Content deleted Content added
Revert to revision 92818217 dated 2006-12-08 00:21:45 by Ishikawa Minoru using popups |
mNo edit summary |
||
Line 1:
{{Short description|English philosopher and physician (1632–1704)}}
{{other people}}
{{pp-move}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| image = Godfrey Kneller - Portrait of John Locke (Hermitage).jpg
| caption = ''[[Portrait of John Locke]]'' (1697)
| office2 = Secretary to the [[Lord proprietor#Carolina|Lords Proprietors of Carolina]]
| term_start2 = 1668
| term_end2 = 1671
| office1 = Secretary and Treasurer to the [[Board of Trade|Council for Trade and Foreign Plantations]]
| term_start1 = 14 October 1673
| term_end1 = 21 December 1674
| module = {{Infobox philosopher
| embed = yes
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = [[Age of Enlightenment]]
| name=John Locke|honorific_suffix=[[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]]
| signature = John Locke Signature.svg
| institutions = [[University of Oxford]]<ref name=sep/><br />[[Royal Society]]
| school_tradition = {{startflatlist}}
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Foundationalism]]<ref name=SEP-FTJ>{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/#4 | title=Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification | encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy | date=2000 | access-date=19 August 2018 | last=Fumerton | first=Richard | archive-date=24 April 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424082207/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/#4 | url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Conceptualism]]<ref>{{cite book|author=[[David Bostock (philosopher)|Bostock, David]]|title=Philosophy of Mathematics: An Introduction|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2009|page=43|quote=All of Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume supposed that mathematics is a theory of our ''ideas'', but none of them offered any argument for this conceptualist claim, and apparently took it to be uncontroversial.}}</ref>
* [[Indirect realism]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Yolton|first=John W.|title=Realism and Appearances: An Essay in Ontology|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|page=136|author-link=John W. Yolton}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>
* [[Correspondence theory of truth]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/|title=The Correspondence Theory of Truth|encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|year=2020|access-date=19 August 2018|archive-date=25 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225071446/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-correspondence/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ideational theory of meaning]]<ref>{{cite book|editor1=Grigoris Antoniou|editor2=John Slaney|title=Advanced Topics in Artificial Intelligence|publisher=Springer|year=1998|page=9 |doi=10.1007/BFb0095035}}</ref>
* [[Corpuscularianism]]<ref name=:5>{{cite book|editor=[[Vere Claiborne Chappell]]|title=The Cambridge Companion to Locke|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1994|page=56}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>
* [[Social contract]]
* [[Natural law]]
* [[Liberalism]]
** [[Classical liberalism]]
{{endflatlist}}
| main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[political philosophy]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[philosophy of education]], [[economics]]
| notable_ideas = {{collapsible list |bullets=yes
|[[Consciousness]]
| [[Consent of the governed]]
| [[Inverted spectrum]]
| [[Labor theory of property]]
| [[Law of opinion]]
| [[Lockean proviso]]
| [[Molyneux's problem]]
| [[Argument from ignorance]]<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fallacies: classical and contemporary readings|date=1995|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |editor1=Hansen, Hans V. |editor2=Pinto, Robert C.|isbn=978-0271014166|___location=University Park, Pennsylvania|oclc=30624864}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Locke|first1=John|title=An Essay Concerning Human Understanding|date=1690|chapter-url=http://www3.nd.edu/~afreddos/courses/439/locke0417.htm|access-date=12 March 2015|chapter=Book IV, Chapter XVII: Of Reason|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222435/http://www3.nd.edu/~afreddos/courses/439/locke0417.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
| [[Natural rights]] (rights of [[Right to life|life]], [[liberty]] and [[property]])<ref>{{cite book | last = Locke | first = John | title = Two Treatises of Government (10th ed.): Chapter II, Section 6 | publisher = [[Project Gutenberg]] | year = 1690 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm | access-date = 5 May 2018 | archive-date = 16 November 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191116173303/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm | url-status = live }}</ref>
| [[Primary/secondary quality distinction]]
| [[Semiotics#John Locke|''Semeiotike'']] (the doctrine of signs)
| [[Social contract]]
| [[Sortal]]
| [[State of nature]]
| ''[[Tabula rasa]]''
}}
}}
| predecessor1 = [[Benjamin Worsley]]
| succeeded1 = ''Position abolished''
| appointer2 = Anthony Ashley Cooper
| succeeded2 = ''Position abolished''
| predecessor2 = ''Position established''
| appointer1 = [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Anthony Ashley Cooper]]
| office = [[Commissioners for Trade and Plantations|Commissioner for Trade and Plantations]]
| predecessor = ''Position established''
| succeeded = [[Matthew Prior]]
| term_start = 15 May 1696
| term_end = 28 June 1700
| appointer = [[William III of England|William III]]
| party = [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1632|8|29|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Wrington]], Somerset, England
| death_date = {{death date and age |1704|10|28 |1632|08|29 |df=yes}}
| death_place = [[High Laver]], Essex, England
| education = [[Christ Church, Oxford]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], 1656; [[Master of Arts|MA]], 1658; [[Bachelor of Medicine|MB]], 1675)
}}
{{John Locke}}
'''John Locke''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ɒ|k}}; 29 August 1632 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]]) – 28 October 1704 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]]))<ref>Grave tablet from [[1705]]:
''... That he was born on the 29th of August in the year of our Lord 1632, and that he died on the 28th of October in the year of our Lord 1704, this tablet, which itself will quickly perish, is a record.''
See also: R. Woolhouse, ''Locke. A Biography'', NY 2007, p. 1.</ref> was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of [[the Enlightenment]] thinkers and commonly known as the "father of [[liberalism]]".<ref>{{cite book|last=Hirschmann|first=Nancy J.|year=2009|title=Gender, Class, and Freedom in Modern Political Theory|___location=Princeton|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|page=79}}{{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Urmila|author2=S. K. Sharma|year=2006|title=Western Political Thought|___location=Washington|publisher=[[Atlantic Books|Atlantic Publishers]]|page=440}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Korab-Karpowicz|first=W. Julian|year=2010|title=A History of Political Philosophy: From Thucydides to Locke|___location=New York|publisher=Global Scholarly Publications|page=291}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Considered one of the first of the British [[empiricists]], following the tradition of [[Francis Bacon]], Locke is equally important to [[social contract]] theory. His work greatly affected the development of [[epistemology]] and [[political philosophy]]. His writings influenced [[Voltaire]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], and many [[Scottish Enlightenment]] thinkers, as well as the [[American Revolution]]aries. His contributions to [[classical republicanism]] and [[liberal theory]] are reflected in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Becker|first=Carl Lotus|author-link=Carl L. Becker|title=The Declaration of Independence: a Study in the History of Political Ideas|___location=New York|publisher=[[Harcourt (publisher)|Harcourt, Brace]]|year=1922|page=27}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Internationally, Locke's political-legal principles continue to have a profound influence on the theory and practice of limited representative government and the protection of basic rights and freedoms under the rule of law.<ref>"Foreword and study guide to" ''John Locke's Two Treatises on Government: A Translation into Modern English'', ISR Publications, 2013, p. ii. {{ISBN|978-0906321690}}</ref>
Locke's [[philosophy of mind]] is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of [[personal identity]] and the [[psychology of self]], figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers, such as Rousseau, [[David Hume]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]. He postulated that, at birth, the [[mind]] was a blank slate, or ''[[tabula rasa]]''. Contrary to [[Descartes|Cartesian]] philosophy based on pre-existing concepts, he maintained that we are born without [[Innatism|innate ideas]], and that [[knowledge]] is instead determined only by experience derived from [[sense]] [[perception]], a concept now known as empiricism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Baird|first1=Forrest E.|author2=[[Walter Kaufmann (philosopher)|Walter Kaufmann]]|year=2008|title=From Plato to Derrida|___location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|publisher=[[Pearson Prentice Hall]]|isbn=978-0131585911|pages=527–529}}</ref> Locke is often credited for describing [[private property]] as a [[Natural rights and legal rights|natural right]], arguing that when a person—metaphorically—[[Labor theory of property|mixes their labour with nature]], resources can be removed from the [[Res communis|common state of nature]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Locke |first=John |date=30 May 2024 |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of Second Treatise Of Government, by John Locke |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm |access-date=3 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240530154021/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm |archive-date=30 May 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Encroachment, Adverse Possession, and Labor Theory {{!}} Antonin Scalia Law School |url=https://www.law.gmu.edu/pubs/papers/12_21 |access-date=3 June 2024 |website=law.gmu.edu}}</ref>
==Early life==
[[File:John Locke's Kit-cat portrait by Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, London.JPG|thumb|upright=.7|John Locke's portrait by [[Godfrey Kneller]], National Portrait Gallery, London]]
Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched [[cottage]] by the church in [[Wrington]], Somerset, about {{convert|12|mile}} from [[Bristol]]. He was [[baptism|baptised]] the same day, as both of his parents were [[Puritans]]. Locke's father, also named John, was an attorney who served as clerk to the [[Justice of the peace|Justices of the Peace]] in [[Chew Magna]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Broad|first=C. D.|year=2000|title=Ethics And the History of Philosophy|___location=UK|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0415225304}}</ref> and as a captain of [[cavalry]] for the [[roundhead|Parliamentarian]] forces during the early part of the [[English Civil War]]. His mother was Agnes Keene. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the [[market town]] of [[Pensford]], about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural [[Tudor architecture|Tudor]] house in [[Belluton]].
