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{{Short description|Modern syncretic pagan religion}}
{{About|the duotheistic religion|other uses}}
{{Redirect|Wiccan|the Marvel Comics character|Wiccan (character)}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2012}}
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[[File:Wiccan Jewellery.JPG|alt=|thumb|Wiccan jewellery, showing a [[pentacle]] necklace, a pentacle ring, and a [[torc]]. A pentacle is used by many adherents of Wicca. The pentacle is generally placed on a Wiccan altar to honour the elements and directions.]]
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'''Wicca''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ˈ|w|ɪ|k|ə}}), also known as "'''The Craft'''",{{sfn|Adler|2005|p=10}} is a [[Modern paganism|modern pagan]], [[syncretic]], [[Earth religion|Earth-centred]] [[religion]]. Considered a [[new religious movement]] by [[Religious studies|scholars of religion]], the path evolved from [[Western esotericism]], developed in [[England]] during the first half of the 20th century, and was [[Witchcraft Today|introduced to the public]] in 1954 by [[Gerald Gardner]], a retired British [[civil servant]]. Wicca draws upon [[paganism|ancient pagan]] and [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|20th-century Hermetic]] [[motif (folkloristics)|motif]]s for [[theology|theological]] and [[ritual]] purposes. [[Doreen Valiente]] joined Gardner in the 1950s, further building Wicca's liturgical tradition of beliefs, principles, and practices, disseminated through published books as well as secret written and oral teachings passed along to [[Initiation|initiates]].
Many variations of the religion have grown and evolved over time, associated with a number of diverse lineages, [[sect]]s, and [[Religious denomination|denominations]], referred to as ''traditions'', each with its own [[organisational structure]] and level of [[centralisation]]. Given its broadly decentralised nature, disagreements arise over the boundaries that define Wicca. Some traditions, collectively referred to as British Traditional Wicca (BTW), strictly follow the initiatory lineage of Gardner and consider ''Wicca'' specific to similar traditions, excluding newer, [[#Eclectic Wicca|eclectic]] traditions. Other traditions, as well as scholars of religion, apply ''Wicca'' as a broad term for a religion with denominations that differ on some key points but share core beliefs and practices.
Wicca is typically [[duotheism|duotheistic]], venerating both a goddess and a god, traditionally conceived as the [[Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)|Triple Goddess]] and the [[Horned God]], respectively. These deities may be regarded in a [[henotheism|henotheistic]] way, as having many different divine aspects which can be identified with various pagan deities from different historical pantheons. For this reason, they are sometimes referred to as the "Great Goddess" and the "Great Horned God", with the [[honorific]] "great" connoting a personification containing many other deities within their own nature. Some Wiccans refer to the goddess as "Lady" and the god as "Lord" to invoke their [[divinity]]. These two deities are sometimes viewed as facets of a universal [[pantheism|pantheistic]] divinity, regarded as an impersonal force rather than a personal deity. Other traditions of Wicca embrace [[polytheism]], [[pantheism]], [[monism]], and [[Goddess movement|Goddess monotheism]].
Wiccan celebrations encompass both the [[lunar phase|cycles of the Moon]], known as [[Esbat]]s and commonly associated with the Triple Goddess, alongside the cycles of the Sun, seasonally based festivals known as [[Wheel of the Year|Sabbat]]s and commonly associated with the Horned God. The [[Wiccan Rede]] is a popular expression of Wiccan morality, often with respect to the [[Ceremonial magic|ritual practice of magic]].
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Terminology==
{{See also|Modern paganism and New Age}}
===Definition===
Scholars of [[religious studies]] classify Wicca as a [[new religious movement]],{{sfnm|1a1=Hanegraaff|1y=1996|1p=87|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=5}} and more specifically as a form of modern paganism.{{sfnm|1a1=Crowley|1y=1998|1p=170|2a1=Pearson|2y=2002|2p=44|3a1=Doyle White|3y=2016|3p=2}} Wicca has been cited as the largest,{{sfnm|1a1=Strmiska|1y=2005|1p=47|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2010|2p=185}} best known,{{sfnm|1a1=Strmiska|1y=2005|1p=2|2a1=Rountree|2y=2015|2p=4}} most influential,{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=185}} and most academically studied form of modern paganism.{{sfn|Strmiska|2005|p=2}} It is an [[Modern paganism#Eclectic and reconstructive|eclectic religion]], as opposed to [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstructionist paganism]].{{sfnm|1a1=Strmiska|1y=2005|1p=21|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=7}}
Several academics also categorise Wicca as a [[nature religion]], a term embraced by many Wiccans,{{sfnm|1a1=Greenwood|1y=1998|1pp=101, 102|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=8}} and as a [[mystery religion]].{{sfnm|1a1=Ezzy|1y=2002|1p=117|2a1=Hutton|2y=2002|2p=172}} But because Wicca also incorporates the practice of [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]], several scholars have referred to it as a "magico-religion".{{sfnm|1a1=Orion|1y=1994|1p=6|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=5}} Wicca is also a form of [[Western esotericism]], and more specifically a part of the esoteric current known as [[occultism]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=8}} Academics like [[Wouter Hanegraaff]] and [[Tanya Luhrmann]] have categorised Wicca as part of the [[New Age]], although other academics, and many Wiccans themselves, dispute this.{{sfnm|1a1=Pearson|1y=1998|1p=45|2a1=Ezzy|2y=2003|2pp=49–50}}
Although recognised as a religion by academics, some [[Evangelical Christianity|evangelical Christians]] have attempted to deny it legal recognition as such, while some Wiccans themselves eschew the term "religion", associating it purely with [[organised religion]], and instead favour "[[spirituality]]" or "way of life".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=5}} Wicca is distinct from other forms of contemporary paganism, but there has been "cross-fertilization" between these different faiths. Wicca has both influenced and been influenced by other pagan religions, making clear-cut distinctions more difficult for religious studies scholars.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=7}} In Wicca, [[Religious denomination|denomination]]s are referred to as ''traditions'',{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=5}} while non-Wiccans are often termed ''cowans''.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=1}}
===Names===
{{Main|Etymology of Wicca}}
When the religion first came to public attention, its followers commonly called it "Witchcraft".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=4}}{{efn|Scholars of contemporary Paganism usually capitalise "Witchcraft" when referring to Wicca, reflecting that the names of religion are typically capitalised.{{sfn|Rountree|2015|p=19}} Many Wiccan practitioners also do the same.{{sfn|Crowley|1998|p=171}} }} [[Gerald Gardner]]—the man regarded as the "Father of Wicca"—called it the "Craft of the Wise", "Witchcraft", and "the [[Witch-cult hypothesis|Witch-cult]]" during the 1950s.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=188}} Gardner believed in [[Witch-cult hypothesis|the theory]] that persecuted witches had actually been followers of a surviving pagan religion, but this theory has been disproved.{{sfn|Hutton|2017|p=121}} There is no evidence that he ever called it "Wicca", although he did call its community of followers "the Wica" (with one ''c'').{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=188}} As a name for the religion, "Wicca" developed in Britain during the 1960s.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=5}} It is not known who first used this name for the religion, although one possibility is that it was Gardner's rival [[Charles Cardell]], who was calling it the "Craft of the Wiccens" by 1958.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=190}} The first recorded use of the name "Wicca" was in 1962,{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|pp=191–192}} and it had been popularised to the extent that several British practitioners founded a newsletter called ''The Wiccan'' in 1968.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=193}}
