CHLD_PRNT_0710_0715_0696 |access-date=11 April 2007 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Limited}}{{dead link|date=July 2018|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
There have been, and are, several abridged ''Britannica'' encyclopaedias. The single-volume ''Britannica Concise Encyclopædia'' has 28,000 short articles condensing the larger 32-volume ''Britannica'';<ref>{{cite web |title=2003 Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |url=https://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=/Shops/Britannicashop/Products/SVOL_REF_0302 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928061300/https://britannicashop.britannica.co.uk/epages/Store.sf/?ObjectPath=%2FShops%2FBritannicashop%2FProducts%2FSVOL_REF_0302 |archive-date=28 September 2007 |access-date=11 April 2007 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Limited}}</ref> there are authorized translations in languages such as Chinese<ref name="TTO Pham Hong Quan">{{cite news |last=Quân |first=Phạm Hoàng |date=25 July 2015 |title=Tên theo chủ: Qua vụ Google và vụ Britannica tiếng Việt |language=vi |trans-title=Naming by authority: the cases of Google and the Vietnamese Britannica |url=https://tuoitre.vn/tin/tuoi-tre-cuoi-tuan/van-hoa-nghe-thuat/20150724/ten-theo-chu-qua-vu-google-va-vu-britannica-tieng-viet/782406.html |url-status=dead |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150729225754/https://tuoitre.vn/tin/tuoi-tre-cuoi-tuan/van-hoa-nghe-thuat/20150724/ten-theo-chu-qua-vu-google-va-vu-britannica-tieng-viet/782406.html |archive-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> created by [[Encyclopedia of China Publishing House]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Imperial China: The Definitive Visual History |date=October 2020 |publisher=[[DK (publisher)|DK]] |isbn=978-0-7440-2047-2 |editor-last1=Jiangshan |editor-first1=Wang |edition=First American |___location=New York |pages=3 |editor-last2=Yi |editor-first2=Tian}}</ref> and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]].<ref name="TTO English">{{cite news|title=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia rendered into Vietnamese|work=[[Tuổi Trẻ]] News|date=13 January 2015|access-date=11 August 2015|url=https://tuoitrenews.vn/lifestyle/25374/encyclopaedia-britannica-rendered-into-vietnamese|archive-date=5 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705211714/http://tuoitrenews.vn/lifestyle/25374/encyclopaedia-britannica-rendered-into-vietnamese|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TTO Nguyen Viet Long">{{cite news |last=Long |first=Nguyễn Việt |date=9 July 2015 |title=Chuyện kể từ người tham gia làm Britannica tiếng Việt |language=vi |trans-title=Stories from contributors to the Vietnamese Britannica |url=https://tuoitre.vn/tin/tuoi-tre-cuoi-tuan/cuoc-song-muon-mau/cua-so-khoa-hoc/20150709/chuyen-ke-tu-nguoi-tham-gia-lam-britannica-tieng-viet/774858.html |url-status=dead |access-date=11 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150823085230/https://tuoitre.vn/tin/tuoi-tre-cuoi-tuan/cuoc-song-muon-mau/cua-so-khoa-hoc/20150709/chuyen-ke-tu-nguoi-tham-gia-lam-britannica-tieng-viet/774858.html |archive-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>
Since 1938, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has published annually a ''Book of the Year'' covering the past year's events. A given edition of the ''Book of the Year'' is named in terms of the year of its publication, though the edition actually covers the events of the previous year. The company also publishes several specialized reference works, such as ''Shakespeare: The Essential Guide to the Life and Works of the Bard'' (Wiley, 2006).
== Optical disc, online, and mobile versions ==
The ''[[Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite]] 2012 DVD'' contains over 100,000 articles.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://store.britannica.com/collections/software/products/04211280jcas |title=Britannica 2012 Ultimate Reference DVD |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131027083737/https://store.britannica.com/collections/software/products/04211280jcas |archive-date=27 October 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This includes regular ''Britannica'' articles, as well as others drawn from the ''Britannica Student Encyclopædia'', and the ''Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia.'' The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from [[Merriam-Webster]].
''Britannica'' Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Webmaster and Blogger Tools |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Incorporated, Corporate Site |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/bps/reftools.html |access-date=1 December 2019 |date=2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003215910/https://corporate.britannica.com/bps/reftools.html |archive-date=3 October 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from ''The New York Times'' and the [[BBC News|BBC]]. {{as of|2009}}, roughly 60% of Encyclopædia Britannica's revenue came from online operations, of which around 15% came from subscriptions to the consumer version of the websites.<ref name="econsultancy_20090210">{{cite web |last=Charlton |first=Graham |date=10 February 2009 |title=Q&A: Ian Grant of Encyclopædia Britannica UK [interview] |url=https://econsultancy.com/blog/3268-q-a-ian-grant-of-encyclopaedia-britannica-uk |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213132109/https://econsultancy.com/blog/3268-q-a-ian-grant-of-encyclopaedia-britannica-uk |archive-date=13 February 2009 |access-date=10 February 2009 |publisher=Econsultancy}}</ref> {{as of|2006}}, subscriptions were available on a yearly, monthly or weekly basis.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url = https://www.britannica.co.uk/BT_Click_Buy.htm | title = Britannica Online Store—BT Click&Buy | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date =27 September 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060814003207/https://www.britannica.co.uk/BT_Click_Buy.htm |archive-date = 14 August 2006}}</ref> Special subscription plans are offered to schools, colleges and libraries; such institutional subscribers constitute an important part of Britannica's business. Beginning in early 2007, the ''Britannica'' made articles freely available if they are hyperlinked from an external site. Non-subscribers are served pop-ups and advertising.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url = https://www.britannica.com/webmaster | title = Instructions for linking to the ''Britannica'' articles | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date = 26 March 2007 | archive-date = 15 March 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070315082116/https://www.britannica.com/webmaster | url-status = live }}</ref>
On 20 February 2007, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that it was working with mobile phone search company [[AskMeNow]] to launch a mobile encyclopaedia.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.mirror99.com/20070221/encyclopaedia_britannica_selects_askmenow_to_launch_mobile_geae.jspx |title=Encyclopædia Britannica Selects AskMeNow to Launch Mobile Encyclopedia |date=21 February 2007 |publisher=[[AskMeNow]], Incorporated |access-date=26 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927105019/https://www.mirror99.com/20070221/encyclopaedia_britannica_selects_askmenow_to_launch_mobile_geae.jspx |archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=December 2024}} Users would be able to send a question via text message, and AskMeNow would search ''Britannica''{{'s}} 28,000-article concise encyclopaedia to return an answer to the query. Daily topical features sent directly to users' mobile phones were also planned.