In
Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as [[René Descartes]], more interesting than the [[classics|classical]] material taught at the university. Through his friend [[Richard Lower (physician)|Richard Lower]], whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the [[experimental philosophy]] being pursued at other universities and in the [[Royal Society]], of which he eventually became a member.<ref>{{Citation |last=Uzgalis |first=William |title=John Locke |date=2024 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |edition=Winter 2024 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>
Locke was awarded a [[bachelor's degree]] in February 1656 and a [[master's degree]] in June 1658.<ref name=sep>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Uzgalis|first=William|orig-date=2 September 2001|date=1 May 2018|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/|title=John Locke|encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|editor=[[Edward N. Zalta|E. N. Zalta]]|access-date=2 June 2020|archive-date=24 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424195227/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/locke/|url-status=live}}</ref> He obtained a [[bachelor of medicine]] in February 1675,<ref>{{cite book|author=Roger Woolhouse|title=Locke: A Biography|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|page=116}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> having studied the subject extensively during his time at Oxford. In addition to Lower, he worked with such noted scientists and thinkers as [[Robert Boyle]], [[Thomas Willis]], and [[Robert Hooke]]. In 1666, he met [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Anthony Ashley Cooper, Lord Ashley]], who had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infection. Ashley was impressed with Locke and persuaded him to become part of his retinue. At Oxford, he was exposed to the writings of Islamic scholars, such as [[Ibn Tufayl]]'s [[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]] translated by [[Edward Pococke]], who influenced his perspectives on philosophy and ''tabula rasa''.<ref name="et1">{{cite web |title=How Muslims indirectly helped in the American Revolution |url=https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/7692/How-Muslims-indirectly-helped-in-the-American-Revolution |website=EgyptToday |access-date=19 June 2024 |date=14 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="ds1">{{cite web |last1=Kalın |first1=İbrahim |title='Hayy ibn Yaqdhan' and the European Enlightenment |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/columns/ibrahim-kalin/2018/03/10/hayy-ibn-yaqdhan-and-the-european-enlightenment |website=Daily Sabah |date=10 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="brill1">{{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=G.A. |title=The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England |chapter=The Impact Of The Philosophus Autodidactus: Pocockes, John Locke, And The Society Of Friends |chapter-url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004247062/B9789004247062-s013.xml |publisher=Brill |access-date=19 June 2024 |pages=224–265 |language=en |year=1994|doi=10.1163/9789004247062_013 |isbn=978-9004247062 }}</ref><ref name="lb1">{{cite book |last1=Attar |first1=Samar |title=The vital roots of European enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's influence on modern Western thought |date=2007 |publisher=Lexington books |___location=Lanham (Md.) |isbn=978-0739119891 }}</ref>
== Career ==
=== Work ===
Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667, moved into Ashley's home at [[Cecil House|Exeter House]] in London, to serve as his personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of [[Thomas Sydenham]]. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking—an effect that would become evident in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]].'' Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Ashley's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Ashley to undergo surgery (then life-threatening in itself) to remove the cyst. Ashley survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life. During this time, Locke served as Secretary of the [[Board of Trade]] and Plantations and Secretary to the [[Lords Proprietor]]s of [[Province of Carolina|Carolina]], which helped to shape his ideas on international trade and economics.<ref>{{Citation |last=Uzgalis |first=William |title=John Locke |date=2022 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2022/entries/locke/ |access-date=7 March 2024 |edition=Fall 2022 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>
Ashley, as a founder of the [[British Whig Party|Whig]] movement, exerted great influence on Locke's political ideas. Locke became involved in politics when Ashley became [[Lord Chancellor]] in 1672 (Ashley being created [[Earl of Shaftesbury|1st Earl of Shaftesbury]] in 1673). Following Shaftesbury's fall from favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across France as a tutor and medical attendant to [[Caleb Banks]].<ref name="Henning">{{Citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HW1_upECKUwC&q=%22Caleb+Banks%22+Aylesford&pg=PA590 |first=Basil Duke |last=Henning |title=The House of Commons, 1660–1690 |volume=1 |access-date=28 August 2012 |isbn=978-0436192746 |year=1983|publisher=Boydell & Brewer }}</ref> He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesbury's political fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time, most likely at Shaftesbury's prompting, Locke composed the bulk of the ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]''. While it was once thought that Locke wrote the ''Treatises'' to defend the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, recent scholarship has shown that the work was composed well before this date.{{Sfn|Laslett|1988|loc=III. ''Two Treatises of Government'' and the Revolution of 1688}} The work is now viewed as a more general argument against [[absolute monarchy]] (particularly as espoused by [[Robert Filmer]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]]) and for individual consent as the basis of [[political legitimacy]]. Although Locke was associated with the influential [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]], his ideas about [[natural rights]] and government are considered quite revolutionary for that period in English history.
=== Netherlands ===
Locke fled to the [[Netherlands]] in 1683 in the company of [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]], under strong suspicion of involvement in the [[Rye House Plot]], although there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly involved in the scheme. While in the Netherlands, he lived under the pen-name dr. Van Linden.<ref name="Jan Bor 1996, p. 260">Jan Bor, Errit Petersma & Jelle Kingma (eds.), ''De verbeelding van het denken. Geïllustreerde geschiedenis van de westerse en oosterse filosofie'', Amsterdam/Antwerpen : Atlas Contact, 1996, {{ISBN?}}, p. 260</ref> The philosopher and novelist [[Rebecca Newberger Goldstein]] argues that during his five years in Holland, Locke chose his friends "from among the same freethinking members of dissenting Protestant groups as [[Spinoza]]'s small group of loyal confidants [Baruch Spinoza had died in 1677], Locke almost certainly met men in Amsterdam who spoke of the ideas of that renegade Jew who ... insisted on identifying himself through his religion of reason alone." While she says that "Locke's strong empiricist tendencies" would have "disinclined him to read a grandly metaphysical work such as Spinoza's ''[[Ethics (Spinoza)|Ethics]]'', in other ways he was deeply receptive to Spinoza's ideas, most particularly to the rationalist's well thought out argument for political and [[religious tolerance]] and the necessity of the separation of church and state."<ref>{{cite book|author=Rebecca Newberger Goldstein|title=Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity|___location=New York|publisher=Schocken Books|year=2006|pages=260–261}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Among the friends he made in the Netherlands are [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek|Van Leeuwenhoek]] and Van Limborch, the leader of the [[Remonstrants]].<ref name="Jan Bor 1996, p. 260"/> In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time working on the ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'' and composing the ''Letter on Toleration.''
=== Return to England ===
Locke did not return home until after the [[Glorious Revolution]]. Locke accompanied [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] back to England in 1689. The bulk of Locke's publishing took place upon his return from exile—his aforementioned ''[[Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', the ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]'' and ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration]]'' all appearing in quick succession. Locke's close friend [[Lady Masham]] invited him to join her at Otes, the Mashams' country house in Essex. Although his time there was marked by variable health from [[asthma]] attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the Whigs. During this period, he discussed matters with such figures as [[John Dryden]] and [[Isaac Newton]].