Although pronounced differently, the modern English name "Wicca" is borrowed from the [[Old English]] ''[[:wikt:wicca|wicca]]'' {{IPA|ang|ˈwittʃɑ|}} and ''[[:wikt:wicce|wicce]]'' {{IPA|ang|ˈwittʃe|}}, respectively the [[Masculine (grammar)|masculine]] and [[Feminine (grammar)|feminine]] terms for certain kinds of magic-workers in [[Anglo-Saxon England]].{{sfnm|1a1=Morris|1y=1969|1p=1548|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2010|2p=187|3a1=Doyle White|3y=2016|3pp=4–5}} It is the origin of the word [[Witch (word)|witch]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cantrell |first1=Gary |title=Wiccan Beliefs & Practices: With Rituals for Solitaries & Covens |date=2001 |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide |isbn=1567181120 |page=7}}</ref> By adopting this Old English term for modern usage, Wiccans were both symbolically linking themselves to the ancient, pre-Christian past{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=187}} and adopting a self-designation less controversial than "Witchcraft".{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=195}} The scholar of religion and Wiccan priestess Joanne Pearson noted that while "the words 'witch' and 'wicca' are therefore linked etymologically, [...] they are used to emphasize different things today".{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=146}}
In early sources, "Wicca" referred to the whole of the religion rather than to a specific tradition.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=194}} In following decades, members of certain traditions—those known as [[British Traditional Wicca]]—began claiming that only they should be called "Wiccan", and that other traditions must not use it.{{sfnm|1a1=Doyle White|1y=2010|1pp=196–197|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=5}} From the late 1980s onward, books about Wicca again used the former, broader meaning of the word.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|pp=197–198}} Thus, by the 1980s, there were two competing definitions of the word "Wicca" in use among the pagan and esoteric communities: one broad and inclusive, the other narrow and exclusionary.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=5}} Among scholars of [[pagan studies]], the older, broader, and inclusive meaning is preferred.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=5}}
Alongside "Wicca", some practitioners still call the religion "Witchcraft" or "the Craft".{{sfnm|1a1=Pearson|1y=2001|1p=52|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2pp=1–2}} Using the word "Witchcraft" in this context can result in confusion with other, non-religious meanings of "witchcraft" as well as other religions—such as [[Satanism]] and [[Luciferianism]]—whose practitioners also sometimes call themselves "Witches".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=4}} Another term sometimes used as a synonym for "Wicca" is "Pagan witchcraft",{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=4}} although other forms of modern paganism—such as types of [[Heathenry (new religious movement)|Heathenry]]—also use the term "Pagan witchcraft".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=4, 198}} From the 1990s onward, some Wiccans began calling themselves "[[Neopagan witchcraft|Traditional Witches]]", although this term was also used by practitioners of other [[magico-religious]] traditions like Luciferianism.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|pp=199–201}} In some popular culture, such as television programs ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series)|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Charmed]]'', the word "Wicca" has been used as a synonym for witchcraft more generally, including in non-religious and non-pagan forms.{{sfn|Doyle White|2010|p=199}}
Practitioners call themselves Wiccans, witches, or pagan witches. The terms ''wizard'' and ''warlock'' are discouraged.{{sfn|Harvey|2007|p=36}}
==Beliefs==
===Theology===
{{Main|Wiccan views of divinity}}
[[Theology|Theological]] views within Wicca are diverse.{{sfnm|1a1=Pearson|1y=1998|1p=49|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=86}} The religion encompasses [[theism|theists]], [[atheism|atheists]], and [[agnosticism|agnostics]], with some viewing the religion's deities as entities with a literal existence and others viewing them as [[Jungian archetypes]] or symbols.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=86}} Even among theistic Wiccans, there are divergent beliefs, and Wicca includes [[pantheism|pantheists]], [[monotheism|monotheists]], [[duotheism|duotheists]], and [[polytheism|polytheists]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=86–87}} Common to these divergent perspectives, however, is that Wicca's deities are viewed as forms of ancient, pre-Christian divinities by its practitioners.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=87}}
====Duotheism====
[[File:Horned God and Mother Goddess (Doreen Valiente's Altar).jpg|thumb|right|Altar statues of the [[Horned God]] and [[Mother goddess|Mother Goddess]] crafted by Bel Bucca and owned by the "Mother of Wicca", [[Doreen Valiente]]]]
Most early Wiccan groups adhered to the duotheistic worship of a [[Horned God]] and a [[Mother Goddess]], and practitioners of Wicca typically believe that they were the ancient deities that were worshipped by the [[hunter-gatherer]]s who lived during the [[Palaeolithic|Old Stone Age]], and according to practitioners of Wicca, the veneration of these deities was secretly passed down to the present day in the form of rites.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=86}} This theology derived from Egyptologist Margaret Murray's claims about the [[Witch-cult hypothesis|witch-cult]] in her book ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' published by Oxford University Press in 1921;{{sfn|Murray|1921}} she claimed that this cult had venerated a Horned God at the time of the Early Modern witch trials, but centuries before it had also worshipped a Mother Goddess.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=87}} This duotheistic Horned God/Mother Goddess structure was embraced by Gardner—who claimed that it had Stone Age roots—and remains the underlying theological basis of his Gardnerian tradition.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=87–88}} Gardner claimed that the names of these deities should be kept secret within the tradition, but in 1964, they were publicly revealed to be Cernunnos and Aradia; the secret names of the Gardnerian deities were subsequently changed.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=91}}
Although different Wiccans attribute different traits to the Horned God, he is most frequently associated with animals and the natural world, but he is also associated with the afterlife, and he is also viewed as an ideal role model for men.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=88}} The Mother Goddess has been associated with life, fertility, and the springtime, and has been described as an ideal role model for women.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=89}} Wicca's duotheism has been compared to the [[Taoism|Taoist]] system of [[yin and yang]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=87}}