On 3 June 2008, an initiative to facilitate collaboration between online expert and amateur scholarly contributors for Britannica's online content (in the spirit of a [[wiki]]), with editorial oversight from Britannica staff, was announced.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cauz |first=Jorge |date=3 June 2008 |title=Collaboration and the Voices of Experts |url=https://www.britannica.com/blogs/2008/06/collaboration-ownership-and-expertise/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605035257/https://www.britannica.com/blogs/2008/06/collaboration-ownership-and-expertise/ |archive-date=5 June 2008 |access-date=19 June 2015 |website=Britannica Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://blog.wired.com/business/2008/06/ency.html |title=Encyclopædia Britannica To Follow Modified Wikipedia Model |magazine=Wired |date=9 June 2008 |access-date=30 June 2011 |first=Eliot |last=Van Buskirk |archive-date=12 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412034849/http://blog.wired.com/business/2008/06/ency.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Approved contributions would be credited,<ref>{{cite web |last=Turton |first=Stuart |date=9 June 2008 |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica dips toe in Wiki waters |url=https://www.alphr.com/accessories/13429/encyclopaedia-britannica-dips-toe-in-wiki-waters |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620065513/http://www.alphr.com/accessories/13429/encyclopaedia-britannica-dips-toe-in-wiki-waters |archive-date=20 June 2015 |access-date=19 June 2015 |website=Alphr}}</ref> though contributing automatically grants Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. perpetual, irrevocable licence to those contributions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated, Corporate Site |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/termsofuse.html |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708094107/http://corporate.britannica.com/termsofuse.html |archive-date=8 July 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>
On 22 January 2009, Britannica's president, [[Jorge Cauz]], announced that the company would be accepting edits and additions to the online ''Britannica'' website from the public. The published edition of the encyclopaedia would not be affected by the changes.<ref name="telegraph" /> Individuals wishing to edit the ''Britannica'' website would have to register under their real name and address prior to editing or submitting their content.<ref name="tg">{{cite web |last=Hunt |first=Samantha Rose |date=23 January 2009 |title=Britannica looking to give Wikipedia a run for its money with online editing |url=https://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/41163/113/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129112338/https://www.tgdaily.com/content/view/41163/113/ |archive-date=29 January 2009 |access-date=30 June 2011 |website=Tgdaily}}</ref> All edits submitted would be reviewed and checked and will have to be approved by the encyclopaedia's professional staff.<ref name="tg" /> Contributions from non-academic users would sit in a separate section from the expert-generated ''Britannica'' content,<ref>{{cite web |last=Akhtar |first=Naved |date=25 January 2009 |title=Encyclopædia Britannica takes on Wikipedia |url=https://www.digitaljournal.com/article/265906 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728041229/http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/265906 |archive-date=28 July 2011 |access-date=30 June 2011 |website=Digital Journal}}</ref> as would content submitted by non-''Britannica'' scholars.<ref name="times" /> Articles written by users, if vetted and approved, would also only be available in a special section of the website, separate from the professional articles.<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/4318176/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-fights-back-against-Wikipedia.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/4318176/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-fights-back-against-Wikipedia.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Encyclopaedia Britannica fights back against Wikipedia |work=The Telegraph|date=23 January 2009 |access-date=19 June 2015 |___location=London |first=Matthew |last=Moore}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="times">{{cite web |url=https://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article5564836.ece |title=Britannica 2.0 shows Wikipedia how it's done |website=Times Online |first=Claire |last=Sweeney |date=22 January 2009 |access-date=26 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015151255/https://technology.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/tech_and_web/article5564836.ece |archive-date=15 October 2009 }}</ref> Official ''Britannica'' material would carry a "Britannica Checked" stamp, to distinguish it from the user-generated content.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7846986.stm |title=Britannica reaches out to the web |website=[[BBC News]] |date=24 January 2009 |access-date=19 June 2015 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731004556/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/7846986.stm |url-status=live }}</ref>
On 14 September 2010, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced a partnership with mobile phone development company [[Concentric Sky]] to launch a series of [[iPhone]] products aimed at the [[K–12]] market.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-britannica-kids-apps-make-learning-fun-102854844.html |title=New Britannica Kids Apps Make Learning Fun |date=14 September 2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia_Britannica, Incorporated |access-date=28 November 2010 |archive-date=17 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100917142019/http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-britannica-kids-apps-make-learning-fun-102854844.html |url-status=live}}</ref> On 20 July 2011, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. announced that Concentric Sky had ported the Britannica Kids product line to Intel's [[Intel Atom]]-based [[Netbooks]]<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.britannica.co.uk/press/2011-07-20.asp |title=Encyclopædia Britannica to supply world-leading educational apps to Intel AppUp center |date=20 July 2011 |publisher=Encyclopædia_Britannica, Incorporated |access-date=20 July 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930221244/https://www.britannica.co.uk/press/2011-07-20.asp |archive-date=30 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.concentricsky.com/about/partners/encyclopedia-britannica/ |title=About {{pipe}} Mobile, Web and Enterprise {{pipe}} Design and Development |publisher=Concentricsky.com |access-date=19 June 2015 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808233731/https://www.concentricsky.com/about/partners/encyclopedia-britannica/ |archive-date=8 August 2012 }}</ref> and on 26 October 2011 that it had launched its encyclopaedia as an [[iPad]] [[Application software|app]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://corporate.britannica.com/encyclopaedia-britannica-app-now-available-for-ipad/|title=Encyclopaedia Britannica App Now Available for iPad|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=26 October 2011|access-date=18 September 2016|archive-date=12 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160912041715/http://corporate.britannica.com/encyclopaedia-britannica-app-now-available-for-ipad/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, Britannica released Britannica ImageQuest, a database of images.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Britannica ImageQuest: One image database to rule them all {{!}} Reference Online|magazine=[[School Library Journal]]|date=2015|url=https://www.slj.com/2015/02/reviews/reference/britannica-imagequest-one-image-database-to-rule-them-all-reference-online/|access-date=17 February 2022|archive-date=15 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515211702/https://www.slj.com/2015/02/reviews/reference/britannica-imagequest-one-image-database-to-rule-them-all-reference-online/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In March 2012, it was announced that the company would cease printing the encyclopaedia set, and that it would focus on its online version.<ref>{{cite news|title=Encyclopaedia Britannica stops printing after more than 200 years|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/9142412/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-stops-printing-after-more-than-200-years.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/9142412/Encyclopaedia-Britannica-stops-printing-after-more-than-200-years.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Telegraph|access-date=30 October 2017|date=14 March 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=McCarthy|first=Tom|title=Encyclopædia Britannica halts print publication after 244 years|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/mar/13/encyclopedia-britannica-halts-print-publication|newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=30 October 2017|date=13 March 2012|archive-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203202921/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/mar/13/encyclopedia-britannica-halts-print-publication|url-status=live}}</ref>
On 7 June 2018, Britannica released a [[Google Chrome extension]], "Britannica Insights", which shows snippets of information from Britannica Online whenever the user performs a [[Google Search]], in a box to the right of Google's results.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/6/7/17437816/google-britannica-insights-search-encyclopedia|title=Encyclopædia Britannica's new Chrome extension is a simple fix to Google misinformation|author-first1=Makena|author-last1=Kelly|date=7 June 2018|work=The Verge|access-date=22 November 2018|archive-date=22 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122092322/https://www.theverge.com/2018/6/7/17437816/google-britannica-insights-search-encyclopedia|url-status=live}}</ref> Britannica Insights was also available as a [[Firefox]] extension but this was taken down due to a [[code review]] issue.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://github.com/mozilla/addons-frontend/issues/6081|title=Britannica Insights Firefox extension missing · Issue #6081 · mozilla/addons-frontend|website=GitHub|access-date=5 February 2021|archive-date=17 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217151924/https://github.com/mozilla/addons-frontend/issues/6081|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Personnel and management ==
=== Contributors ===
The print version of the ''Britannica'' has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist [[Milton Friedman]], astronomer [[Carl Sagan]], and surgeon [[Michael DeBakey]].<ref name="macropaedia_contributors">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |pages=531–674 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref> Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 ([[Alfred North Whitehead]]), while another quarter are retired or [[emeritus]]. Most (approximately 98%){{citation needed|date=May 2018}} contribute to only a single article; however, 64 contributed to three articles, 23 contributed to four articles, 10 contributed to five articles, and 8 contributed to more than five articles. An exceptionally prolific contributor is [[Christine Sutton]] of the [[University of Oxford]], who contributed 24 articles on [[particle physics]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Christine Sutton |url=https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Christine-Sutton/2900 |website=Britannica |publisher=Britannica Group |access-date=8 February 2022 |language=en |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208100953/https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Christine-Sutton/2900 |url-status=live }}</ref>
While ''Britannica''{{'s}} authors have included writers such as [[Albert Einstein]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9uFq-w6JicC&q=contributors+to+encyclopedia+britannica+%22albert+Einstein%22&pg=PA117|title=The Renaissance of Jewish Culture in Weimar Germany|last=Brenner|first=Michael|date=1998|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=9780300077209|pages=117|language=en|access-date=10 October 2020|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217080800/https://books.google.com/books?id=-9uFq-w6JicC&q=contributors+to+encyclopedia+britannica+%22albert+Einstein%22&pg=PA117|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Marie Curie]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VPqfyfgi834C&pg=PA44|title=The Cult of the Amateur: How Blogs, MySpace, YouTube, and the Rest of Today's User-generated Media are Destroying Our Economy, Our Culture, and Our Values|last=Keen|first=Andrew|date=2007|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=9780385520812|pages=44|language=en|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=21 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521233715/https://books.google.com/books?id=VPqfyfgi834C&pg=PA44|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Leon Trotsky]],<ref name=":1" /> as well as notable independent encyclopaedists such as [[Isaac Asimov]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Isaac-Asimov/108|title=Isaac Asimov|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=21 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521233716/https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Isaac-Asimov/108|url-status=live}}</ref> some have been criticized for lack of expertise. In 1911, the historian [[George Lincoln Burr|George L. Burr]] wrote:
{{blockquote|With a temerity almost appalling, [the ''Britannica'' contributor, Mr. Philips] ranges over nearly the whole field of European history, political, social, ecclesiastical... The grievance is that [this work] lacks authority. This, too—this reliance on editorial energy instead of on ripe special learning—may, alas, be also counted an "Americanizing": for certainly nothing has so cheapened the scholarship of our American encyclopaedias.<ref name="burr_1911">{{cite journal | last = Burr | first = George L. | author-link = George Lincoln Burr | year = 1911 | title = The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information | journal = American Historical Review | volume = 17 | pages = 103–109 | doi = 10.2307/1832843 | issue = 1 | jstor = 1832843}}</ref>}}
=== Staff ===
[[File: Thomas Spencer Baynes.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Thomas Spencer Baynes]], editor of the 9th edition. This portrait, painted in 1888, hangs in the Senate Room of the [[University of St Andrews]].]]