=== Death ===
[[File:John Locke memorial stone.jpg|thumb|Engraved memorial plaque at Oxford]]
After a lengthy period of poor health,<ref>{{cite web |title=John Locke – Enlightenment, Philosophy, Government {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke/Other-works#ref59093 |website=www.britannica.com |access-date=4 September 2024 |language=en |date=25 August 2024}}</ref> Locke died on 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of All Saints' Church in [[High Laver]], near [[Harlow]] in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke |title=John Locke |last=Rogers |first=Graham A. J. |website=Britannica Online |access-date=3 September 2019 |archive-date=19 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719015622/https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Locke |url-status=live }}</ref> Locke never married nor had children. Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the [[English Restoration]], the [[Great Plague of London]], the [[Great Fire of London]], the [[Glorious Revolution]] and war against France including the [[Battle of Blenheim]] just before his death. He did not live long enough to see the [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union of 1707]], but the thrones of England and Scotland were held in [[personal union]] throughout his lifetime. [[Constitutional monarchy]] and [[parliamentary democracy]] were in their infancy during Locke's time. Locke has an engraved floor memorial plaque at [[Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britainexpress.com/cities/oxford/cathedral.htm|title=Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, History & Photos | Historic Oxford Guide|first=Britain|last=Express|website=Britain Express}}</ref>
== Philosophy ==
[[File:John Locke by John Greenhill.jpg|thumb|left|Portrait of John Locke by [[John Greenhill]] (died 1676)]]
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Locke's ''[[Two Treatises of Government|Two Treatises]]'' were rarely cited. Historian [[Julian Hoppit]] said of the book "except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the 1690s it made little impression and was generally ignored until 1703 (though in Oxford in 1695 it was reported to have made 'a great noise')."<ref>{{cite book|last=Hoppit|first=Julian|authorlink=Julian Hoppit|year=2000|title=A Land of Liberty? England. 1689–1727|___location=Oxford|publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]|page=195}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> [[John Philipps Kenyon|John Kenyon]], in his study of British political debate from 1689 to 1720, has remarked that Locke's theories were "mentioned so rarely in the early stages of the [Glorious] Revolution, up to 1692, and even less thereafter, unless it was to heap abuse on them" and that "no one, including most Whigs, [was] ready for the idea of a notional or abstract contract of the kind adumbrated by Locke".<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Kenyon|first=John|year=1977|title=Revolution Principles: The Politics of Party. 1689–1720|___location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>{{Rp|200}} In contrast, Kenyon adds that [[Algernon Sidney]]'s ''[[Discourses Concerning Government]]'' were "certainly much more influential than Locke's ''Two Treatises.''"<ref group="lower-roman">Kenyon (1977) adds: "Any unbiassed study of the position shows in fact that it was Filmer, not Hobbes, Locke or Sidney, who was the most influential thinker of the age" (p. 63).</ref><ref name=":0" />{{Rp|51}}
In the 50 years after Queen Anne's death in 1714, the ''Two Treatises'' were reprinted only once (except in the collected works of Locke). However, with the rise of American resistance to British taxation, the ''[[Two Treatises of Government#Second Treatise|Second Treatise of Government]]'' gained a new readership; it was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain. The first American printing occurred in 1773 in Boston.<ref>{{cite ODNB |id=16885 |title=Locke, John (1632–1704) |orig-date=2004 |year=2008 |last=Milton |first=John R.}}</ref> Locke exercised a profound influence on [[political philosophy]], in particular on modern liberalism. [[Michael Zuckert]] has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly [[separation of church and state|separating the realms of Church and State]]. He had a strong influence on [[Voltaire]], who called him "''le sage'' Locke". His arguments concerning [[liberty]] and the [[social contract]] later influenced the written works of [[Thomas Jefferson]]. One passage from the ''Second Treatise'' is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a "long train of abuses". Concerning Locke, Jefferson wrote:<ref>{{cite web|date=August 2007|title=The Three Greatest Men|url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr11a.html#obj11|access-date=27 June 2018|website=American Treasures of the Library of Congress|publisher=Library of Congress|quote=Jefferson identified Bacon, Locke, and Newton as 'the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception'. Their works in the physical and moral sciences were instrumental in Jefferson's education and world view.|archive-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620153106/http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr11a.html#obj11|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Jefferson|first=Thomas|title=The Letters: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton|url=http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl74.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091231231043/http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl74.htm|archive-date=31 December 2009|access-date=13 June 2009|quote=Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jefferson called Bacon, Newton, and Locke, who had so indelibly shaped his ideas, 'my trinity of the three greatest men the world had ever produced'|url=http://explorer.monticello.org/text/index.php?id=82&type=4|access-date=28 August 2012|work=Explorer|publisher=Monticello|archive-date=12 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112020132/http://explorer.monticello.org/text/index.php?id=82&type=4|url-status=live}}</ref>
<blockquote>[[Francis Bacon|Bacon]], Locke and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] ... I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences.</blockquote>
Locke's influence may have been even more profound in the realm of [[epistemology]]. Locke redefined [[subjectivity]], or the ''self'', leading [[Intellectual history|intellectual historians]] such as [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]] and [[Jerrold Seigel]] to argue that Locke's ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1689/90) marks the beginning of the modern Western conception of the ''self''.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Jerrold Seigel|last=Seigel|first=Jerrold|year=2005|title=The Idea of the Self: Thought and Experience in Western Europe since the Seventeenth Century|___location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}{{ISBN?}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link=Charles Taylor (philosopher)|last=Taylor|first=Charles|year=1989|title=Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity|___location=Cambridge|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Locke's [[Associationism|theory of association]] heavily influenced the subject matter of [[modern psychology]]. At the time, Locke's recognition of two types of ideas, ''simple'' and ''complex''{{mdash}}and, more importantly, their interaction through association{{mdash}}inspired other philosophers, such as [[David Hume]] and [[George Berkeley]], to revise and expand this theory and apply it to explain how humans gain knowledge in the physical world.<ref>{{Cite book |title=A History of Modern Psychology |last=Schultz |first=Duane P. |publisher=Thomas Higher Education |year=2008 |isbn=978-0495097990 |___location=Belmont, CA |pages=47–48 |edition=9th }}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Locke thought the state's borders and the functioning and enforcement of the existence of the state and its constitution were metaphysically tied to "the natural rights of the individual", and this inspired future [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[politician]]s and [[Philosophy|philosophers]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Desk Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0739478097 |editor-last=Wright |editor-first=Edmund |___location=New York |page=374}}</ref>
===
{{See also|Toleration#Locke}}
[[File:John Locke by Richard Westmacott.jpg|thumb|John Locke by [[Richard Westmacott]], University College London]]
Writing his ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration|Letters Concerning Toleration]]'' (1689–1692) in the aftermath of the [[European wars of religion]], Locke formulated a classic reasoning for [[religious tolerance]], in which three arguments are central:<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Alister McGrath|last=McGrath|first=Alister|year=1998|title=Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought|___location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|pages=214–215}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>
# earthly judges, [[State (polity)|the state]] in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the [[Truth claim|truth-claims]] of competing religious standpoints;