Other Wiccans have adopted the original Gardnerian God/Goddess duotheistic structure but have also adopted deity forms other than those of the Horned God and the Mother Goddess.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=89–90}} For instance, the God has been called the [[Oak King]] and the [[Holly King (archetype)|Holly King]], as well as the Sun God, the Son/Lover God, and the Vegetation God.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=90}} He has also been seen in the roles of the [[Wild Hunt#Leader of the Wild Hunt|Leader of the Wild Hunt]] and the Lord of Death.{{sfn|Pearson|2005}} The Goddess is often portrayed as a [[Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)|Triple Goddess]], thereby being a triadic deity that consists of a Maiden goddess, a [[Mother goddess]], and a Crone goddess, each of whom has different associations, namely virginity, fertility, and wisdom.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=90}}{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1987|pp=29–37}} Other Wiccan conceptualisations have portrayed her as a [[lunar deity|Moon Goddess]] and a Menstruating Goddess.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=90}} According to the anthropologist Susan Greenwood, in Wicca, the Goddess is "a symbol of self-transformation—she is seen to be constantly changing and a force for change for those who open themselves up to her".{{sfn|Greenwood|1998|p=103}}
====Monotheism and polytheism====
Gardner stated that beyond Wicca's two deities was the "Supreme Deity" or "[[unmoved mover|Prime Mover]]", an entity that was too complex for humans to understand.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=92}} This belief has been endorsed by other practitioners, who have referred to it as "the Cosmic [[Logos]]", "Supreme Cosmic Power", or "[[Deity|Godhead]]".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=92}} Gardner envisioned this Supreme Deity as a [[deism|deist]] entity who had created the "Under-Gods", among them the God and Goddess, but who was not otherwise involved in the world; alternately, other Wiccans have interpreted such an entity as a pantheistic being, of whom the God and Goddess are facets.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=92–93}}
[[File:Horned God.JPG|upright|thumb|right|Sculpture of the [[Horned God]] of Wicca found in the [[Museum of Witchcraft]] in [[Boscastle]], [[Cornwall]]]]
Although Gardner criticised monotheism, citing the [[Problem of Evil]],{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=92}} explicitly monotheistic forms of Wicca developed in the 1960s, when the U.S.-based Church of Wicca developed a theology rooted in the worship of what they described as "one deity, without gender".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=93}} In the 1970s, [[Dianic]] Wiccan groups developed which were devoted to a singular, monotheistic Goddess; this approach was often criticised by members of British Traditional Wiccan groups, who lambasted such Goddess [[monotheism]] as an inverted imitation of Christian theology.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=94}} As in other forms of Wicca, some Goddess monotheists have expressed the view that the Goddess is not an entity with a literal existence but a Jungian archetype.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=95}}
As well as pantheism and [[duotheism]], many Wiccans accept the concept of [[polytheism]], thereby believing that there are many different [[deities]]. Some take the view espoused by the occultist [[Dion Fortune]] that "all gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess" – that is that the gods and goddesses of all cultures are, respectively, aspects of one supernal God and Goddess. With this mindset, a Wiccan may regard the Germanic [[Ēostre]], [[Hindu]] [[Kali]], and [[Catholic]] [[Virgin Mary]] each as manifestations of one supreme Goddess and likewise, the [[Celtic deities|Celtic]] [[Cernunnos]], the ancient Greek [[Dionysus]] and the Judeo-Christian [[Yahweh]] as aspects of a single, archetypal god. A more strictly [[polytheism|polytheistic]] approach holds the various goddesses and gods as separate entities in their own right. The Wiccan writers [[Janet Farrar]] and [[Gavin Bone]] have postulated that Wicca is becoming more polytheistic as it matures, tending to embrace a more traditionally pagan worldview.{{sfn|Farrar|Bone|2004}} Some Wiccans conceive of deities not as literal personalities but as metaphorical [[archetype]]s or [[thoughtform]]s, thereby technically allowing them to be [[atheism|atheists]].{{sfn|Adler|1979|pp=25, 34–35}} Such a view is held by the High Priestess [[Vivianne Crowley]], herself a [[psychologist]], who considered the Wiccan deities to be [[Jungian archetypes]] that existed within the subconscious that could be evoked in ritual. It was for this reason she said, "The Goddess and God manifest to us in dream and vision."<ref>{{cite book |last=Crowley |first=Vivianne |author-link=Vivianne Crowley |title=Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Millennium |publisher=Thorsons |___location=London |page=129 |year=1996 |isbn=0-7225-3271-7 |oclc=34190941}}</ref>
Wiccans often believe that the gods are not perfect and can be argued with.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=52}}
Many Wiccans also adopt a more explicitly polytheistic or [[animism|animistic]] worldview of the universe as replete with spirit beings.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=95–96}} In many cases, these spirits are associated with the natural world, for instance, as ''[[genius loci]]'', [[fairies]], and [[elementals]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=96}} In other cases, such beliefs are more idiosyncratic and atypical; Wiccan [[Sybil Leek]], for instance, endorsed a belief in [[angel]]s.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=96}}
===Afterlife===
[[File:Wiccan altar for Beltane in Wales.png|thumb|A Wiccan altar decorated to mark the festival of [[Beltane]] (30 April/1 May)]]
Belief in the afterlife varies among Wiccans and does not occupy a central place.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=146}} As the historian [[Ronald Hutton]] remarked, "the instinctual position of most [Wiccans] ... seems to be that if one makes the most of the present life, in all respects, then the next life is more or less certainly going to benefit from the process, and so one may as well concentrate on the present".{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p=393}} It is nevertheless a common belief among Wiccans that human beings have a spirit or soul that survives bodily death.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=146}} Understandings of what this soul constitutes vary among different traditions, with the Feri tradition of witchcraft, for instance, having adopted a belief from the Theosophy-inspired [[Huna (New Age)|Huna movement]], [[Kabbalah]], and other sources, that the human being has three souls.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=146}}
Although not accepted by all Wiccans, a belief in [[reincarnation]] is the dominant afterlife belief within Wicca, having been espoused initially by Gardner.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=146}} Understandings of how the cycle of reincarnation operates differ among practitioners; Wiccan [[Raymond Buckland]], for instance, insisted that human souls would only incarnate into human bodies, whereas other Wiccans believe that a human soul can incarnate into any life form.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=147}} There is also a common Wiccan belief that any Wiccans will come to be reincarnated as future Wiccans, an idea originally expressed by Gardner.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=147}} Gardner also articulated the view that the human soul rested for a period between bodily death and its incarnation, with this resting place commonly being referred to as "[[The Summerland]]" among the Wiccan community.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=146}} This allows many Wiccans to believe that [[Mediumship|mediums]] can contact the spirits of the deceased, a belief adopted from [[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualism]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=146}}