{{as of|2007}} in the 15th edition of ''Britannica'', [[Dale Hoiberg]], a [[sinology|sinologist]], was listed as ''Britannica''{{'s}} Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief.<ref name="propedia_staff">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |page=745 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref> Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were [[Hugh Chisholm]] (1902–1924), [[James Louis Garvin]] (1926–1932), [[Franklin Henry Hooper]] (1932–1938),<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764506,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014082730/https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,764506,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 October 2010 |title=Milestones, Aug. 26, 1940 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=26 August 1940 |access-date=19 June 2015}}</ref> [[Walter Yust]] (1938–1960), [[Harry Ashmore]] (1960–1963), [[Warren E. Preece]] (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir [[William Haley]] (1968–1969), [[Philip W. Goetz]] (1979–1991),<ref name="kister_1994">{{cite book |last=Kister |first=K. F. |url=https://archive.org/details/kistersbestencyc00kist |title=Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias |publisher=Oryx Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-89774-744-8 |edition=2nd |___location=Phoenix, Arizona |language=en-us |author-link=Kenneth Kister}}</ref> and [[Robert McHenry]] (1992–1997).<ref name="Britannica History"/> {{As of|2007}} Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and [[Theodore Pappas]] as Executive Editor.<ref name="propedia_staff" /> Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.
Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial officer in his 58 years with the company, before retiring in 1992.<ref>{{cite news |title=Armstrong |work=Chicago Tribune |date=20 January 2001 |url=https://articles.chicagotribune.com/keyword/encyclopedia-britannica |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-date=20 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920084131/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/keyword/encyclopedia-britannica |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The 2007 editorial staff of the ''Britannica'' included five Senior Editors and nine Associate Editors, supervised by Dale Hoiberg and four others. The editorial staff helped to write the articles of the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and some sections of the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}.<ref name="EB_biochemistry">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Biochemical Components of Organisms | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th ed. | publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc | year = 2007 | volume = 14 | pages = 1007–1030}}</ref>
=== Editorial advisors ===
As of 2012, ''Britannica'' had an editorial board of advisors, which included a number of distinguished figures, primarily scholars from a variety of disciplines.<ref name="propedia_editorial advisors">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |date=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |page=5 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/board/ |title=Encyclopædia Britannica Board of Editors |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=30 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204050531/https://corporate.britannica.com/board/ |archive-date=4 February 2012 |url-status = dead}}</ref>
The ''Propædia'' and its ''Outline of Knowledge'' were produced by dozens of editorial advisors under the direction of [[Mortimer J. Adler]].<ref name="propedia_other_editorial_advisors">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |date=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |pages=524–530 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref> Roughly half of these advisors have since died, including some of the Outline's chief architects – [[Rene Dubos]] (d. 1982), [[Loren Eiseley]] (d. 1977), [[Harold D. Lasswell]] (d. 1978), [[Mark Van Doren]] (d. 1972), [[Peter Ritchie Calder]] (d. 1982) and Mortimer J. Adler (d. 2001). The {{lang|la|Propædia}} also lists just under 4,000 advisors who were consulted for the unsigned {{lang|la|Micropædia}} articles.<ref name="micropaedia_consultants">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |date=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |pages=675–744 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref>
=== Corporate structure ===
During much of the 20th century, the ''Britannica'' had a significant ownership stake from the [[University of Chicago]], with many people associated with the university serving senior positions in the organisation.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>331-332</sup> During the mid 20th century, managers and executives at the ''Britannica'' company were lavishly rewarded due to the healthy profit encyclopedia sales generated, with division managers at the top of the sales organisation earning an average salary of $125,000 in 1958 (${{Inflation|index=US|value=125000|start_year=1958|r=0|fmt=c}} around in current USD adjusted for inflation).<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>329</sup>
From 1974, the company was controlled by the [[Benton Foundation]], of which the University of Chicago was the sole beneficiary.<ref name=":4" /> In January 1996, the ''Britannica'' was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier [[Jacqui Safra]],<ref>{{cite news | url = https://chronicle.uchicago.edu/960104/britannica.shtml | title = Britannica sold by Benton Foundation | publisher = University of Chicago Chronicle | date = 4 January 1996 | access-date = 17 February 2022 | archive-date = 29 December 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211229125031/http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/960104/britannica.shtml | url-status = live }}</ref> who serves as its current chair of the board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/press/releases/yannias.html |title=Encyclopædia Britannica Announces Appointment of Don Yannias As Chief Executive Officer |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated |date=4 March 1997 |access-date=15 March 2012 |archive-date=9 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070709103523/https://corporate.britannica.com/press/releases/yannias.html}}</ref>
In 1999, a new company, [[Britannica.com Inc.|Britannica.com Incorporated]], was [[corporate spin-off|created]] to develop digital versions of the ''Britannica''; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Incorporated was marked by missteps, considerable lay-offs, and financial losses.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Abramson |first=Ronna |date=9 April 2001 |title=Look Under "M" for Mess—Company Business and Marketing |magazine=The Industry Standard |url=https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HWW/is_14_4/ai_73746980 |access-date=26 March 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013183837/https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HWW/is_14_4/ai_73746980 |archive-date=13 October 2007 }}</ref> In 2001, Yannias was replaced by [[Ilan Yeshua]], who reunited the leadership of the two companies.<ref>{{cite press release |title=Ilan Yeshua Named Britannica CEO. Veteran Executive to Consolidate Operations of Encyclopædia Britannica and Britannica.com |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated |date=16 May 2001}}</ref> Yannias later returned to investment management, but remains on the ''Britannica''{{'s}} Board of Directors.
In 2003, former management consultant [[Jorge Aguilar-Cauz]] was appointed President of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Cauz is the senior executive and reports directly to the ''Britannica''{{'s}} Board of Directors. Cauz has been pursuing alliances with other companies and extending the ''Britannica'' brand to new educational and reference products, continuing the strategy pioneered by former CEO [[Elkan Harrison Powell]] in the mid-1930s.<ref name="propedia_Chair_President">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Propædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |page=2 |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref>
=== Sales and marketing ===
Although prior to 1920 the ''Britannica'' was primarily sold by [[mail-order]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Gilmore |first=Nicholas |date=2017-08-30 |title=Death of a Sales Scheme: Encyclopedia Shysters of the Door-to-Door Age |url=https://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/2017/08/death-sales-scheme-encyclopedia-shysters-door-door-age/ |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=The Saturday Evening Post |language=en-US}}</ref> after that time the ''Britannica'' was almost exclusively sold by [[Door-to-door salesman|door-to-door salesmen]],<ref name="Barnett">{{Cite news |last=Barnett |first=Laura |date=2012-03-14 |title=Death of a salesman: no more door-to-door Britannica |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/shortcuts/2012/mar/14/britannica-death-salesmen-door |access-date=2025-01-21 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> who often used [[high-pressure sales]] tactics or outright deception in order to secure purchases of the expensive work,<ref name=":2" /><ref name="brit-myth">Einbinder, Harvey ''[[iarchive:mythofthebritannica|The Myth of the Britannica]]''. New York: [[Grove Press]], 1964 (OCLC 152581687)/ London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1964 (OCLC 807782651) / New York: Johnson Reprint Corp., 1972. (OCLC 286856)</ref><sup>317-330</sup> from which they gained a significant commission, which in the United States in 1971 was $120–200 (around ${{Inflation|index=US|value=120|start_year=1971|r=0}}-${{Inflation|index=US|value=200|start_year=1971|r=0}} adjusted for inflation) per sale.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Lichtenstein |first=Grace |date=1971-09-26 |title=Encyclopedia Sale Abuses Go On Despite New Laws |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/09/26/archives/encyclopedia-sale-abuses-go-on-despite-new-laws-abuses-by.html |access-date=2025-01-21 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> These high-pressure sales tactics resulted in high levels of turnover among ''Britannica'' salesmen, with the company often exaggerating the ease of making a sale to employees, as well as engaging in deceptive job advertising in order to entice people to become salesmen.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>317-330</sup> The ''Britannica'' was sued several times by the American [[Federal Trade Commission]] for deceptive practices.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>317-330</sup> These practices were common among American encyclopedia companies.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>317-330</sup><ref name=":3" /> The development of the significant sales force began in 1932, with most senior leadership of the company by the late 20th century coming from the sales division.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Greenstein |first=Shane |url=https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/greenstein/images/htm/research/cases/encyclopaediabritannica.pdf |title=Crisis at Encyclopaedia Britannica |last2=Devereux |first2=Michelle |date= |publisher=[[Kellogg School of Management]] |year=2006 |archive-date=25 June 2008 |access-date=21 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625000654/https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/greenstein/images/htm/research/cases/encyclopaediabritannica.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