# even if they could, enforcing a single 'true religion' would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence;
# coercing [[religious uniformity]] would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.
With regard to his position on religious tolerance, Locke was influenced by [[Baptist]] theologians like [[John Smyth (Baptist minister)|John Smyth]] and [[Thomas Helwys]], who had published [[Tract (literature)|tracts]] demanding [[Freedom of thought|freedom of conscience]] in the early 17th century.{{Sfn | Heussi | 1956}}{{Sfn | Olmstead | 1960 | p = 18}}<ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Henri H. Stahl|last=Stahl|first=H.|year=1957|title=Baptisten|language=de|journal=Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart|volume=3|issue=1|at=col. 863}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Halbrooks|first=G. Thomas|author2=Erich Geldbach|author3=Bill J. Leonard|author4=Brian Stanley|year=2011|title=Baptists|doi=10.1163/1877-5888_rpp_COM_01472|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/religion-past-and-present/*-COM_01472|journal=Religion Past and Present|access-date=2 June 2020|isbn=978-9004146662|archive-date=9 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209175131/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/religion-past-and-present/*-COM_01472|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}.</ref> Baptist theologian [[Roger Williams]] founded the colony of [[Rhode Island]] in 1636, where he combined a [[Democracy|democratic constitution]] with unlimited religious freedom. His tract, ''[[The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution for Cause of Conscience]]'' (1644), which was widely read in the mother country, was a passionate plea for absolute religious freedom and the total [[separation of church and state]].{{Sfn | Olmstead | 1960 | pp = 102–105}} Freedom of conscience had had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agenda, as [[Martin Luther]] refused to recant his beliefs before the [[List of Imperial Diet participants (1792)|Diet]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at [[Diet of Worms|Worms]] in 1521, unless he would be proved false by the Bible.{{Sfn | Olmstead | 1960 | p = 5}}
===
Locke's views on slavery were multifaceted. Although he wrote against [[slavery]] in general, Locke was an investor and beneficiary of the slave-trading [[Royal African Company|Royal Africa Company]]. While secretary to the [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Earl of Shaftesbury]], Locke also participated in drafting the ''[[Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina]]'', which established a quasi-feudal [[aristocracy]] and gave Carolinian [[Planter class|planters]] absolute power over their enslaved chattel property; the constitutions pledged that "every freeman of Carolina shall have absolute power and authority over his negro slaves". Philosopher [[Martin Cohen (philosopher)|Martin Cohen]] observes that Locke, as secretary to the [[Council of Trade and Plantations]] and a member of the [[Board of Trade]], was "one of just half a dozen men who created and supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems of servitude".<ref>{{Citation |first=Martin |last=Cohen |title=Philosophical Tales |publisher=Blackwell |year=2008 |page=101}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |first=James |last=Tully |title=An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts |place=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 |page=128 |isbn=978-0521436380}}</ref> According to American historian James Farr, Locke never expressed any thoughts about his contradictory opinions of slavery, which Farr ascribes to his personal involvement in the [[Atlantic slave trade]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farr|first=J.|year=1986|title=I. 'So Vile and Miserable an Estate': The Problem of Slavery in Locke's Political Thought|journal=[[Political Theory (journal)|Political Theory]]|volume=14|issue=2|pages=263–289|doi=10.1177/0090591786014002005|jstor=191463|s2cid=145020766}}.</ref> Locke's positions on slavery have been described as hypocritical, and laying the foundation for the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]] to hold similarly contradictory thoughts regarding freedom and slavery.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Farr|first=J.|year=2008|title=Locke, Natural Law, and New World Slavery|journal=[[Political Theory (journal)|Political Theory]]|volume=36|issue=4|pages=495–522|doi=10.1177/0090591708317899|s2cid=159542780}}.</ref>
Historian [[Holly Brewer]] argues that Locke's role in the Constitution of Carolina has been exaggerated and that he was merely paid to revise and make copies of a document that had already been partially written before he became involved; she compares Locke's role to a lawyer writing a will.{{Sfn | Brewer | 2017 | p = 1052}} She states that Locke was paid in Royal African Company stock in lieu of money for his work as a secretary for a governmental sub-committee, and that he sold the stock after a few years.{{Sfn | Brewer | 2017 | pp = 1053–1054}} Brewer likewise argues that Locke actively worked to undermine slavery in Virginia while heading a Board of Trade created by [[William III of England|William of Orange]] following the [[Glorious Revolution]]. He specifically attacked colonial policy granting land to slave owners and encouraged the baptism and Christian education of the children of enslaved Africans to undercut a major justification of slavery{{mdash}}that they were heathens who possessed no rights.{{Sfn | Brewer | 2017 | pp = 1066 & 1072}}
In his ''Two Treatises of Government'', Locke provided a justification for slavery that could never be met, thus rendering invalid all forms of slavery that existed. Moreover, because slavery is invalid, there is a moral injunction to try to throw off and escape from it.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Locke also supported [[child labour]], which was an intrinsic part of all pre-industrial societies.<ref name="ReferenceA">Diamond, J., The World Before Yesterday</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=E. P. |title=The Making of the English Working Class |publisher=Penguin |year=1968}}{{page needed|date=November 2022}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> In his "Essay on the Poor Law", he discusses the education of the poor; he laments that "the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish, and are usually maintained in idleness, so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old".<ref name=poorlaw>{{cite book|last=Locke|first=John|chapter=An Essay on the Poor Law|title=Locke: Political Essays|editor=[[Mark Goldie]]|___location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1997a}}{{ISBN?}}</ref>{{rp|190}} Therefore, he suggests the setting up of "working schools" for poor children in each parish in England so that they will be "from infancy [three years old] inured to work".<ref name=poorlaw />{{rp|190}} He goes on to outline the economics of these schools, arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish, but also that they will instil a good work ethic in the children.<ref name=poorlaw />{{rp|191}}
=== Animals ===
Locke rejected the Cartesian view that animals are mere automata without consciousness. In his ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', he argued that animals possess some cognitive faculties, particularly perception and memory, though not abstraction or reasoning in the human sense. Locke maintained that perception is present "in some degree, in all sorts of animals", including even oysters and cockles, though he described their sensations as "dull". He further held that animals are capable of retaining ideas, but he denied them the capacity for forming abstract or general ideas, which he regarded as a defining feature of [[human cognition]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Jolley |first=Nicholas |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12645 |title=Locke's Touchy Subjects: Materialism and Immortality |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198737094 |chapter=Animals |pages=33–49 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198737094.003.0003 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12645/chapter/162591430}}</ref>
Locke used these observations to challenge René Descartes [[animal machine]] doctrine and to support the possibility that matter could think, if God so willed. This hypothesis, that God might superadd thought to matter, allowed Locke to argue that mental faculties could be distributed in varying degrees among animals and humans. While Locke sometimes used these arguments rhetorically against theological opponents, he was cautious about committing to the immateriality or immortality of [[animal souls]]. Instead, he suggested that attributing mental faculties to animals did not necessitate belief in their immortality, thereby avoiding the theological implications Descartes sought to escape by denying [[animal sentience]] altogether.<ref name=":4" />
===Government===
{{See also|Two Treatises of Government}}
{{Republicanism sidebar}}
Locke's political theory was founded upon that of [[social contract]]. Unlike [[Thomas Hobbes]], Locke believed that [[human nature]] is characterised by [[reason]] and [[Toleration|tolerance]]. Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allows people to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a [[State of nature#Locke's view on the state of nature|natural state]], all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend their "life, health, liberty, or possessions".<ref name="locke">Locke, John. [1690] 2017. ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm Second Treatise of Government] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116173303/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm |date=16 November 2019 }}'' (10th ed.), digitized by D. Gowan. [[Project Gutenberg]]. Retrieved 2 June 2020.</ref>{{rp|198}} Most scholars trace the phrase "[[Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness]]" in the [[United States Declaration of Independence|American Declaration of Independence]] to Locke's theory of rights,<ref>{{Citation |last=Zuckert |first=Michael |title=The Natural Rights Republic |year=1996 |publisher=Notre Dame University Press |pages=73–85}}</ref> although other origins have been suggested.<ref>{{Citation |last=Wills |first=Garry |title=Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence |___location=Boston |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co |year=2002}}</ref>
Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a [[civil society]] to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.<ref>{{Citation |last=Skinner |first=Quentin |title=Visions of Politics |place=Cambridge}}.</ref> Locke also advocated governmental [[separation of powers]] and believed that revolution is not only a [[Right of revolution|right]] but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and the [[Constitution of the United States]].