===Magic and spellcraft===
[[File:Wiccan Altar.png|thumb|Wiccan altar set with vintage pieces of green and brown calcite onyx]]
Many Wiccans believe in [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], a manipulative force exercised through the practice of "[[spellcraft]]".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunwich |first1=Gerina |author1-link=Gerina Dunwich |title=The A–Z of Wicca |date=1998 |publisher=Boxtree |page=120}}</ref> Many Wiccans agree with the definition of magic offered by [[ceremonial magic]]ians,{{sfn|Valiente|1973|p=231}} such as [[Aleister Crowley]], who declared that magic was "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will", while another ceremonial magician, [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers|MacGregor Mathers]] stated that it was "the science of the control of the secret forces of nature".{{sfn|Valiente|1973|p=231}} Many Wiccans believe magic to be a law of nature, as yet misunderstood or disregarded by contemporary science,{{sfn|Valiente|1973|p=231}} and as such they do not view it as being [[supernatural]], but a part of what [[Leo Martello]] calls the "super powers that reside in the natural".{{sfn|Adler|1979|pp=158–159}} Some Wiccans believe that magic is simply making full use of the five senses to achieve surprising results,{{sfn|Adler|1979|pp=158–159}} whilst other Wiccans do not claim to know how magic works, merely believing that it does because they believe they have observed it to be so.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|pp=394–395}}
During ritual practices, which are often staged in a [[sacred circle]], Wiccans cast [[spell (paranormal)|spells]] or "workings" intended to bring about real changes in the physical world. Common Wiccan spells include those used for [[energy medicine|healing]], protection, fertility, or to banish negative influences.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|pp=250–265}} Many early Wiccans, such as [[Alex Sanders (Wiccan)|Alex Sanders]], [[Sybil Leek]] and Alex Winfield, referred to their own magic as "[[magic (paranormal)|white magic]]", which contrasted with "[[black magic]]", which they associated with [[evil]] and [[Satanism]]. Sanders also used the similar terminology of "[[left-hand path]]" to describe malevolent magic, and "[[right-hand path]]" to describe magic performed with good intentions;<ref>{{cite book |first=Alex |last=Sanders |author-link=Alex Sanders (Wiccan) |title=The Alex Sanders Lectures |publisher=Magickal Childe |year=1984 |isbn=0-939708-05-1}}</ref> terminology that had originated with the occultist [[Helena Blavatsky]] in the 19th century. Some modern Wiccans, however, have stopped using the white/black magic and left/right-hand-path dichotomies, arguing, for instance, that the color [[black]] should not necessarily have any associations with evil.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|p=321}}
Scholars of religion [[Rodney Stark]] and [[William Sims Bainbridge|William Bainbridge]] claimed in 1985 that Wicca had "reacted to [[secularisation]] by a headlong plunge back into magic" and that it was a reactionary religion which would soon die out. This view was heavily criticised in 1999 by the historian [[Ronald Hutton]], who claimed that the evidence displayed the very opposite: that "a large number [of Wiccans] were in jobs at the cutting edge [of scientific culture], such as computer technology".{{sfn|Hutton|1999}}
===Witchcraft===
{{Quote box
| width = 25em
| align = right
| quote = Identification as a witch can[…] provide a link to those persecuted and executed in the Great Witch Hunt, which can then be remembered as a holocaust against women, a repackaging of history that implies conscious victimization and the appropriation of 'holocaust' as a badge of honour—'gendercide rather than genocide'. An elective identification with the image of the witch during the time of the persecutions is commonly regarded as part of the reclamation of female power, a myth that is used by modern feminist witches as an aid in their struggle for freedom from patriarchal oppression.
| source = — Religious studies scholar Joanne Pearson{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=164}}
}}
Historian [[Wouter Hanegraaff]] noted that the Wiccan view of witchcraft was "an outgrowth of Romantic (semi)scholarship", especially the [[witch-cult hypothesis|'witch cult' theory]].{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=303}} It proposed that historically alleged witches were actually followers of a surviving pagan religion and that accusations of infanticide, cannibalism, Satanism, etc., were either made up by the [[Inquisition]] or were misunderstandings of pagan rites.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=304}} This theory that accused witches were actually pagans has now been disproven using archive records of witch trials.{{sfn|Hutton|2017|p=121}} Nevertheless, Gardner and other founders of Wicca believed the theory was true and saw the witch as a "''positive antitype'' which derives much of its symbolic force from its implicit criticism of dominant Judaeo-Christian and Enlightenment values".{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=304}}
Pearson suggested that Wiccans "identify with the witch because she is imagined as powerful - she can make people sleep for one hundred years, she can see the future, she can curse and kill as well as heal{{nbsp}}... and of course, she can turn people into frogs!"{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=163}} Pearson says that Wicca "provides a framework in which the image of oneself as a witch can be explored and brought into a modern context".{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=167}}
Identifying as a witch also enables Wiccans to link themselves with those persecuted in the witch trials of the Early Modern period, often referred to by Wiccans as "the Burning Times".{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|pp=163–164}} Various practitioners have claimed that as many as nine million people were executed as witches in the Early Modern period, thus drawing comparisons with the killing of six million Jews in the [[Holocaust]] and presenting themselves, as modern witches, as "persecuted minorities".{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=163}}
===Morality===
{{Main|Wiccan morality}}
{{Quote box
| width = 246px
| align = right
| quote = Bide the Wiccan laws ye must, in perfect love and perfect trust ...
Mind the Threefold Law ye should – three times bad and three times good ...
Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill – an it harm none, do what ye will.
| source = [[Lady Gwen Thompson]]<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rede of the Wiccae |publisher=Olympian Press |___location=Providence |first1=Robert |last1=Mathiesin |author2=Theitic |pages=60–61 |date=2005 |isbn=0-9709013-1-3}}</ref>
}}
Wicca has been characterised as a life-affirming religion.{{sfn|Samuel|1998|p=128}} Practitioners typically present themselves as "a positive force against the powers of destruction which threaten the world".{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=306}}