While early on the ''Britannica'' was marketed to adults and in particular during the 19th and early 20th centuries, to an elite educated audience,<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>152-153</sup> by the mid 20th century, the ''Britannica'' (as well as other American encyclopedias<ref name=":3" />) were primarily marketed to middle-class parents who wished to seek a good education for their children, despite the text not being aimed at a child's reading level.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>317-330</sup><ref name=":3" /> During the 20th century, the ''Britannica'' differentiated itself from other encyclopedias by using its long pedigree to present itself as a premium brand.<ref name=":4" /> Once the encyclopedia was purchased, it was often little read by its buyers.<ref name="Barnett"/>
== Competition ==
As the ''Britannica'' is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the ''[[Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]]'' or the ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the ''Britannica''{{'s}} main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of [[Ephraim Chambers]] and, soon thereafter, ''[[Rees's Cyclopædia]]'' and [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge|Coleridge's]] ''[[Encyclopædia Metropolitana]]''. In the 20th century, successful competitors included ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia]]'', the ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]'', and the ''[[World Book Encyclopedia]]''. Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the ''Britannica'' was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English-language encyclopaedia,<ref name="thomas_1992" /> especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" /> The print version of the ''Britannica'' was significantly more expensive than its competitors.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" />
Since the early 1990s, the ''Britannica'' has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of [[search engine]]s, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as [[Google Books]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[MIT OpenCourseWare|release of its educational materials]] and the open [[PubMed Central]] library of the [[National Library of Medicine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=S. |last2=Giles |first2=C. |year=1999 |title=Accessibility of information on the web |journal=Nature |volume=400 |issue=6740 |pages=107–109 |bibcode=1999Natur.400..107L |doi=10.1038/21987 |pmid=10428673 |s2cid=4347646 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lawrence |first1=S. |last2=Giles |first2=C. |year=1999 |title=Searching the Web: general and scientific information access |journal=IEEE Communications Magazine |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=116–122 |citeseerx=10.1.1.118.3636 |doi=10.1109/35.739314 |s2cid=10947844}}</ref>
The Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated.<ref>{{cite web | title=Electronic publishing takes journals into a new realm |publisher=American Chemical Society | url=https://pubs.acs.org/hotartcl/cenear/980518/elec.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990117003816/https://pubs.acs.org/hotartcl/cenear/980518/elec.html |url-status = dead| archive-date=17 January 1999 |access-date=11 April 2007}}</ref> In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the ''Britannica'' has struggled to stay up to date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust.<ref name="EB_1954" /> Eventually, the ''Britannica'' turned to focus more on its online edition.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-17362698|title=Britannica ends its print edition|date=14 December 2012|work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=2 August 2018|language=en-GB|archive-date=28 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180928073756/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-17362698|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Print encyclopaedias ===
The {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively.<ref name="library_association_1996" /><ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" /> A well-known comparison is that of [[Kenneth Kister]], who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the 1993 ''Britannica'' with two comparable encyclopaedias, ''Collier's Encyclopedia'' and the ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]''.<ref name="kister_1994" /> For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—[[circumcision]], [[Charles R. Drew|Charles Drew]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], [[Philip Glass]], [[cardiovascular disease|heart disease]], [[Intelligence quotient|IQ]], [[Giant panda|panda bear]], [[sexual harassment]], [[Shroud of Turin]] and [[Uzbekistan]]—and letter grades of A–D or F were awarded in four categories: coverage, accuracy, clarity, and recency. In all four categories and for all three encyclopaedias, the four average grades fell between [[grading in education|B− and B+]], chiefly because none of the encyclopaedias had an article on sexual harassment in 1994. In the accuracy category, the ''Britannica'' received one "D" and seven "A"s, ''Encyclopedia Americana'' received eight "A"s, and ''Collier's'' received one "D" and seven "A"s; thus, ''Britannica'' received an average score of 92% for accuracy to ''Americana''{{'s}} 95% and ''Collier's'' 92%. In the timeliness category, ''Britannica'' averaged an 86% to ''Americana'''s 90% and ''Collier's'' 85%.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kister |first=Kenneth F. |title=Kister's best encyclopedias : a comparative guide to general and specialized encyclopedias |publisher=Oryx Press |year=1994 |isbn=0897747445 |edition=2nd |___location=Phoenix |language=English}}</ref>
=== Digital encyclopaedias on optical media ===
The most notable competitor of the ''Britannica'' among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was ''[[Encarta]]'',<ref name="seymour_2006" /> now discontinued, a modern multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: ''[[Funk & Wagnalls]]'', ''Collier's,'' and the ''New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia''. ''Encarta'' was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = [[Microsoft]] | title = Microsoft Encarta—Premium 2007: Overview | url = https://www.microsoft.com/products/encarta/ProductDetails.aspx?pid=002 | access-date = 6 April 2007 | archive-date = 31 March 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070331065200/http://www.microsoft.com/products/encarta/ProductDetails.aspx?pid=002 | url-status = live }} Sales figures for January 2000 – February 2006 as provided by the [[NPD Group]].</ref> Both occupied the same price range, with the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite|2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate]]'' CD or DVD costing US$40–50<ref name="2007EncartaPrice">{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/27/20070327-113641-4034r/?page=all |title=Digital encyclopedia has wealth of information |work=[[The Washington Times]] |date=27 March 2007 |access-date=25 January 2016 |archive-date=1 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201131648/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2007/mar/27/20070327-113641-4034r/?page=all |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Britannica Store">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://store.britannica.com/shopping/product/detailmain.jsp?itemID=765&itemType=PRODUCT&iMainCat=4&iSubCat=14&iProductID=765&show=all |title=The Britannica Store |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=21 November 2006 }}{{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> and the Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007 DVD costing US$45.<ref name="Encarta Store">{{cite web|url= https://www.amazon.com/Microsoft-FB7-00442-Encarta-Premium-2007/dp/B000FL2DQS|title= Amazon.com: Microsoft Encarta Premium 2007: Software|website= Amazon|access-date= 21 November 2006|archive-date= 8 February 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070208123657/http://www.amazon.com/Microsoft-FB7-00442-Encarta-Premium-2007/dp/B000FL2DQS|url-status= live}}</ref>
The ''Britannica'' disc contains 100,000 articles and ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Merriam-Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus]]'' (US only) and offers primary and secondary school editions.<ref name="Britannica Store" /> ''Encarta'' contained 66,000 articles, a user-friendly Visual Browser, interactive maps, math, language, and homework tools, a US and UK dictionary, and a youth edition.<ref name="Encarta Store" /> Like ''Encarta'', the digital ''Britannica'' has been criticized for being biased towards United States audiences; the United Kingdom-related articles are updated less often, maps of the United States are more detailed than those of other countries, and it lacks a UK dictionary.<ref name="seymour_2006">{{cite web|url= https://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/reviews/index.cfm?reviewid=502|title= Encyclopedia face-off: Encarta vs Britannica|access-date= 21 November 2006|last= Seymour|first= Ursula|date= 9 November 2006|work= PC Advisor|publisher= IDG|archive-date= 13 October 2007|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071013110721/https://pcadvisor.co.uk/reviews/index.cfm?reviewid=502|url-status= dead}}</ref> Like the ''Britannica'', ''Encarta'' was available online by subscription, although some content could be accessed for free.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://encarta.msn.com/artcenter_0/Encyclopedia_Articles.html |title=Encarta's Encyclopedia Article Center |access-date=11 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028002800/https://encarta.msn.com/artcenter_0/Encyclopedia_Articles.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status = dead}}</ref>
=== Wikipedia ===
{{Main|Wikipedia}}
The main online alternative to ''Britannica'' is [[Wikipedia]].<ref name="Tancer">{{cite magazine |last=Tancer |first=Bill |date=1 May 2007 |title=Look Who's Using Wikipedia |url=https://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1595184,00.html |url-status=dead |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303065202/https://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1595184,00.html |archive-date=3 March 2007 |access-date=1 December 2007 |quote=The sheer volume of content [...] is partly responsible for the site's dominance as an online reference. When compared to the top 3,200 educational reference sites in the US, Wikipedia is No. 1, attracting 24.3% of all visits to the category}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Tancer |first=Bill |date=1 March 2007 |title=Wikipedia, Search and School Homework |url=https://weblogs.hitwise.com/bill-tancer/2007/03/wikipedia_search_and_school_ho.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325220239/https://weblogs.hitwise.com/bill-tancer/2007/03/wikipedia_search_and_school_ho.html |archive-date=25 March 2012 |website=[[Hitwise]]}}</ref><ref name="Woodson">{{cite news |last=Woodson |first=Alex |date=8 July 2007 |title=Wikipedia remains go-to site for online news |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSN0819429120070708 |url-status=live |access-date=16 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121104746/https://www.reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSN0819429120070708 |archive-date=21 November 2007 |quote=Online encyclopedia Wikipedia has added about 20 million unique monthly visitors in the past year, making it the top online news and information destination, according to Nielsen//NetRatings.}}</ref> The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an [[Encyclopédistes|encyclopedic project]]; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike ''Britannica'', Wikipedia is not-for-profit, does not carry advertising on its site, and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.