==== Accumulation of wealth ====
{{See also|Lockean proviso}}
According to Locke, unused property is wasteful and an offence against nature,<ref>{{Citation |last=Locke |first=John |title=Two Treatises on Government: A Translation into Modern English |year=2009 |publisher=Industrial Systems Research |isbn=978-0906321478 |page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3eB0IgzJjoC&q=John+Locke+unused+property+waste+offence+against+nature&pg=PA81 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> but, with the introduction of [[Durable good|"durable" goods]], men could exchange their excessive perishable goods for those which would last longer and thus not offend the [[natural law]]. In his view, the introduction of money marked the culmination of this process, making possible the unlimited accumulation of property without causing waste through spoilage.<ref>{{cite web |title=John Locke: Inequality is inevitable and necessary |url=http://www0.hku.hk/philodep/courses/ac/Phil1003-2008/Locke2.ppt |publisher=Department of Philosophy The University of Hong Kong |access-date=1 September 2011 |format=MS PowerPoint |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509074104/http://www.hku.hk/philodep/courses/ac/Phil1003-2008/Locke2.ppt |archive-date=9 May 2009}}</ref> He includes gold or silver as money because they may be "hoarded up without injury to anyone",<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Locke |title=Second Treatise |at=§§ 25–51, 123–126 |url=http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html |publisher=The Founders Constitution |access-date=1 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911101831/http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch16s3.html |archive-date=11 September 2011}}</ref> as they do not spoil or decay in the hands of the possessor. In his view, the introduction of money eliminates limits to accumulation. Locke stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement on the use of money, not by the social contract establishing [[civil society]] or the [[Land law|law of land]] regulating property. Locke was aware of a problem posed by unlimited accumulation, but did not consider it his task. He just implies that government would function to moderate the conflict between the unlimited accumulation of property and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth; he does not identify which principles that government should apply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of his thought form a consistent whole. For example, the [[labour theory of value]] in the ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]'' stands side by side with the demand-and-supply theory of value developed in a letter he wrote titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but, in the end, upholds unlimited accumulation of wealth.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Cobb |last1=Cliff |first2=Fred |last2=Foldvary |title=John Locke on Property |url=http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/cobb-cliff-and-fred-foldvary_john-locke-on-property-1999.html |publisher=The School of Cooperative Individualism |access-date=14 October 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315171711/http://www.cooperativeindividualism.org/cobb-cliff-and-fred-foldvary_john-locke-on-property-1999.html |archive-date=15 March 2012}}</ref>
== Ideas ==
{{Liberalism UK|Intellectuals}}
=== Economics ===
====On price theory====
Locke's general theory of value and price is a [[supply and demand|supply-and-demand]] theory, set out in a letter to a member of parliament in 1691, titled ''Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''.<ref>{{Citation |first=John |last=Locke |year=1691 |url=http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/locke/contents.htm |title=Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money |publisher=Marxists |access-date=4 July 2007 |archive-date=24 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324135856/https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/locke/contents.htm |url-status=live }}.</ref> In it, he refers to supply as ''quantity'' and demand as [[Economic rent|''rent'']]: "The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyers and sellers ... that which regulates the price ... [of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent." The [[quantity theory of money]] forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on "money answers all things" ([[Ecclesiastes]]) or "rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough" and "varies very little". Locke concludes that, as far as money is concerned, the [[demand for money|demand for it]] is exclusively regulated by its quantity, regardless of whether the demand is unlimited or constant. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For [[Supply (economics)|supply]], he explains the value of goods as based on their [[scarcity]] and ability to be [[Exchange value|exchanged]] and [[Consumption (economics)|consumed]]. He explains [[demand]] for goods as based on their ability to yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of [[Capital (economics)|capitalisation]], such as of land, which has value because "by its constant production of saleable [[Commodity|commodities]] it brings in a certain yearly income". He considers the demand for money as almost the same as demand for goods or land: it depends on whether money is wanted as [[medium of exchange]]. As a medium of exchange, he states that "money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life", and for [[loanable funds]] "it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income ... or interest".
====Monetary thoughts====
Locke distinguishes two functions of money: as a ''counter'' to [[Valuation (finance)|measure value]], and as a ''pledge'' to lay claim to [[good (economics)|goods]]. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to [[Banknote|paper money]], are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper money is only valid under the government which issues it.
Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable [[balance of trade]], lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world [[Money supply|money stock]] grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, by which in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine [[exchange rate]]s. He considers the latter less significant and less [[Volatility (finance)|volatile]] than commodity movements. As for a country's money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, he says it will cause the country's exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.
Locke prepares estimates of the [[cash]] requirements for different economic groups ([[Land tenure|landholders]], labourers, and brokers). In each group he posits that the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers—the [[Intermediary|middlemen]]—whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, have a negative influence on both personal and the public economy to which they supposedly contribute.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Some Considerations of the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest, and Raising the Value of Money (Diplomatic) |url=https://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/diplomatic/MINT01863 |access-date=2 March 2024 |website=www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk |archive-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302220309/https://www.newtonproject.ox.ac.uk/view/texts/diplomatic/MINT01863 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
====Theory of value and property====
Locke uses the concept of ''[[Property (philosophy)|property]]'' in both broad and narrow terms: broadly, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more particularly, it refers to [[Tangible property|material goods]]. He argues that property is a [[Natural rights and legal rights|natural right]] that is derived from [[manual labour|labour]]. In Chapter V of his ''[[Two Treatises of Government|Second Treatise]]'', Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce such goods{{mdash}}"at least where there is enough [land], and as good, left in common for others" (para. 27){{mdash}}or to use property to produce goods beneficial to human society.<ref name="labortheory">{{cite journal|last=Vaughn|first=Karen|year=1978|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019073702/http://mises.org/journals/jls/2_4/2_4_3.pdf|title=John Locke and the Labor Theory of Value|journal=[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]|volume=2|issue=4|pages=311–326|url=https://mises.org/journals/jls/2_4/2_4_3.pdf|archive-date=19 October 2011}}</ref>
Locke states in his ''Second Treatise'' that nature on its own provides little of value to society, implying that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value. From this premise, understood as a [[Labor theory of value|''labour theory of value'']],<ref name="labortheory" /> Locke developed a [[Labor theory of property|''labour theory of property'']], whereby ownership of [[property]] is created by the application of labour. In addition, he believed that property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily". [[Karl Marx]] later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Engle |first=Eric |date=15 September 2008 |title=Karl Marx's Intellectual Roots in John Locke |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1268545 |journal=Postmodern Openings |language=en |___location=Rochester, NY |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=35–36 |ssrn=1268545 |via=SSRN}}</ref>
=== The human mind ===
====The self====
Locke defines ''the self'' as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends".{{Sfn | Locke | 1997b | p = 307}} He does not wholly ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man".{{Sfn | Locke | 1997b | p = 306}} In his ''Essay'', Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] view of man as [[original sin|originally sinful]] and the [[René Descartes|Cartesian]] position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an 'empty mind', a ''[[tabula rasa]]'', which is shaped by experience, [[Wikt:sensation|sensations]] and [[human self-reflection|reflections]] being the two sources of all our [[idea]]s.<ref>{{Citation |title=The American International Encyclopedia |publisher=JJ Little Co |place=New York |year=1954 |volume=9}}.</ref> He states in ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'':
<blockquote>This source of ideas every man has wholly within himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called 'internal sense.'<ref>{{Cite book|last=Angus|first=Joseph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDYCAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA324|title=The Handbook of Specimens of English Literature|publisher=[[William Clowes Ltd.|William Clowes and Sons]]|year=1880|___location=London|page=324|language=en|author-link=Joseph Angus}}</ref></blockquote>
Locke's ''[[Some Thoughts Concerning Education]]'' is an outline on how to educate this mind. Drawing on thoughts expressed in letters written to [[Mary Clarke (letter writer)|Mary Clarke]] and her husband about their son,<ref name="MaryC">{{Cite ODNB|id=66720|title=Clarke [née Jepp], Mary}}</ref> he expresses the belief that education makes the man{{mdash}}or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet":{{Sfn|Locke|1996|p=10}}
<blockquote>I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education.</blockquote>
Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences".{{Sfn | Locke | 1996 | p = 10}} He argues that the "[[Association of Ideas|associations of ideas]]" that one makes when young are more important than those made later because they are the foundation of the ''self''; they are, put differently, what first mark the ''tabula rasa''. In his ''Essay'', in which both these concepts are introduced, Locke warns, for example, against letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night, for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other".{{Sfn | Locke | 1997b | p = 357}}
This theory came to be called ''[[associationism]]'', going on to strongly influence 18th-century thought, particularly [[education theory|educational theory]], as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of [[psychology]] and other new disciplines with [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]]'s attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his ''[[Observations on Man]]'' (1749).