There exists no [[dogma]]tic [[moral]] or [[ethics|ethical code]] followed universally by Wiccans of all traditions. However, a majority follow a code known as the [[Wiccan Rede]], which states, "an it harm none, do what ye will". This is usually interpreted as a declaration of the freedom to act and the necessity of taking responsibility for what follows from one's actions and minimising harm to oneself and others.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.draknet.com/proteus/rede.htm |title=Exegesis on the ''Rede'' |journal=[[Harvest (Neopagan magazine)|Harvest]] |author-link=Judy Harrow |first=Judy |last=Harrow |volume=5 |issue=3 |date=1985 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514030732/http://www.draknet.com/proteus/rede.htm |archive-date=14 May 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Another common element of Wiccan morality is the [[Rule of Three (Wicca)|Law of Threefold Return]] which holds that whatever benevolent or malevolent actions a person performs will return to that person with triple force, or with equal force on each of the three levels of body, mind, and spirit,<ref>Lembke, Karl (2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20050508032805/http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usca&c=words&id=3801 ''The Threefold Law''].</ref> similar to the eastern idea of [[karma]]. The Wiccan Rede was most likely introduced into Wicca by Gerald Gardner and formalised publicly by [[Doreen Valiente]], one of his High Priestesses. The Threefold Law was an interpretation of Wiccan ideas and ritual, made by [[Monique Wilson (Wiccan)|Monique Wilson]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Luthaneal |title=The Book of Mirrors |year=2011 |publisher=Capall Bann |___location=UK |isbn=978-1-86163-325-5 |page=218 }}</ref> and further popularized by [[Raymond Buckland]], in his books on Wicca.{{sfn|Buckland|1986|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fAED7p4stxwC&pg=PT10 Preface to the Second Edition]}}
Many Wiccans also seek to cultivate a set of eight virtues mentioned in [[Doreen Valiente]]'s ''[[Charge of the Goddess]]'',{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1992}} these being mirth, reverence, honour, humility, strength, beauty, power, and compassion. In Valiente's poem, they are ordered in pairs of complementary opposites, reflecting a [[Dualistic cosmology|dualism]] that is common throughout Wiccan philosophy. Some lineaged Wiccans also observe a set of [[Wiccan Laws]], commonly called the ''Craft Laws'' or ''Ardanes'', 30 of which exist in the Gardnerian tradition and 161 in the Alexandrian tradition. Valiente, one of Gardner's original High Priestesses, argued that Gerald Gardner likely invented the first thirty rules in mock-archaic language as the by-product of inner conflict within his Bricket Wood coven.{{sfn|Valiente|1989|pp=70–71}}{{sfn|Hutton|1999|}}
In British Traditional Wicca, "sex complementarity is a basic and fundamental working principle", with men and women being seen as a necessary presence to balance each other out.{{sfn|Greenwood|1998|p=105}} This may have derived from Gardner's interpretation of Murray's claim that the ancient witch-cult was a fertility religion.{{sfn|Greenwood|1998|p=105}} Thus, many practitioners of British Traditional Wicca have argued that gay men and women are not capable of correctly working magic without mixed-sex pairings.{{sfn|Greenwood|1998|p=106}}
Although Gerald Gardner initially demonstrated an aversion to [[Homosexuality and Wicca|homosexuality]], claiming that it brought down "the curse of the goddess",{{sfn|Gardner|2004|pp=69, 75}} it is now generally accepted in all traditions of Wicca, with groups such as the Minoan Brotherhood openly basing their philosophy upon it.{{sfn|Adler|1979|pp=130–131}} Nonetheless, a variety of viewpoints exist in Wicca around this point, with some covens adhering to a hetero-normative viewpoint. Carly B. Floyd of Illinois Wesleyan University has published an informative white paper on this subject: ''[https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/socanth_honproj/56/ Mother Goddesses and Subversive Witches: Competing Narratives of Gender Essentialism, Heteronormativity, Feminism, and Queerness in Wiccan Theology and Ritual].''
The scholar of religion Joanne Pearson noted that in her experience, most Wiccans take a "realistic view of living in the real world" replete with its many problems and do not claim that the gods "have all the answers" to these.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=47}} She suggested that Wiccans do not claim to seek perfection but instead "wholeness" or "completeness", which includes an acceptance of traits like anger, weakness, and pain.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=49}} She contrasted the Wiccan acceptance of an "interplay between light and dark" against the New Age focus on "white light".{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=48}} Similarly, the scholar of religion Geoffrey Samuel noted that Wiccans devote "a perhaps surprising amount of attention to darkness and death".{{sfn|Samuel|1998|p=128}}
Many Wiccans are involved in environmentalist campaigns.{{sfn|Crowley|1998|p=178}}
===Five elements===
[[File:Five elements and pentagram.svg|thumb|right|Five elements with pentacle]]
Many traditions hold a belief in the five [[classical element]]s, although they are seen as symbolic representations of the [[phase (matter)|phases of matter]]. These five elements are invoked during many magical rituals, notably when consecrating a [[magic circle]]. The five elements are [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], and [[Aether (classical element)|aether]] (or spirit), where aether unites the other four elements.<ref>{{cite book |title=Creating Circles & Ceremonies |publisher=New Page Books |___location=[[Franklin Lakes, New Jersey|Franklin Lakes]] |first=Oberon |last=Zell-Ravenheart |author2=Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory |year=2006 |page=42 |isbn=1-56414-864-5 }}</ref> Various analogies have been devised to explain the concept of the five elements; for instance, the Wiccan [[Ann-Marie Gallagher]] used that of a tree, which is composed of the earth (with the soil and plant matter), water (sap and moisture), fire (through [[photosynthesis]]) and air (the formation of [[oxygen]] from [[carbon dioxide]]), all of which are believed to be united through spirit.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|pp=77, 78}}
Traditionally, in the Gardnerian Craft, each element has been associated with a cardinal point of the compass: air with the east, fire with the south, water with the west, earth with the north, and the spirit with the center.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005}} However, some Wiccans, such as [[Frederic Lamond (Wiccan)|Frederic Lamond]], have claimed that the set cardinal points are only those applicable to the geography of southern England, where Wicca evolved, and that Wiccans should determine which directions best suit each element in their region. For instance, those living on the east coast of [[North America]] should invoke water in the east and not the west because the colossal body of water, the [[Atlantic Ocean]], is to their east.{{sfn|Lamond|2004|pp=88-89}} Other Craft groups have associated the elements with different cardinal points; for instance [[Robert Cochrane (witch)|Robert Cochrane]]'s Clan of Tubal Cain associated earth with south, fire with east, water with west and air with north,{{sfn|Valiente|1989|p=124}} and each of which was controlled over by a different deity who were seen as children of the primary Horned God and Goddess. The five elements are symbolised by the five points of the [[pentagram]], the most-used symbol of Wicca.{{sfn|Valiente|1973|page=264}}
==Practices==
[[File:Wiccan priestess preaching, USA.PNG|thumb|Wiccan priestess in the United States]]
[[File:Wiccan altar (1).PNG|thumb|A Wiccan altar erected at [[Beltane]]]]
The Wiccan high priestess and journalist [[Margot Adler]] stated that Wiccan rituals were not "dry, formalised, repetitive experiences", but performed with the intent of inducing a [[religious experience]] in the participants, thereby altering their consciousness.{{sfn|Adler|2005|p=164}} She noted that many Wiccans remain skeptical about the existence of the supernatural but remain involved in Wicca because of its ritual experiences: she quoted one as saying that "I love myth, dream, visionary art. The Craft is a place where all of these things fit together – beauty, pageantry, music, dance, song, dream".{{sfn|Adler|2005|p=172}} The Wiccan practitioner and historian [[Aidan Kelly]] wrote that the practices and experiences within Wicca were more important than the beliefs, stating: "it's a religion of ritual rather than theology. The ritual is first; the myth is second".{{sfn|Adler|2005|p=173}} Similarly, Adler stated that Wicca permits "total skepticism about even its own methods, myths and rituals".{{sfn|Adler|2005|p=174}}