''Britannica''{{'}}s articles either have known authorship<!--"...identified authors" can parse as verb--> or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most ''Britannica''{{'s}} contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates.<ref name="macropaedia_contributors" /> By contrast, the articles on Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise; most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials.<ref name="Giles_Nature_study_2005" /> It is for this lack of institutional vetting or certification that former ''Britannica'' editor-in-chief Robert McHenry noted his belief in 2004 that Wikipedia could not hope to rival the ''Britannica'' in accuracy.<ref name="FBE">{{cite news | first=Robert | last=McHenry | title=The Faith-Based Encyclopedia | work=TCS Daily | date=15 November 2004 | url=https://www.ideasinactiontv.com/tcs_daily/2004/11/the-faith-based-encyclopedia.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204040824/https://www.ideasinactiontv.com/tcs_daily/2004/11/the-faith-based-encyclopedia.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=4 December 2010}}</ref>
In 2005, the journal ''Nature'' chose articles from both websites in a wide range of science topics and sent them to what it called "relevant" field experts for peer review. The experts then compared the competing articles—one from each site on a given topic—side by side, but were not told which article came from which site. ''Nature'' got back 42 usable reviews. The journal found just eight serious errors, such as general misunderstandings of vital concepts: four from each site. It also discovered many factual errors, omissions or misleading statements: 162 in Wikipedia and 123 in ''Britannica'', an average of 3.86 mistakes per article for Wikipedia and 2.92 for ''Britannica''.<ref name="Giles_Nature_study_2005">{{Cite journal |last=Giles |first=J. |author-link=Jim Giles (reporter) |year=2005 |title=Internet encyclopaedias go head to head: Jimmy Wales' Wikipedia comes close to Britannica in terms of the accuracy of its science entries |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=438 |issue=7070 |pages=900–901 |bibcode=2005Natur.438..900G |doi=10.1038/438900a |pmid=16355180 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Terdiman|first=Daniel|title=Study: Wikipedia as accurate as Britannica|url=https://news.cnet.com/Study-Wikipedia-as-accurate-as-Britannica/2100-1038_3-5997332.html|work=Staff Writer, CNET News|publisher=CNET News|access-date=5 July 2011|archive-date=9 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809174447/http://news.cnet.com/Study-Wikipedia-as-accurate-as-Britannica/2100-1038_3-5997332.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Although ''Britannica ''was revealed as the more accurate encyclopaedia, with fewer errors, in its rebuttal, it called ''Nature'''s study flawed and misleading<ref name="fatally_flawed">{{cite web |date=March 2006 |title=Fatally Flawed – Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/britannica_nature_response.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202112822/http://corporate.britannica.com/britannica_nature_response.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2018 |access-date=30 June 2011 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated}}</ref> and called for a "prompt" retraction. It noted that two of the articles in the study were taken from a ''Britannica'' yearbook and not the encyclopaedia, and another two were from ''Compton's Encyclopedia'' (called the ''Britannica Student Encyclopedia'' on the company's website).
''Nature'' defended its story and declined to retract, stating that, as it was comparing Wikipedia with the web version of ''Britannica'', it used whatever relevant material was available on ''Britannica''{{'s}} website.<ref>{{cite press release
| url = https://www.nature.com/press_releases/Britannica_response.pdf
| title = Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature: a response
| access-date = 21 October 2006
| date = 23 March 2006
| work = Nature
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060325124447/https://www.nature.com/press_releases/Britannica_response.pdf
| archive-date = 25 March 2006
| url-status = dead
}} (nature.com's own archive is under [https://www.nature.com/nature-portfolio/about/press nature.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119213822/https://www.nature.com/nature-portfolio/about/press |date=19 November 2021 }}, inside [https://www.nature.com/documents/Press_release_archive_2006.zip Press release archives (zip): 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827140651/https://www.nature.com/documents/Press_release_archive_2006.zip |date=27 August 2021 }} by filename ''Encyclopaedia Britannica and Nature a response.pdf''. As of 20 November 2021, the PDF creation date is 2 August 2019))</ref> Interviewed in February 2009, the managing director of ''Britannica UK'' said: {{blockquote|Wikipedia is a fun site to use and has a lot of interesting entries on there, but their approach wouldn't work for {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}}. My job is to create more awareness of our very different approaches to publishing in the public mind. They're a chisel, we're a drill, and you need to have the correct tool for the job.<ref name="econsultancy_20090210" />}}
For the 15th anniversary of Wikipedia, the ''[[The Daily Telegraph|Telegraph]]'' published two opinion pieces which compared Wikipedia to ''Britannica'' and falsely claimed that ''Britannica'' had gone bankrupt in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2016 |title=Wikipedia: an old-fashioned corner of truth on the internet |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/wikipedia/12101712/Wikipedia-an-old-fashioned-corner-of-truth-on-the-internet.html |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 January 2016 |title=How Wikipedia changed the world |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/wikipedia/12100516/How-Wikipedia-changed-the-world.html |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=The Telegraph |language=en}}</ref> In a January 2016 press release, ''Britannica'' responded by calling Wikipedia "an impressive achievement" but argued that critics should avoid "false comparisons" to ''Britannica'' in terms of differing models and purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 January 2016 |title=Our Letter to the Telegraph |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/news/our-letter-to-the-telegraph/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428003754/https://corporate.britannica.com/news/our-letter-to-the-telegraph/ |archive-date=28 April 2021 |access-date=28 April 2021 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated Corporate Site |language=en}}</ref>
== Critical and popular assessments ==
=== Reputation ===
[[File:EB1 Plate 003 lark flower.gif|thumb|upright=0.8|A [[intaglio printing|copperplate]] by [[Andrew Bell (engraver)|Andrew Bell]] from the [[History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|1st edition]]]]
Since the 3rd edition, the ''Britannica'' has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence,<ref name="library_association_1996">{{cite book | year = 1996 | title = Purchasing an Encyclopedia: 12 Points to Consider | edition = 5th | publisher = Booklist Publications, American Library Association | isbn = 978-0-8389-7823-8 | author = reviews by the Editorial Board of Reference Books Bulletin; revised introduction by Sandy Whiteley. | url = https://archive.org/details/purchasingencycl00amer }}</ref><ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995">{{cite book | last1 = Sader | first1 = Marian | last2 = Lewis | first2 = Amy | year = 1995 | title = Encyclopedias, Atlases, and Dictionaries | publisher = R. R. Bowker (A Reed Reference Publishing Company) | ___location = New Providence, New Jersey | isbn = 978-0-8352-3669-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/encyclopediasatl00sade }}</ref> though this reputation has not been without its critics.<ref name="brit-myth" /> The 3rd and 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States,<ref name="kogan_1958" /> beginning with ''[[Dobson's Encyclopædia]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Arner |first=Robert D. |url=https://archive.org/details/dobsonsencyclopa00arne |title=Dobson's Encyclopaedia: The Publisher, Text, and Publication of America's First Britannica, 1789–1803 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8122-3092-5 |___location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |language=en}}</ref> On the release of the 14th edition, ''Time'' magazine dubbed the ''Britannica'' the "Patriarch of the Library".<ref>{{cite magazine | url = https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,732859-1,00.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071013114612/https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,732859-1,00.html | url-status = dead | archive-date = 13 October 2007 | title = Patriarch Revised | magazine= Time | volume = XIV | number = 13 | date = 23 September 1929 | pages = 66–69}}</ref> In a related advertisement, naturalist [[William Beebe]] was quoted as saying that the ''Britannica'' was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor".<ref>{{cite magazine | title = A Completely New Encyclopaedia (''sic'') Britannica | magazine= Time | volume = XIV | number = 12 | date = 16 September 1929 | pages = 2–3}}</ref> References to the ''Britannica'' can be found throughout [[English literature]], most notably in one of [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]{{'s}} favourite [[Sherlock Holmes]] stories, "[[The Red-Headed League]]". The tale was highlighted by the [[Lord Mayor of London]], [[Gilbert Inglefield]], at the [[Bicentennial of the Encyclopædia Britannica|bicentennial of the ''Britannica'']].<ref name="EB_bicentennial" />
The ''Britannica'' has a reputation for summarizing knowledge.<ref name="thomas_1992">{{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Gillian | year = 1992 | title = A Position to Command Respect: Women and the Eleventh Britannica | publisher = [[Rowman & Littlefield|Scarecrow Press]] | isbn = 978-0-8108-2567-3 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/positiontocomman0000thom }}</ref> To further their education, some people have devoted themselves to reading the entire ''Britannica'', taking anywhere from three to 22 years to do so.<ref name="kogan_1958" /> When [[Fath-Ali Shah Qajar|Fat'h Ali]] became the [[Qajar dynasty|Shah of Persia]] in 1797, he was given a set of the ''Britannica''{{'s}} 3rd edition; after reading the complete set, he extended his royal title to include "Most Formidable Lord and Master of the {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}}".<ref name="EB_bicentennial">{{cite book |title=Banquet at Guildhall in the City of London, Tuesday 15 October 1968: Celebrating the 200th Anniversary of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and the 25th Anniversary of the Honorable William Benton as its Chair and publisher |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|Encyclopædia Britannica International, Limited]] |year=1968 |___location=United Kingdom}}</ref>