====Dream argument====
Locke was critical of Descartes's version of the [[dream argument]], with Locke making the counter-argument that people cannot have physical pain in dreams as they do in waking life.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/dreaming/#SH1b |title=Dreaming, Philosophy of – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |work=utm.edu |access-date=23 December 2016 |archive-date=31 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131103348/https://iep.utm.edu/dreaming/#SH1b |url-status=live }}</ref>
==
====Religious beliefs====
Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as being based from his religious beliefs.<ref>{{Citation |first=Greg |last=Forster |title=John Locke's politics of moral consensus |year=2005}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |first=Kim Ian |last=Parker |title=The Biblical Politics of John Locke |year=2004 |publisher=Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion|title-link=The Biblical Politics of John Locke }}.</ref><ref>{{Citation |first=John |last=Locke |title=Writings on religion |editor-first=Victor |editor-last=Nuovo |place=Oxford |year=2002}}.</ref> Locke's religious trajectory began in [[Calvinist]] [[trinitarianism]], but by the time of the ''Reflections'' (1695) Locke was advocating not just [[Socinianism|Socinian views]] on tolerance but also Socinian [[Christology]].<ref name="Marshall 1994 426">{{Citation |first=John |last=Marshall |title=John Locke: resistance, religion and responsibility |place=Cambridge |year=1994 |page=426}}.</ref> However Wainwright (1987) notes that in the posthumously published ''Paraphrase'' (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse, [[Ephesians 1]]:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like [[John Biddle (Unitarian)|Biddle]], and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an [[Arianism|Arian]] position, thereby accepting Christ's pre-existence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke: A Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1987|isbn=978-0198248064|editor-last=Wainwright|editor-first=Arthur W.|___location=Oxford|page=806}}</ref><ref name="Marshall 1994 426" />
Locke was at times not sure about the subject of [[original sin]], so he was accused of Socinianism, Arianism, or [[Deism]].{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | pp = 27, 223}} Locke argued that the idea that "all ''[[Adam]]'''s Posterity [are] doomed to Eternal Infinite Punishment, for the Transgression of ''Adam''" was "little consistent with the Justice or Goodness of the Great and Infinite God", leading [[Eric Nelson (historian)|Eric Nelson]] to associate him with [[Pelagianism|Pelagian]] ideas.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=7–8}} However, he did not deny the reality of evil. Man was capable of waging unjust wars and committing crimes. Criminals had to be punished, even with the death penalty.{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | p = 145}}
With regard to the Bible, Locke was very conservative. He retained the doctrine of the [[verbal inspiration]] of the Scriptures.{{Sfn | Heussi | 1956}} The miracles were proof of the divine nature of the biblical message. Locke was convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in agreement with human reason (''The Reasonableness of Christianity'', 1695).<ref>{{Citation |first=D |last=Henrich |contribution=Locke, John |title=Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart |year=1960 |language=de}}, 3. Auflage, Band IV, Spalte 426</ref>{{Sfn | Heussi | 1956}} Although Locke was an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate [[atheism]], because he thought the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos.{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | pp = 217 ff}} That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law from purely secular premises.{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | p = 13}} In Locke's opinion the [[cosmological argument]] was valid and proved God's existence. His political thought was based on Protestant Christian views.{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | p = 13}}<ref>{{Citation |quote=[The ''Two Treatises of Government'' are] saturated with Christian assumptions. |first=John |last=Dunn |year=1969 |title=The Political Thought of John Locke: A Historical Account of the Argument of the 'Two Treatises of Government' |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge, UK |page=99}}.</ref> Locke advocated a sense of piety out of gratitude to God for giving reason to men.<ref>[[Nicholas Wolterstorff|Wolterstorff, Nicholas]]. 1994. "[https://place.asburyseminary.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1504&context=faithandphilosophy John Locke's Epistemological Piety: Reason Is The Candle Of The Lord] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522093235/https://place.asburyseminary.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1504&context=faithandphilosophy |date=22 May 2020 }}." ''[[Faith and Philosophy]]'' 11(4):572–591.</ref>
==== Philosophy from religion ====
Locke's concept of man started with the belief in creation.{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | p= 142}} Like philosophers [[Hugo Grotius]] and [[Samuel Pufendorf]], Locke equated [[natural law]] with the biblical [[revelation]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Elze|first=M|title=Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart|year=1958|contribution=Grotius, Hugo|language=de}} 2(3):1885–1886.</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Hohlwein|first=H|title=Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart|year=1961|contribution=Pufendorf, Samuel Freiherr von|language=de}}, 5(3):721.</ref>{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | p = 12}} Locke derived the fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular from [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1 and 2 ([[Genesis creation narrative|creation]]), the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue]], the [[Golden Rule]], the teachings of Jesus, and the letters of [[Paul the Apostle]].{{Sfn | Waldron | 2002 | pp = 22–43, 45–46, 101, 153–158, 195, 197}} [[Ten Commandments|The Decalogue]] puts a person's life, reputation and property under God's protection. Locke's philosophy on freedom is also derived from the Bible. Locke derived from the Bible basic human equality, including [[equality of the sexes]], the starting point of the theological doctrine of [[Imago Dei]].{{Sfn|Waldron|2002|pp=21–43}}
To Locke, one of the consequences of the principle of equality was that all humans were created equally free and therefore governments needed the consent of the governed.{{Sfn|Waldron|2002|p=136}} Locke compared the English monarchy's rule over the British people to Adam's rule over Eve in Genesis, which was appointed by God.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Two Treatises of Government|last=Locke|first=John|publisher=Hafner Publishing Company|year=1947|___location=New York|pages=17–18, 35, 38}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Following Locke's philosophy, the American [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] founded human rights partially on the biblical belief in creation. Locke's doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central to the Declaration of Independence.<ref>[[Carl L. Becker|Becker, Carl]]. ''The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas''. 1970 [1922]. [https://archive.org/details/declarationinde00beckgoog Google Book Search]. Revised ed., New York: Vintage Books. {{ISBN|978-0394700601}}.</ref>
==Library==
=== Manuscripts, books and treatises ===
[[File:Locke Signature.jpg|thumb|Locke's signature in Bodleian Locke 13.12. Photo taken at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.]]
Locke was an assiduous book collector and notetaker throughout his life. By his death in 1704, Locke had amassed a library of more than 3,000 books, a significant number in the seventeenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Harrison|first1=John|title=The Library of John Locke|last2=Laslett|first2=Peter|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1971|___location=Oxford|page=1}}{{ISBN?}}</ref> Unlike some of his contemporaries, Locke took care to catalogue and preserve his library, and his will made specific provisions for how his library was to be distributed after his death. Locke's will offered Lady Masham the choice of "any four folios, eight quartos and twenty books of less volume, which she shall choose out of the books in my Library."<ref name=":1">Quoted in Harrison, John; Laslett, Peter (1971). ''The Library of John Locke''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 8.</ref> Locke also gave six titles to his "good friend" [[Anthony Collins (philosopher)|Anthony Collins]], but Locke bequeathed the majority of his collection to his cousin [[Peter King, 1st Baron King|Peter King]] (later Lord King) and to Lady Masham's son, Francis Cudworth Masham.<ref name=":1" />
Francis Masham was promised one "moiety" (half) of Locke's library when he reached "the age of one and twenty years."<ref name=":1" /> The other "moiety" of Locke's books, along with his manuscripts, passed to his cousin King.<ref name=":1" /> Over the next two centuries, the Masham portion of Locke's library was dispersed.<ref>Harrison, John; Laslett, Peter (1971). ''The Library of John Locke''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 57–61.</ref> The manuscripts and books left to King remained with King's descendants (later the [[Earl of Lovelace|Earls of Lovelace]]), until most of the collection was bought by the [[Bodleian Library|Bodleian Library, Oxford]] in 1947.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Bodleian Library|title=Rare Books Named Collections|url=https://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/weston/finding-resources/catalogues/rare_books_named_collections/rare_books_named_collection_descriptions#Lock|url-status=live|access-date=15 March 2021|archive-date=22 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150422083827/http://www.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/weston/finding-resources/catalogues/rare_books_named_collections/rare_books_named_collection_descriptions#Lock}}</ref> Another portion of the books Locke left to King was discovered by the collector and philanthropist [[Paul Mellon]] in 1951.<ref name=":2" /> Mellon supplemented this discovery with books from Locke's library which he bought privately, and in 1978, he transferred his collection to the Bodleian.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Locke treatises of government page.jpg|alt=image of locke's treatises of government|thumb|One of Locke's famous books on politics, [[Two Treatises of Government]], written and published in his lifetime]]
The holdings in the Locke Room at the Bodleian have been a valuable resource for scholars interested in Locke, his philosophy, practices for information management, and the history of the book. Many of the books still contain Locke's signature, which he often made on the [[pastedown]]s of his books. Many also include Locke's [[marginalia]]. The printed books in Locke's library reflected his various intellectual interests as well as his movements at different stages of his life. Locke travelled extensively in France and the Netherlands during the 1670s and 1680s, and during this time he acquired many books from the continent.<ref>Harrison, John; Laslett, Peter (1971). ''The Library of John Locke''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 20.</ref>
Only half of the books in Locke's library were printed in England, while close to 40% came from France and the Netherlands.<ref>Harrison, John; Laslett, Peter (1971). ''The Library of John Locke''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 20.</ref> These books cover a wide range of subjects. According to John Harrison and Peter Laslett, the largest genres in Locke's library were [[theology]] (23.8% of books), medicine (11.1%), politics and law (10.7%), and classical literature (10.1%).<ref>Harrison, John; Laslett, Peter (1971). ''The Library of John Locke''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 18.</ref> The Bodleian library currently holds more than 800 of the books from Locke's library.<ref name=":2" /> These include Locke's copies of works by several of the most influential figures of the seventeenth century, including