The anthropologist Susan Greenwood characterised Wiccan rituals as "a form of resistance to mainstream culture".{{sfn|Greenwood|1998|p=106}} She saw these rituals as "a healing space away from the ills of the wider culture", one in which female practitioners can "redefine and empower themselves".{{sfn|Greenwood|1998|pp=101–102}}
Wiccan rituals usually take place in private.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=305}} The Reclaiming tradition has utilised its rituals for political purposes.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=306}}
Practice in Wicca (including, as an example, matters such as the varying attributions of the elements to different directions discussed in the preceding section) varies widely due to the Craft's emphasis on individual expression in one's spiritual/magical path.<ref>{{cite conference |first=Matt |last=McDermott |date=2023 |url=https://egrove.olemiss.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1104&context=southernanthro_proceedings |title=Casting Your Own Spell: The Role of Individualism in Wiccan Beliefs |conference=Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Southern Anthropological Society |volume=47 |number=1}}</ref>
===
[[File:Athame.JPG|thumb|[[Athame]], ritual knife or dagger used in Wiccan practices]]
{{Main|Magical tools in Wicca}}
Many rituals within Wicca are used when celebrating the [[Wheel of the Year|Sabbat]]s, worshipping the deities, and working magic. Often these take place on a [[full moon]], or in some cases a new moon, which is known as an [[Esbat]]. In typical rites, the coven or solitary assembles inside a ritually cast and purified [[magic circle]]. Casting the circle may involve the [[invocation]] of the "Guardians" of the cardinal points, alongside their respective classical elements; air, fire, water, and earth. Once the circle is cast, a seasonal ritual may be performed, prayers to the God and Goddess are said, and spells are sometimes worked; these may include various forms of 'raising energy', including raising a [[cone of power]] to send healing or other magic to persons outside of the sacred space.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}
In constructing his ritual system, Gardner drew upon older forms of ceremonial magic, in particular, those found in the writings of Aleister Crowley.{{sfn|Pearson|2007|p=5}}
The classical ritual scheme in [[British Traditional Wicca]] traditions is:{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1981}}
# Purification of the sacred space and the participants
# Casting the circle
# Calling of the elemental quarters
# Cone of power
# Drawing down the Gods
# Spellcasting
# Great Rite
# Wine, cakes, chanting, dancing, games
# Farewell to the quarters and participants
These rites often include a special set of [[Magical tools in Wicca|magical tools]]. These usually include a knife called an [[athame]], a [[wand]], a [[pentacle]] and a [[chalice]], but other tools include a broomstick known as a [[Besom broom#In Wicca|besom]], a [[cauldron]], [[candle]]s, [[incense]] and a curved blade known as a [[boline]]. An altar is usually present in the circle, on which ritual tools are placed and representations of the [[God]] and the [[Goddess]] may be displayed.{{sfn|Crowley|1989}} Before entering the circle, some traditions fast for the day, and/or ritually bathe. After a ritual has finished, the God, Goddess, and Guardians are thanked, the directions are dismissed and the circle is closed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bado-Fralick|first=Nikki|date=1998|title=A Turning on the Wheel of Life: Wiccan Rites of Death|url=https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/handle/2022/2491|journal=Folklore Forum|volume=29|pages=22|via=IUScholarWorks}}</ref>
A central aspect of Wicca (particularly in Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca), often sensationalised by the media is the traditional practice of working in the nude, also known as ''[[Skyclad (Neopaganism)|skyclad]]''. Although no longer widely used, this practice seemingly derives from a line in ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches#Influence on Wicca and Stregheria|Aradia]]'', [[Charles Godfrey Leland|Charles Leland]]'s supposed record of Italian witchcraft.<ref>{{cite book |title=Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches |publisher=David Nutt |first=Charles |last=Leland |author-link=Charles Leland |page=7 |year=1899|title-link=Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches }}</ref> Many Wiccans believe that performing rituals skyclad allows "power" to flow from the body in a manner unimpeded by clothes.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=157}} Some also note that it removes signs of social rank and differentiation and thus encourages unity among the practitioners.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=157}} Some Wiccans seek legitimacy for the practice by stating that various ancient societies performed their rituals while nude.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=157}}
One of Wicca's best known liturgical texts is "The [[Charge of the Goddess]]".{{sfn|Pearson|2005}} The most commonly used version used by Wiccans today is the rescension of [[Doreen Valiente]],{{sfn|Pearson|2005}} who developed it from Gardner's version. Gardner's wording of the original "Charge" added extracts from Aleister Crowley's work, including ''[[The Book of the Law]]'', (especially from Ch 1, spoken by Nuit, the Star Goddess) thus linking modern Wicca irrevocably to the principles of [[Thelema]]. Valiente rewrote Gardner's version in verse, keeping the material derived from ''Aradia'', but removing the material from Crowley.{{sfn|Guiley|1999|p=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwi00guil/page/52 52]}}
==
Other traditions wear robes with cords tied around the waist or even normal street clothes. In certain traditions, ritualised [[sex magic]] is performed in the form of the [[Great Rite]], whereby a High Priest and High Priestess invoke the God and Goddess to possess them before performing [[sexual intercourse]] to raise magical energy for use in spellwork. In nearly all cases it is instead performed "in token", thereby merely symbolically, using the athame to symbolise the penis and the chalice to symbolise the womb.{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1984|pp=156–174}}
[[Gerald Gardner]], the man many consider the father of Wicca, believed strongly in sex magic. Much of Gardner's witch practice centered around the power of sex and its liberation, and that one of the most important aspects of the neo-pagan revival has been its ties, not just to sexual liberation, but also to [[feminism]] and women's liberation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Urban |first=Hugh B. |date=2006-10-04 |title=The Goddess and the Great Rite: Sex Magic and Feminism in the Neo-Pagan Revival |chapter=The Goddess and the Great Rite ''Sex'' Magic and Feminism in the Neo-Pagan Revival |pages=162–190 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/california-scholarship-online/book/28586/chapter/238856112 |language=en |doi=10.1525/california/9780520247765.003.0008|isbn=9780520247765 }}</ref>
For some Wiccans, the ritual space is a "space of resistance, in which the sexual morals of Christianity and patriarchy can be subverted", and for this reason they have adopted techniques from the [[BDSM]] subculture into their rituals.{{sfn|Pearson|2005a|p=36}}
Publicly, many Wiccan groups have tended to excise the role of sex magic from their image.{{sfn|Pearson|2005a|p=32}} This has served both to escape the tabloid [[sensationalism]] that has targeted the religion since the 1950s and the concerns surrounding the [[Satanic ritual abuse]] hysteria in the 1980s and 1990s.{{sfn|Pearson|2005a|p=32}}
Some Wiccan Traditions substitute a Communion style rite in honor of the God and Goddess rather than the symbolic Great Rite in their Esbat ritual.