Writer [[George Bernard Shaw]] has claimed to have read the complete 9th edition, except for the science articles;<ref name="kogan_1958" /> [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] took the ''Britannica'' as reading material for his five-month stay at the [[South Pole]] in 1934; and [[Philip Beaver]] read it during a sailing expedition. More recently, [[A. J. Jacobs]], an editor at ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' magazine, read the entire 2002 version of the 15th edition, describing his experiences in the well-received 2004 book ''[[The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World]]''. Only two people are known to have read two independent editions: the author [[C. S. Forester]]<ref name="kogan_1958" /> and [[Amos Urban Shirk]], an American businessman who read the 11th and 14th editions, devoting roughly three hours per night for four and a half years to read the 11th.<ref>{{cite magazine | title = Reader |magazine=The New Yorker | volume = 9 | date = 3 March 1934 | page = 17}}</ref>
=== Awards ===
The CD/DVD-ROM version of the ''Britannica'', ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite]]'', received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the [[Association of Educational Publishers]].<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.edpress.org/awards/04tech.htm | title = 2004 Distinguished Achievement Awards Winners: Technology | date = 1 August 2003 | access-date =11 April 2007 | publisher = [[Association of Educational Publishers]]|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061017162810/https://www.edpress.org/awards/04tech.htm |archive-date = 17 October 2006}}</ref> On 15 July 2009, {{lang|la|Encyclopædia Britannica}} was awarded a spot as one of "Top Ten Superbrands in the UK" by a panel of more than 2,000 independent reviewers, as reported by the BBC.<ref>{{cite news | url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8149460.stm | title = Top Ten Superbrands 2009–2010 | access-date = 15 July 2009 | publisher = BBC | date = 14 July 2009 | archive-date = 17 February 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220217080802/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8149460.stm | url-status = live }}</ref>
=== Coverage of topics ===
Topics are chosen in part by reference to the {{lang|la|Propædia}} "Outline of Knowledge".<ref name="propedia_preface" /> The bulk of the 15th edition of the ''Britannica'' is devoted to geography (26% of the {{lang|la|Macropædia}}), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%).<ref name="kister_1994" /> A complementary study of the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography 17%, and all other humanities 25%.<ref name="sader_1995" /> Writing in 1992, one reviewer judged that the "range, depth, and [[wikt:catholicity|catholicity]] of coverage [of the ''Britannica''] are unsurpassed by any other general Encyclopaedia."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lang |first=J. P. |title=Reference Sources for Small and Medium-Sized Libraries |publisher=American Library Association |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8389-3406-7 |edition=5th |___location=Chicago, Illinois |page=34 |language=en}}</ref>
The ''Britannica'' does not cover topics in equal detail; for example, the whole of [[Buddhism]] and most other religions is covered in a single {{lang|la|Macropædia}} article, whereas 14 articles are devoted to Christianity, comprising nearly half of all religion articles.<ref name="macropaedia_2007">{{Cite journal |last=Goetz |first=Philip W. |year=2007 |title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica |journal=Encyclopaedia Britannica Incorporated |edition=15th edition, {{lang|la|Macropædia}} |___location=Chicago, Illinois |bibcode=1991neb..book.....G}}</ref> The ''Britannica'' covers 50,479 biographies, 5,999 of them about women, with 11.87% being British citizens and 25.51% US citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gonzalez Larrañaga |first1=Galder |last2=Perez de Viñaspre Garralda |first2=Olatz |date=16 March 2023 |title=Nor da nor Lur Hiztegi Entziklopedikoan? Euskarazko lehenengo entziklopediaren demografia digital alderatua |url=http://www.uztaro.eus/artikulua/174/nor-da-nor-lur-hiztegi-entziklopedikoan-euskarazko-lehenengo-entziklopediaren-demografia-digital-alderatua/2161 |journal=Uztaro. Giza Eta Gizarte-zientzien Aldizkaria |issue=124 |pages=25–49 |doi=10.26876/uztaro.124.2023.2 |s2cid=257423956 |doi-access=free }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> However, the ''Britannica'' has been lauded as the ''least'' biased of general Encyclopaedias marketed to Western readers<ref name="kister_1994" /> and praised for its biographies of important women of all eras.<ref name="sader_1995" />
{{blockquote|It can be stated without fear of contradiction that the 15th edition of the ''Britannica'' accords non-Western cultural, social, and scientific developments more notice than any general English-language encyclopedia currently on the market.|[[Kenneth Kister]]|in ''Kister's Best Encyclopedias'' (1994)}}
=== Criticism of editorial decisions ===
Harvey Einbinder in the ''Myth of the Britannica'' criticised the 11th edition for the inaccessibility of the text for laymen, saying that many of its articles were too technical for people unfamiliar to the subject to understand.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>152-153</sup> He made similar criticisms of many of the mathematics and science articles of the then-current 14th edition.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>236-250</sup>
On rare occasions, the ''Britannica'' has been criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, [[military decoration]]s, and the French poet [[Joachim du Bellay]]; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies.<ref name="Newsweek_1974" /> Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}.<ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="15th_criticism" /> Summing up, one critic called the initial 15th edition a "qualified failure ... [that] cares more for juggling its format than for preserving."<ref name="Newsweek_1974">{{cite magazine | last = Prescott | first = Peter S. | title = The Fifteenth Britannica | magazine = Newsweek | date = 8 July 1974 | pages = 71–72}}</ref> More recently, reviewers from the [[American Library Association]] were surprised to find that most educational articles had been eliminated from the 1992 {{lang|la|Macropædia}}, along with the article on [[psychology]].<ref name="library_association_1992" /> Harvey Einbinder in ''The Myth of the Britannica'' criticised the practice of condensing entries in the 14th edition, which usually involved simply removing large amounts of the text rather than attempting to condense it by rewriting, resulting in what he considered to be considerable reduction in the quality of the articles.<ref name="brit-myth" /><sup>151-168</sup>
Some very few ''Britannica''-appointed contributors are mistaken. A notorious instance from the ''Britannica''{{'s}} early years is the rejection of [[Newtonian gravity]] by [[George Gleig]], the chief editor of the 3rd edition (1788–1797), who wrote that gravity was caused by the [[fire (classical element)|classical element of fire]].<ref name="kogan_1958" /> The ''Britannica'' has also staunchly defended a scientific approach to cultural topics, as it did with [[William Robertson Smith]]'s articles on religion in the 9th edition, particularly his article stating that the Bible was not historically accurate (1875).<ref name="kogan_1958" />
=== Other criticisms ===
The ''Britannica'' has received criticism, particularly as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the ''Britannica'',{{efn|1=According to Kister, the initial 15th edition (1974) required over $32 million to produce.<ref name="kister_1994" />}} and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years).<ref name="encyclopaedia_1954" />
For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist [[Harvey Einbinder]] detailed its failings in his 1964 book, ''The Myth of the Britannica'',<ref name="brit-myth" /> the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work.<ref name="kister_1994" /> Editors have struggled at times to keep the ''Britannica'' current: one 1994 critic writes, "It is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer {{lang|la|Macropædia}} articles are more likely to be outdated than the shorter {{lang|la|Micropædia}} articles.<ref name="kister_1994" /> Information in the {{lang|la|Micropædia}} is sometimes inconsistent with the corresponding {{lang|la|Macropædia}} article(s), mainly because of the failure to update one or the other.<ref name="library_association_1996" /><ref name="sader_1995" /> The bibliographies of the {{lang|la|Macropædia}} articles have been criticized for being more out-of-date than the articles themselves.<ref name="library_association_1996" /><ref name="kister_1994" /><ref name="sader_1995" />
In 2005, a 12-year-old schoolboy in Britain found several inaccuracies in the ''Britannica''{{'s}} entries on Poland and wildlife in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 January 2005|title=Schoolboy spots errors in Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2005/jan/26/schools.uk2|access-date=10 April 2021|website=[[The Guardian]] |archive-date=15 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815161000/https://www.theguardian.com/education/2005/jan/26/schools.uk2|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, an entry about the [[Irish Civil War]], which incorrectly described it as having been fought between the north and south of Ireland, was discussed in the Irish press following a decision by the [[Department of Education and Youth|Department of Education and Science]] to pay for online access.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.ie/national-news/britannica-errors-spark-unholy-row-2045150.html |title=Britannica errors spark unholy row |work=[[Irish Independent]] |date=3 February 2010 |access-date=30 August 2010 |first=Grainne |last=Cunningham |archive-date=13 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100413151752/http://www.independent.ie/national-news/britannica-errors-spark-unholy-row-2045150.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sheehy |first=Clodagh |date=4 February 2010 |url=https://www.herald.ie/news/are-they-taking-the-mick-its-the-encyclopedia-that-thinks-the-civil-war-was-between-the-north-and-south-27940930.html |title=Are they taking the Mick? It's the encyclopedia that thinks the Civil War was between the north and south |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112010448/https://www.herald.ie/news/are-they-taking-the-mick-its-the-encyclopedia-that-thinks-the-civil-war-was-between-the-north-and-south-27940930.html |archive-date=12 November 2020 |url-status=dead |work=[[The Herald (Ireland)|Evening Herald]] |___location=Dublin}}</ref>