* The Quaker [[William Penn]]: ''An address to Protestants of all perswasions'' (Bodleian Locke 7.69a)
* The explorer [[Francis Drake]]: ''The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake'' (Bodleian Locke 8.37c)
* The scientist [[Robert Boyle]]: ''A discourse of things above reason'' (Bodleian Locke 7.272)
* The bishop and historian [[Thomas Sprat]]: ''The history of the Royal-Society of London'' (Bodleian Locke 9.10a)
In addition to books owned by Locke, the Bodleian possesses more than 100 [[manuscript]]s related to Locke or written in his hand. Like the books in Locke's library, these manuscripts display a range of interests and provide different windows into Locke's activity and relationships. Several of the manuscripts include letters to and from acquaintances like Peter King (MS Locke b. 6) and {{ill|Nicolas Toinard|fr|Nicolas Toinard}} (MS Locke c. 45).<ref name=":3">Clapinson, M, and TD Rogers. 1991. ''Summary Catalogue of Post-Medieval Western Manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, Oxford''. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press.</ref> MS Locke f. 1–10 contain Locke's journals for most years between 1675 and 1704.<ref name=":3" />
Some of the most significant manuscripts include early drafts of Locke's writings, such as his ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding|Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (MS Locke f. 26).<ref name=":3" /> The Bodleian also holds a copy of Robert Boyle's ''General History of the Air'' with corrections and notes Locke made while preparing Boyle's work for posthumous publication (MS Locke c. 37 ).<ref>''The works of Robert Boyle'', vol. 12. Edited by Michael Hunter and Edward B. Davis. London: Pickering & Chatto, 2000, pp. xviii–xxi.</ref> Other manuscripts contain unpublished works. Among others, MS. Locke e. 18 includes some of Locke's thoughts on the [[Glorious Revolution]], which Locke sent to his friend Edward Clarke but never published.<ref>James Farr and Clayton Robers. "John Locke on the Glorious Revolution: a Rediscovered Document" ''Historical Journal'' 28 (1985): 395–398.</ref>
One of the largest categories of manuscript at the Bodleian comprises Locke's notebooks and [[commonplace book]]s. The scholar Richard Yeo calls Locke a "Master Note-taker" and explains that "Locke's methodical note-taking pervaded most areas of his life."<ref>Richard Yeo, ''Notebooks, English Virtuosi'' (University of Chicago Press, 2014), 183.</ref> In an unpublished essay "Of Study," Locke argued that a notebook should work like a "chest-of-drawers" for organising information, which would be a "great help to the memory and means to avoid confusion in our thoughts."<ref>John Locke, ''The Educational Writings of John Locke'', ed. James Axtell (Cambridge University Press, 1968), 421.</ref> Locke kept several notebooks and commonplace books, which he organised according to topic. MS Locke c. 43 includes Locke's notes on theology, while MS Locke f. 18–24 contain medical notes.<ref name=":3" /> Other notebooks, such as MS c. 43, incorporate several topics in the same notebook, but separated into sections.<ref name=":3" />
[[File:Locke Index, page 1.jpg|thumb|Page 1 of Locke's unfinished index in Bodleian Locke 13.12. Photo taken at the Bodleian Library, Oxford.]]
These commonplace books were highly personal and were designed to be used by Locke himself rather than accessible to a wide audience.<ref>Richard Yeo, ''Notebooks, English Virtuosi'' (University of Chicago Press, 2014), 218.</ref> Locke's notes are often abbreviated and are full of codes which he used to reference material across notebooks.<ref>G. G. Meynell, "John Locke's Method of Common-Placing, as seen in His Drafts and His Medical Notebooks, Bodleian MSS Locke d. 9, f. 21 and f. 23," ''The Seventeenth Century'' 8, no. 2 (1993): 248.</ref> Another way Locke personalised his notebooks was by devising his own method of creating indexes using a grid system and Latin keywords.<ref>Michael Stolberg, "John Locke's 'New Method of Making Common-Place-Books': Tradition, Innovation and Epistemic Effects," ''Early Science and Medicine'' 19, no. 5 (2014): 448–470.</ref> Instead of recording entire words, his indexes shortened words to their first letter and vowel. Thus, the word "Epistle" would be classified as "Ei".<ref>John Locke, ''A New Method of Making Common-Place-Books'' (London: Printed for J. Greenood, 1706), 4.</ref>
Locke published his method in French in 1686, and it was [[iarchive:gu newmethodmaki00lock|republished posthumously in English]] in 1706. Some of the books in Locke's library at the Bodleian are a combination of manuscript and print. Locke had some of his books interleaved, meaning that they were bound with blank sheets in-between the printed pages to enable annotations. Locke interleaved and annotated his five volumes of the New Testament in French, Greek, and Latin (Bodleian Locke 9.103–107). Locke did the same with his copy of Thomas Hyde's Bodleian Library catalogue (Bodleian Locke 16.17), which Locke used to create a catalogue of his own library.<ref>G. G. Meynell, "A Database for John Locke's Medical Notebooks and Medical Reading," Medical History 42 (1997): 478</ref>
== Writing ==
===List of major works===
* 1689. ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration]]''.
** 1690. ''A Second Letter Concerning Toleration''
** 1692. ''A Third Letter for Toleration''
* 1689/90. ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]'' (published throughout the 18th century by London bookseller [[Andrew Millar]] by commission for [[Thomas Hollis (1720–1774)|Thomas Hollis]])<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk/manuscripts/html_output/4.html |title=The manuscripts, Letter from Andrew Millar to Thomas Cadell, 16 July, 1765. University of Edinburgh. |website=www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk |access-date=2 June 2016 |archive-date=15 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115053142/http://www.millar-project.ed.ac.uk/manuscripts/html_output/4.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1689/90. ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]''
* 1691. ''Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money''
* 1693. ''[[Some Thoughts Concerning Education]]''
* 1695. ''The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures''
** 1695. ''A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity''
===Major posthumous manuscripts===
* 1660. ''First Tract of Government'' (or ''the English Tract'')
* ''c.''1662. ''Second Tract of Government'' (or ''the Latin Tract'')
* 1664. ''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature''.<ref>Locke, John. [1664] 1990. ''Questions Concerning the Law of Nature'' (definitive Latin text), translated by R. Horwitz, et al. Ithaca: [[Cornell University Press]].</ref>
* 1667. ''Essay Concerning Toleration''
* 1706. ''[[Of the Conduct of the Understanding]]''
* 1707. ''A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians''
==See also==
* [[List of liberal theorists]]
==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=lower-roman}}
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Ashcraft |first=Richard |title=Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1986 |___location=Princeton |isbn= 978-0691022482|quote=Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.|author-link=Richard Ashcraft|oclc=13124720}}
* {{cite book |last=Ayers |first=Michael R. |title=Locke. Epistemology & Ontology |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |___location= |isbn=978-0415100304|quote=the standard work on Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding.|author-link=Michael R. Ayers|oclc=27894801}}
* {{cite book |last=Bailyn |first=Bernard |title=The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1992 |orig-year=1967 |___location= |isbn= 978-0674443013|quote=Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.|author-link=Bernard Bailyn|oclc=494071}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Brewer |first1=Holly |title=Slavery, Sovereignty, and "Inheritable Blood": Reconsidering John Locke and the Origins of American Slavery |journal=American Historical Review |pages=1038–1078 |date=October 2017 |volume=122 |issue=4 |doi=10.1093/ahr/122.4.1038 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/ahr/122.4.1038 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Gerald |author-link=Gerald Cohen |title=Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality |chapter=Marx and Locke on Land and Labour |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |___location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0521471749|oclc=31867308}}
* {{cite book |last=Cox |first=Richard |title=Locke on War and Peace |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1960 |___location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0819126627|oclc=8669289}}
* {{cite book |last=Chappell |first=Vere C. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Locke |edition=1st |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1994 |___location=Cambridge |isbn= 978-0521383714|author-link=Vere Claiborne Chappell|oclc=28854426}}
* {{cite book |last=Dunn |first=John |author-link=John Dunn (political theorist) |title=Locke |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1984 |___location=Oxford |isbn= }}{{ISBN?}}
* {{cite book |last=Dunn |first=John |title=The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the Two Treatises of Government |edition=Reprinted |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |___location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521074087|oclc= 1077366466|quote=Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=John Locke (1632–1704) |url=http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Locke.html |encyclopedia=[[The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]] |edition=2nd |series=[[Library of Economics and Liberty]] |publisher=[[Liberty Fund]] |year=2008|isbn=978-0865976665 |editor-first=David R.|editor-last=Henderson |editor-link=David R. Henderson |pages=558–559}}
* {{Citation |first=Karl |last=Heussi |title=Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte |year=1956 |place=Tübingen, DE |language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Hudson |first=Nicholas |title=Nominalism and Literary Discourse|chapter=John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism |editor1=Hugo Keiper |editor2=Christoph Bode |editor-link2=Christoph Bode|editor3=Richard Utz |publisher=Rodopi |year=1997 |___location=Amsterdam |pages=283–299 |isbn= 978-9042002883|oclc=38471194}}
* {{cite book|last=Jones|first=Howard|date=2010|chapter=Epicurus and Epicureanism|title=The Classical Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbqF8z2bq3sC&q=Epicurus|editor1-last=Grafton|editor1-first=Anthony|editor1-link=Anthony Grafton|editor2-last=Most|editor2-first=Glenn W.|editor2-link=Glenn W. Most|editor3-last=Settis|editor3-first=Salvatore|publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press|___location=Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England|isbn=978-0674035720|pages=320–324}}
* {{Citation |last=Laslett |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Laslett |title=Locke: Two Treatises of Government |___location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0521354486 |url=https://archive.org/details/twotreatisesofgo00john }}
* {{cite book |last1=Locke |first1=John |last2=Harrison |first2=John |last3=Laslett |author-link3=Peter Laslett |first3=Peter |title=The Library of John Locke |edition=2nd |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1971 |___location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0198181392|oclc=211643}}
* {{Cite book |last=Locke |first=John |title=Some Thoughts Concerning Education and of the Conduct of the Understanding |editor1-first=Ruth W |editor1-last=Grant |editor2-first=Nathan |editor2-last=Tarcov |place=Indianapolis |publisher=[[Hackett Publishing Company|Hackett Publishing Co]] |year=1996 |page=10}}{{ISBN?}}
* {{Cite book |last=Locke |first=John |title=An Essay Concerning Human Understanding |editor-first=Roger |editor-last=Woolhouse |editor-link=Roger Woolhouse |place=New York |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=1997b}}{{ISBN?}}
* ''Locke Studies'', appearing annually from 2001, formerly ''The Locke Newsletter'' (1970–2000), publishes scholarly work on John Locke.