===Wheel of the Year===
[[File:Wheel of the Year.JPG|upright|thumb|right|Painted Wheel of the Year at the [[Museum of Witchcraft]], [[Boscastle]], [[Cornwall]], displaying all eight of the Sabbats]]
{{Main|Wheel of the Year}}
Wiccans celebrate several seasonal festivals of the year, commonly known as [[Sabbats]]. Collectively, these occasions are termed the Wheel of the Year.{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1992}} Most Wiccans celebrate a set of eight of these Sabbats; however, other groups such as those associated with the [[Clan of Tubal Cain]] only follow four. In the rare case of the Ros an Bucca group from [[Cornwall]], only six are adhered to.<ref>{{cite book |title=Traditional Witchcraft: A Cornish Book of Ways |publisher=Troy Books |first=Gemma |last=Gary |page=147 |year=2008 |oclc=935742668}}</ref> The four Sabbats that are common to all British derived groups are the [[cross-quarter day]]s, sometimes referred to as ''Greater Sabbats''. The names of these festivals are in some cases taken from the Old [[Ireland|Irish]] fire festivals and the Welsh God Mabon,<ref>{{cite book |chapter=The Celts |title=Mythology |publisher=Little Brown & Company |___location=New York |first=Emrys |last=Evans |editor1-first=Richard |editor1-last=Cavendish |editor2-first=Trevor O. |editor2-last=Ling |page=170 |year=1992 |isbn=0-316-84763-1}}</ref> though in most traditional Wiccan covens the only commonality with the [[Celts|Celtic]] festival is the name. Gardner himself made use of the English names of these holidays, stating that "the four great Sabbats are [[Candlemas]] {{sic}}, [[May Eve]], [[Lammas]], and [[Halloween]]; the equinoxes and solstices are celebrated also".{{sfn|Gardner|2004|p=10}} In the Egyptologist [[Margaret Murray]]'s ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' (1921) and ''The God of the Witches'' (1933), in which she dealt with what she believed had been a historical [[Witch-cult hypothesis|Witch-Cult]], she stated that the four main festivals had survived Christianisation and had been celebrated in the pagan Witchcraft religion. Subsequently, when Wicca was first developing in the 1930s through to the 1960s, many of the early groups, such as [[Robert Cochrane (witch)|Robert Cochrane]]'s Clan of Tubal Cain and [[Gerald Gardner]]'s [[Bricket Wood coven]] adopted the commemoration of these four Sabbats as described by Murray.{{Citation needed|date=April 2017}}
The other four festivals commemorated by many Wiccans are known as ''Lesser Sabbats''. They are the [[solstice]]s and the [[equinox]]es, and they were only adopted in 1958 by members of the Bricket Wood coven,{{sfn|Lamond|2004|pp=16-17}} before they were subsequently adopted by other followers of the Gardnerian tradition. They were eventually adopted by followers of other traditions like [[Alexandrian Wicca]] and the [[Dianic Wicca|Dianic]] tradition. The names of these holidays that are commonly used today are often taken from [[Germanic paganism|Germanic pagan]] holidays. However, the festivals are not reconstructive in nature nor do they often resemble their historical counterparts, instead, they exhibit a form of [[universalism]]. The rituals that are observed may display cultural influences from the holidays from which they take their names as well as influences from other unrelated cultures.{{sfn|Crowley|1989|p=23}}
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 90%; width: 100%"
|-
!Sabbat
!Northern Hemisphere
!Southern Hemisphere
!Origin of Name
!Associations
|-
|[[Samhain]] a.k.a. [[Calan Gaeaf]]
|31 October to 1 November
|30 April to 1 May
|[[Celtic polytheism]]
|Beginning of [[winter]]; death and the ancestors
|-
|[[Yule]] a.k.a. [[Midwinter]]
|21 or 22 December
|21 June
|[[Germanic paganism]]
|[[Winter solstice]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-20 |title=For Wiccans in Wichita, Yule is a time for reflection and celebration |url=https://kansaspublicradio.org/2024-12-20/winter-solstice-wiccans-wichita-yule-reflection-celebration |access-date=2025-01-02 |website=Kansas Public Radio |language=en}}</ref> and the rebirth of the [[Sun]]
|-
|[[Imbolc]], a.k.a. [[Candlemas]]
|1 or 2 February
|1 August
|[[Celtic polytheism]]
|First signs of [[spring (season)|spring]]
|-
|[[Ēostre|Ostara]]
|21 or 22 March
|21 or 22 September
|[[Germanic paganism]]
|[[March equinox|Vernal equinox]]
|-
|[[Beltane]], a.k.a. [[Calan Mai]] a.k.a. [[May Day]]
|30 April to 1 May
|31 October to 1 November
|[[Celtic polytheism]]
|Beginning of [[summer]]; [[fairy|fairy folk]]{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|p=67}}
|-
|[[Midsummer|Litha]] a.k.a. [[Midsummer]]
|21 or 22 June
|21 December
|[[Early Germanic calendar]]
|[[Summer solstice]]
|-
|[[Lughnasadh]], a.k.a. [[Calan Awst]] a.k.a. [[Lammas]]
|31 July or 1 August
|1 February
|[[Celtic polytheism]]
|[[First fruits]]
|-
|[[Mabon ap Modron|Mabon]]{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|p=72}} a.k.a. Harvest Home
|21 or 22 September
|21 March
|No historical pagan equivalent.
|[[September equinox|Autumnal equinox]]
|}
===Rites of passage===
[[File:Falguiere Diana p1070131.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Bust of [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] wearing a moon crown]]
Various [[rites of passage]] can be found within Wicca. Perhaps the most significant of these is an [[initiation]] ritual, through which somebody joins the Craft and becomes a Wiccan. In [[British Traditional Wicca]]n (BTW) traditions, there is a line of initiatory descent that goes back to [[Gerald Gardner]], and from him is said to go back to the [[New Forest coven]]; however, the existence of this coven remains unproven.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Jacqueline |year=2005 |title=Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America |journal=Folklore |volume=116}}</ref> Gardner himself said that there was a traditional length of "a year and a day" between when a person began studying the Craft and when they were initiated, although he frequently broke this rule with initiates.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}<ref>White, E. D. (2015). ''Wicca : History, belief and community in modern pagan witchcraft''. Liverpool University Press. 24-33. doi: 10.2307/j.ctv3029rcf</ref>
In BTW, initiation only accepts someone into the first degree. To proceed to the second degree, an initiate has to go through another ceremony, in which they name and describe the uses of [[Magical tools in Wicca|the ritual tools and implements]]. It is also at this ceremony that they are given their [[craft name]]. By holding the rank of second degree, a BTW is considered capable of initiating others into the Craft, or founding their own semi-autonomous covens. The third degree is the highest in BTW, and it involves the participation of the [[Great Rite]], either actual or symbolically, and in some cases ritual [[flagellation]], which is a rite often dispensed with due to its sado-masochistic overtones. By holding this rank, an initiate is considered capable of forming covens that are entirely autonomous of their parent coven.{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1984|loc=Chapter II – Second Degree Initiation}}{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1984|loc=Chapter III – Third Degree Initiation}}
According to new-age religious scholar [[James R. Lewis (scholar)|James R. Lewis]], in his book ''Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopaedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions'', a high priestess becomes a queen when she has successfully hived off her first new coven under a new third-degree high priestess (in the orthodox Gardnerian system). She then becomes eligible to wear the "moon crown". The sequence of high priestess and queens traced back to Gerald Gardner is known as a lineage, and every orthodox Gardnerian High Priestess has a set of "lineage papers" proving the authenticity of her status.{{sfn|Lewis|1999||page=[https://archive.org/details/witchcrafttodaye0000lewi/page/238 238]}}
[[File:Paganavebury.jpg|thumb|Handfasting ceremony at [[Avebury]] in England, [[Beltane]] 2005]]
This three-tier degree system following initiation is largely unique to BTW, and traditions heavily based upon it. The [[Cochrane's Craft|Cochranian tradition]], which is not BTW, but based upon the teachings of [[Robert Cochrane (witch)|Robert Cochrane]], does not have the three degrees of initiation, merely having the stages of novice and initiate.