Writing about the 3rd edition (1788–1797), ''Britannica''{{'s}} chief editor George Gleig observed that "perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan and embracing such a variety of subjects."<ref>{{cite book|title=Supplement to the Encyclopædia or Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Miscellaneous Literature|year=1803|pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g3YBulnow6IC&pg=PR4 iv]}}</ref> In March 2006, the ''Britannica'' wrote, "we in no way mean to imply that ''Britannica'' is error-free; we have never made such a claim".<ref name="fatally_flawed" /> However, the ''Britannica'' sales department had previously made a well-known claim in 1962 regarding the 14th edition that "[i]t is truth. It is unquestionable fact."<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Information Storage and Retrieval |first=Foster |last=Stockwell |page=116}}</ref> The sentiment of the 2006 statement was also reflected in the introduction to the first edition of the ''Britannica'', written by its original editor [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]]:<ref>William Smellie in the [[s: Preface to the 1st edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|Preface]] to the 1st edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica</ref>
{{blockquote|With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances. To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce.}}
== Edition summary ==
{{Main|History of the Encyclopædia Britannica|l1=History of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+Overview of editions of ''Encyclopædia Britannica''
|-
!scope="col" abbr="Edition" | Edition / supplement
!scope="col" abbr="Publication" | Publication years
!scope="col"| Size
!scope="col"| Sales
!scope="col" abbr="Editor" | Chief editor(s)
!scope="col"| Notes
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| [[Encyclopædia Britannica First Edition|1st]]
| 1768–1771
| 3 volumes, 2,391 pages,{{efn|1=Vol. I has (viii), 697, (i) pages, but 10 unpaginated pages are added between pages 586 and 587. Vol. II has (iii), 1009, (ii) pages, but page numbers 175–176 as well as page numbers 425–426 were used twice; additionally page numbers 311–410 were not used. Vol. III has (iii), 953, (i) pages, but page numbers 679–878 were not used.{{sfnp|Kafker |Loveland |2009 |p=22}}}} 160 plates
| 3,000{{efn|1=Archibald Constable estimated in 1812 that there had been 3,500 copies printed, but revised his estimate to 3,000 in 1821.{{sfnp|Kafker |Loveland |2009 |p=58}}}}
| William Smellie
| Largely the work of one editor, Smellie; An estimated 3,000 sets were eventually sold, priced at £12 apiece; 30 articles longer than three pages. The pages were bound in three equally sized volumes covering Aa–Bzo, Caaba–Lythrum, and Macao–Zyglophyllum.
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| [[Encyclopædia Britannica Second Edition|2nd]]
| 1777–1784
| 10 volumes, 8,595 pages, 340 plates
| 1,500<ref name="kogan_1958" />
| [[James Tytler]]
| Largely the work of one editor, Tytler; 150 long articles; pagination errors; all maps under "Geography" article; 1,500 sets sold<ref name="kogan_1958" />
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| [[Encyclopædia Britannica Third Edition|3rd]]
| 1788–1797
| 18 volumes, 14,579 pages, 542 plates
| 10,000 or 13,000{{efn|1=According to Smellie, it was 10,000, as quoted by Robert Kerr in his "Memoirs of William Smellie." Archibald Constable was quoted as saying the production started at 5,000 and concluded at 13,000.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |edition=14th |encyclopedia=Britannica |volume=8 |title=Encyclopedia |page=374}}</ref>}}
| Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig
| £42,000 profit on 10,000 copies sold; first dedication to monarch; pirated by Moore in Dublin and [[Thomas Dobson (printer)|Thomas Dobson]] in Philadelphia
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| [[Encyclopædia Britannica Third Edition|supplement to 3rd]]
| 1801, revised in 1803
| 2 volumes, 1,624 pages, 50 plates
|
| George Gleig
| Copyright owned by [[Thomas Bonar]]
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 4th
| 1801–1810
| 20 volumes, 16,033 pages, 581 plates
| 4,000<ref>{{cite EB9 |title=Encyclopedia |volume=8}}</ref>
| [[James Millar (scientist)|James Millar]]
| Authors first allowed to retain copyright. Material in the supplement to 3rd not incorporated due to copyright issues.
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 5th
| 1815–1817
| 20 volumes, 16,017 pages, 582 plates
|
| James Millar
| Reprint of the 4th edition. Financial losses by Millar and Andrew Bell's heirs; EB rights sold to [[Archibald Constable]]
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| supplement to 4th, 5th, and 6th
| 1816–1824
| 6 volumes, 4,933 pages, 125 plates<sup>[[#editionnote1|1]]</sup>
| 10,500<ref name="kogan_1958" />
| Macvey Napier
| Famous contributors recruited, such as Sir [[Humphry Davy]], [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Malthus]]
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 6th
| 1820–1823
| 20 volumes
|
| [[Charles Maclaren]]
| Reprint of the 4th and 5th editions with modern font. Constable went bankrupt on 19 January 1826; EB rights eventually secured by [[Adam Black]]
|
| 1830–1842
| 21 volumes, 17,101 pages, 506 plates, plus a 187-page index volume
| 5,000<ref name="kogan_1958" />
| Macvey Napier, assisted by [[James Browne (writer)|James Browne]], LLD
| Widening network of famous contributors, such as Sir [[David Brewster]], [[Thomas de Quincey]], [[Antonio Panizzi]]; 5,000 sets sold<ref name="kogan_1958" />
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 8th
| 1853–1860
|
| 8,000{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}
| [[Thomas Stewart Traill]]
| Many long articles were copied from the 7th edition; 344 contributors including [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]]; authorized American sets printed by Little, Brown in Boston; 8,000 sets sold altogether
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 9th
| 1875–1889
| 24 volumes, plus a 499-page index volume labeled Volume 25
| 55,000 authorized{{efn|1=10,000 sets sold by Britannica plus 45,000 genuine American reprints by Scribner's Sons, and "several hundred thousand sets of mutilated and fraudulent 9th editions were sold..."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |edition=14th |encyclopedia=Britannica |volume=8 |title=Encyclopedia |page=376}}</ref> Most sources estimate there were 500,000 pirated sets.}} plus 500,000 pirated sets
| Thomas Spencer Baynes (1875–80); then [[W. Robertson Smith|W. Robertson Smith]]
| Some carry-over from 8th edition, but mostly a new work; high point of scholarship; 10,000 sets sold by Britannica and 45,000 authorized sets made in the US by Little, Brown in Boston and Schribners' Sons in NY, but pirated widely (500,000 sets) in the US.<sup>[[#editionnote3|3]]</sup>
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 10th,<br />supplement to 9th
| 1902–1903
| 11 volumes, plus the 24 volumes of the 9th. Volume 34 containing 124 detailed country maps with index of 250,000 names<sup>[[#editionnote4|4]]</sup>
| 70,000
| Sir [[Donald Mackenzie Wallace]] and [[Hugh Chisholm]] in London; [[Arthur T. Hadley]] and [[Franklin Henry Hooper]] in New York City
| American partnership bought EB rights on 9 May 1901; high-pressure sales methods
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|11th]]
| 1910–1911 || 28 volumes, plus volume 29 index
| 1,000,000
| Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Another high point of scholarship and writing; more articles than the 9th, but shorter and simpler; financial difficulties for owner, Horace Everett Hooper; EB rights sold to [[Sears, Roebuck and Company|Sears Roebuck]] in 1920
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 12th,<br />supplement to 11th
| 1921–1922
| 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th<sup>[[#editionnote5|5]]</sup>
|
| Hugh Chisholm in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Summarized state of the world before, during, and after World War I
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 13th,<br />supplement to 11th
| 1926
| 3 volumes with own index, plus the 29 volumes of the 11th<sup>[[#editionnote6|6]]</sup>
|
| [[James Louis Garvin]] in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Replaced 12th edition volumes; improved perspective of the events of 1910–1926
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| 14th
| 1929–1933
| 24 volumes<sup>[[#editionnote7|7]]</sup>
|
| James Louis Garvin in London, Franklin Henry Hooper in New York City
| Publication just before Great Depression was financially catastrophic{{citation needed|date=April 2016}}
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| revised 14th
| 1933–1973
| 24 volumes<sup>[[#editionnote7|7]]</sup>
|
| Franklin Henry Hooper until 1938; then Walter Yust, [[Harry Ashmore]], Warren E. Preece, William Haley
| Began continuous revision in 1936: every article revised at least twice every decade
|-
! style="text-align:right;" rowspan="2"| 15th
| 1974–1984
| 30 volumes<sup>[[#editionnote8|8]]</sup>
|
| Warren E. Preece, then Philip W. Goetz
| Introduced three-part structure; division of articles into {{lang|la|[[Micropædia]]}} and {{lang|la|Macropædia}}; {{lang|la|Propædia}} Outline of Knowledge; separate index eliminated
|-
| | 1985–2010 || 32 volumes<sup>[[#editionnote9|9]]</sup>
|
| Philip W. Goetz, then [[Robert McHenry]], currently Dale Hoiberg
| Restored two-volume index; some ''Micropædia'' and ''Macropædia'' articles merged; slightly longer overall; new versions were issued every few years. This edition is the last printed edition.