* {{cite book |last1=Macpherson |first1=C.B. |author-link1=C. B. Macpherson |first2=Frank |last2=Cunningham|title=The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke |publisher=Oxford University Press |orig-year=1962 |year=2011|___location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0195444018|oclc=648388121|edition=Wynford|quote=Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism.}}
* {{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=Eric |author-link=Eric M. Nelson |title=The Theology of Liberalism: Political Philosophy and the Justice of God |date=2019 |publisher=Harvard University Press |___location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0674240940 |url=https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/john-rawls-justice-jewish-heresy |language=en |access-date=24 April 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802172406/https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/arts-letters/articles/john-rawls-justice-jewish-heresy |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book|first=Clifton E |last=Olmstead |year=1960 |title=History of Religion in the United States |publisher=Prentice-Hall |place=Englewood Cliffs, NJ|oclc=221231467}}
* {{cite book |last=Tully |first=James |author-link=James Tully (philosopher) |title=A Discourse on Property: John Locke and his Adversaries |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1980 |___location=Cambridge |isbn= 978-0521271400|oclc=9990099}}
* {{Cite book |first=Jeremy |last=Waldron |author-link=Jeremy Waldron |year=2002 |title=God, Locke, and Equality: Christian Foundations in Locke's Political Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=Cambridge |isbn=978-0521890571}}
* {{cite book |last=Yolton |first=John W. |author-link=John W. Yolton |title=John Locke: Problems and Perspectives |editor=John W. Yolton |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1969 |___location=Cambridge |isbn= 978-0521073493|oclc=35944}}
* {{cite book |last=Yolton |first=John W. |author-link=John W. Yolton |title=A Locke Dictionary |publisher=Blackwell |year=1993 |___location=Oxford |isbn= 978-0631175476|oclc=26934829}}
* {{cite book |last=Zuckert |first=Michael |title=Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy |publisher=University Press of Kansas |year= 2002|___location=Lawrence |isbn= 978-0700611737}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{
===Works===
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/john-locke}}
* [http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/category/academic/series/philosophy/cwjlw.do The Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke]
* [http://repub.eur.nl/pub/11839/Locke_-_Of_the_Conduct_of_the_Understanding.pdf ''Of the Conduct of the Understanding'']
* {{Gutenberg author |id=2447| name=John Locke}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=John Locke}}
* {{Librivox author |id=4362}}
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&author=Locke,%20John Work by John Locke] at Online Books
* ''The Works of John Locke''
** [http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/locke/index.html 1823 Edition, 10 volumes on PDF files, and additional resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810221821/http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/locke/index.html |date=10 August 2007 }}
* [http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/index.html John Locke Manuscripts] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091013051930/http%3A//www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/mss/index.html |date=13 October 2009 }}
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ Updated versions of ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding'', ''Second Treatise of Government'', ''Letter on Toleration'' and ''Conduct of the Understanding''], edited (i.e. modernised and abridged) by [[Jonathan Bennett (philosopher)|Jonathan Bennett]]
===Resources===
* {{cite IEP |url-id=locke |title=John Locke}}
* {{cite IEP |url-id=locke-ep |title=John Locke: Epistemology}}
* {{cite IEP |url-id=locke-po |title=John Locke: Political Philosophy}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=locke-freedom |title=Locke on Freedom |last=Rickless |first=Samuel}}
* [http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/ John Locke Bibliography] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091013052054/http://www.libraries.psu.edu/tas/locke/ |date=13 October 2009 }}
* [http://www.lockestudies.org/ Locke Studies An Annual Journal of Locke Research] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513232236/http://www.lockestudies.org/ |date=13 May 2015 }}
* {{Citation |url=http://thegreatdebate.org.uk/LockeEpistem.html |title=John Locke's Theory of Knowledge |first=Caspar |last=Hewett |publisher=The great debate |place=UK}}.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.digitallockeproject.nl/ |title=The Digital Locke Project |place=[[Netherlands|NL]] |access-date=27 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101064838/http://www.digitallockeproject.nl/ |archive-date=1 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp02773 |title=Portraits of Locke |publisher=NPG |place=UK |access-date=18 April 2007 |archive-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524054045/http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp02773 |url-status=dead }}.
* {{Citation |url=http://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_01_4_huyler.pdf |title=Was Locke a Liberal? |first=Jerome |last=Huyler |publisher=Independent |access-date=2 August 2008 |archive-date=26 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326033812/http://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_01_4_huyler.pdf |url-status=dead }}, a complex and positive answer.
* {{cite journal |last=Kraynak |first=Robert P. |title=John Locke: from absolutism to toleration |journal=[[American Political Science Review]] |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=53–69 |doi=10.2307/1955646 |jstor=1955646 |date=March 1980 |s2cid=146901427 }}
{{Navboxes
| title=Articles and topics related to John Locke
| state=collapsed
| list1=
{{Age of Enlightenment}}
{{Liberalism}}
{{Metaphysics}}
{{Epistemology}}
{{Property navbox}}
{{Political philosophy}}
{{Philosophy of education}}
{{American Revolutionary War|Origins}}
}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Locke, John}}
[[Category:John Locke| ]]
[[
[[
[[Category:17th-century English male writers]]
[[Category:17th-century English medical doctors]]
[[Category:17th-century English philosophers]]
[[Category:17th-century English writers]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford]]
[[Category:Anglican philosophers]]
[[Category:British expatriates in the Dutch Republic]]
[[Category:British critics of atheism]]
[[Category:Classical liberalism]]
[[Category:Empiricists]]
[[Category:English Anglicans]]
[[Category:English Christian theologians]]
[[Category:English political philosophers]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:Epistemologists]]
[[Category:Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Metaphysicians]]
[[Category:People educated at Westminster School, London]]
[[Category:People from Epping Forest District]]
[[Category:People from Wrington]]
[[Category:People of the Rye House Plot]]
[[Category:English philosophers of language]]
[[Category:British philosophers of law]]
[[Category:Philosophers of education]]
| |||