|-
! style="text-align:right;"| Global
| 2009
| 30 compact volumes
|
| Dale Hoiberg
| Unlike the 15th edition, it did not contain Macro- and Micropedia sections, but ran A through Z as all editions up to the 14th had.
|}
{| border="0" cellpadding="2
|-
| class="toccolours" |'''Edition notes'''
<sup id="editionnote1">1</sup>"Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica. With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences."
<sup id="editionnote2">2</sup>
<sup id="editionnote3">3</sup> The 9th
<sup id="editionnote4">4</sup> The 10th
<sup id="editionnote5">5</sup>
<sup id="editionnote6">6</sup> This supplement replaced the previous supplement:
<sup id="editionnote7">7</sup> At this point ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' began almost annual revisions. New revisions of the 14th edition appeared every year between 1929 and 1973 with the exceptions of 1931, 1934 and 1935.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (15th ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. interior flap.</ref>
<sup id="editionnote8">8</sup> Annual revisions were published every year between 1974 and 2007 with the exceptions of 1996, 1999, 2000, 2004 and 2006.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The 15th edition (introduced as "Britannica 3") was published
<sup id="editionnote9">9</sup> In 1985, the system was modified by
The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994. At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription. In 1999 this was offered
|}
== See also ==
{{Portal|Scotland|Chicago|Books}}
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica
* ''[[Great Books of the Western World]]''
* [[List of encyclopedias by branch of knowledge]]
* [[List of encyclopedias by date]]
* {{section link|List of encyclopedias by language|English}}
* [[List of online encyclopedias]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist
|colwidth = 30em
|refs =
<ref name="nytstop">{{cite news |last = Bosman |first = Julie |date = 13 March 2012 |title = After 244 Years, Encyclopædia Britannica Stops the Presses |url = https://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses |newspaper = The New York Times |access-date = 13 March 2012 |archive-date = 14 March 2012 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120314014911/http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses/ |url-status = live }}</ref>
<ref name="web">{{cite news |url = https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/40033.stm |title = Encyclopaedia Britannica changes to survive |last = Day |first = Peter |date = 17 December 1997 |work =[[BBC News]] |quote = Sales plummeted from 100,000 a year to just 20,000. |access-date = 27 March 2007 |archive-date = 12 April 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060412050344/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/40033.stm |url-status = live }}</ref>
<ref name="Britannica History">{{cite web |url=https://corporate.britannica.com/company_info.html |title=History of Encyclopædia Britannica and Britannica Online |access-date=17 October 2006 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020084752/https://corporate.britannica.com/company_info.html |archive-date=20 October 2006 }}</ref>
<ref name=KafkerLoveland2009>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kafker|editor-first1=Frank |editor-last2=Loveland|editor-first2=Jeff |title=The Early Britannica |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009}}</ref>
}}
== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
* [[Boyles, Denis]] (2016). ''Everything Explained That Is Explainable: On the Creation of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''{{'s}} Celebrated Eleventh Edition, 1910–1911'' (2016) [https://www.wsj.com/articles/wisdom-on-the-installment-plan-1466191897 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307045315/https://www.wsj.com/articles/wisdom-on-the-installment-plan-1466191897 |date=7 March 2017 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Einbinder |first=Harvey |author-link=Harvey Einbinder |year=1964 |title=The Myth of the Britannica |publisher=Grove Press |___location=New York |language=en}} Reprint: {{ISBN|978-0-384-14050-9}}.
* Greenstein, Shane, and Michelle Devereux (2006). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130313000034/https://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/greenstein/images/htm/research/cases/encyclopaediabritannica.pdf The Crisis at Encyclopædia Britannica]" case history, [[Kellogg School of Management]], [[Northwestern University]].
* {{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Arnold Stephen Jr. |author-link=A. J. Jacobs |year=2004 |title=The Know-It-All: One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |___location=New York |language=en |isbn=978-0-7432-5062-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/knowitall00simo}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kister |first=Kenneth F. |author-link=Kenneth Kister |year=1994 |title=Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias |edition=2nd |publisher=Oryx Press |___location=Phoenix, Arizona |language=en |isbn=978-0-89774-744-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/kistersbestencyc00kist}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kogan |first=Herman |author-link=Herman Kogan |year=1958 |title=The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|___location=Chicago, Illinois |language=en |lccn=58008379}}
* Lee, Timothy (2 June 2008). [https://www.techdirt.com/2008/06/02/techdirt-interviews-britannica-president-jorge-cauz/ "Techdirt Interviews Britannica President Jorge Cauz"]. Techdirt.com.
{{Refend}}
== External links ==
{{sister project links|b=no|v=no|voy=no|species=no|d=Q455|n=Category:Encyclopaedia Britannica|q=no|commons=Category:Encyclopædia Britannica|wikt=Britannica}}
* {{Official website}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Encyclopædia Britannica |sopt=w}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1721}}
* [https://digital.nls.uk/encyclopaedia-britannica/archive/ ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''] at the [[National Library of Scotland]], first ten editions (and supplements) in PDF format.
* [https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/work?id=olbp16644 ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''] at the [[Online Books Page]], hosted by the library of [[University of Pennsylvania]], currently including the 1st–13th editions in multiple formats.
* [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10352038?page=7 3rd edition, (1797, first volume, use search facility for others)] at [[Bavarian State Library]]
* [https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/011679752 7th edition (1842) coloured scan] via [[HathiTrust]]
* [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10351547?page=9 8th edition (1860, index volume, use search facility for others)] at [[Bavarian State Library]]
* [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediabrit01newyrich/page/n7 9th Edition (1878), published by Charles Scribner's Sons] on the [[Internet Archive]]
* [https://www.1902encyclopedia.com/ 9th and 10th (1902) editions]; {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122212107/https://www.1902encyclopedia.com/ |date=22 November 2018 }} on 1902Encyclopedia.com
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74039 ''The Reader's Guide to the Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (1913)] on [[Project Gutenberg]]—A handbook containing sixty-six courses of systematic study or occasional reading.
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[[Category:British online encyclopedias]]
[[Category:Encyclopedias in English]]
[[Category:History of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Publications established in 1768]]
[[Category:Scottish encyclopedias]]
[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment]]
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