Some solitary Wiccans also perform self-initiation rituals, to dedicate themselves to becoming a Wiccan. The first of these to be published was in [[Paul Huson]]'s ''[[Mastering Witchcraft]]'' (1970), and unusually involved recitation of the [[Lord's Prayer]] backwards as a symbol of defiance against the historical [[Witch-hunt|Witch Hunt]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Mastering Witchcraft: A Practical Guide for Witches, Warlocks and Covens |publisher=Putnum |___location=New York |first=Paul |last=Huson |year=1970 |pages=22–23 |oclc=79263 |isbn=0-595-42006-0}}</ref> Subsequent, more overtly pagan self-initiation rituals have since been published in books designed for solitary Wiccans by authors like [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Scott Cunningham]] and [[Silver RavenWolf]].
[[Handfasting (Neopaganism)|Handfasting]] is another celebration held by Wiccans, and is the commonly used term for their weddings. Some Wiccans observe the practice of a trial marriage for a year and a day, which some traditions hold should be contracted on the Sabbat of Lughnasadh, as this was the traditional time for trial, "[[Telltown]] marriages" among the Irish. A common marriage vow in Wicca is "for as long as love lasts" instead of the traditional Christian "till death do us part".{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|p=370}} The first known Wiccan wedding ceremony took part in 1960 amongst the [[Bricket Wood coven]], between [[Frederic Lamond (Wiccan)|Frederic Lamond]] and his first wife, Gillian.{{sfn|Hutton|1999}}
Infants in Wiccan families may be involved in a ritual called a [[Wiccaning]], which is analogous to a [[Infant baptism|Christening]]. The purpose of this is to present the infant to the God and Goddess for protection. Parents are advised to "give {{interp|their}} children the gift of Wicca" in a manner suitable to their age. In accordance with the importance put on free will in Wicca, the child is not expected or required to adhere to Wicca or other forms of paganism should they not wish to do so when they reach adulthood.<ref>{{cite book |title=Coven Craft: Witchcraft for Three or More |publisher=Llewellyn |first=Amber |last=K. |page=280 |year=1998 |isbn=1-56718-018-3}}</ref>
===Book of Shadows===
{{Main|Book of Shadows}}
[[File: Wiccan 'Book of Shadows'.jpg|thumb|A '[[Book of Shadows]]', sitting on a Wiccan altar, alongside plants and crystals]]
In Wicca, there is no set sacred text such as the Christian [[Bible]], Jewish [[Tanakh]], or Islamic [[Quran]], although there are certain scriptures and texts that various traditions hold to be important and influence their beliefs and practices. Gerald Gardner used a book containing many different texts in his covens, known as the [[Book of Shadows]] (among other names), which he would frequently add to and adapt. In his Book of Shadows, there are texts taken from various sources, including [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]]'' (1899) and the works of 19th–20th century [[occultism|occultist]] [[Aleister Crowley]], whom Gardner knew personally. Also in the Book are examples of poetry largely composed by Gardner and his High Priestess [[Doreen Valiente]], the most notable of which is the ''[[Charge of the Goddess]]''.
{{Quote box|width=246px|align=left|quote=The Book of Shadows is not a Bible or Quran. It is a personal cookbook of spells that have worked for the owner. I am giving you mine to copy to get you started: as you gain experience discard those spells that don't work for you and substitute those that you have thought of yourselves.|source=[[Gerald Gardner]] to his followers{{sfn|Lamond|2004|p=14}}}}
Similar in use to the [[grimoire]]s of [[Magician (paranormal)|ceremonial magicians]],{{sfn|Crowley|1989|pp=14-15}} the Book contained instructions for how to perform rituals and spells, as well as religious poetry and chants like ''[[Eko Eko Azarak]]'' to use in those rituals. Gardner's original intention was that every copy of the book would be different because a student would copy from their initiators, but changing things which they felt to be personally ineffective, however amongst many Gardnerian Witches today, particularly in the [[United States]], all copies of the Book are kept identical to the version that the High Priestess [[Monique Wilson (witch)|Monique Wilson]] copied from Gardner, with nothing being altered. The Book of Shadows was originally meant to be kept a secret from non-initiates into BTW, but parts of the Book have been published by authors including [[Charles Cardell]], Lady Sheba, [[Janet Farrar]] and [[Stewart Farrar]].{{sfn|Farrar|Farrar|1981}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Witchcraft and the Book of Shadows |publisher=I-H-O Books |___location=Thame |first=Gerald |last=Gardner |author-link=Gerald Gardner |editor=Naylor, A. R. |year=2004a |isbn=1-872189-52-0}}</ref>
===
The [[pentacle]] is a symbol commonly used by Wiccans.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=49}} Wiccans often understand the pentacle's five points as representing each of the five elements: earth, air, fire, water, and aether/spirit.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=49}} It is also regarded as a symbol of the human, with the five points representing the head, arms, and legs.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=49}}
==Structure==
[[File:Wiccan spouses.PNG|thumb|right|upright|A Wiccan couple getting handfasted]]
There is no overarching organisational structure to Wicca.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=135}} In Wicca, all practitioners are considered to be priests and priestesses.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=52}}
Wicca generally requires a ritual of initiation.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=54}}
===Traditions===
{{See also|List of modern pagan movements#Wicca|l1=List of Wiccan traditions}}
In the 1950s through to the 1970s, when the Wiccan movement was largely confined to lineaged groups such as [[Gardnerian Wicca]] and [[Alexandrian Wicca]], a "tradition" usually implied the transfer of a lineage by initiation. However, with the rise of more and more such groups, often being founded by those with no previous initiatory lineage, the term came to be a synonym for a [[religious denomination]] within Wicca. Scholars of religion tend to treat Wicca as a religion with denominations that differ on some important points but share core beliefs, much like Christianity and its many denominations.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Doyle White |first1=Ethan |title=Wicca: History, Belief & Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft |date=2015 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |pages=160–162}}</ref> There are many such traditions<ref>{{cite web |url=http://beaufort.bravepages.com/ |title=Beaufort House Index of English Traditional Witchcraft |work=Beaufort House Association |date=15 January 1999 |access-date=2 April 2007 |archive-date=8 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708091848/http://beaufort.bravepages.com/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hexarchive.com/wicca/witchcraft.htm |title=Different types of Witchcraft |work=Hex Archive |access-date=2 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070618161438/http://www.hexarchive.com/wicca/witchcraft.htm |archive-date=18 June 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and there are also many [[solitary practitioner]]s who do not align themselves with any particular lineage, working alone. Some covens have formed but who do not follow any particular tradition, instead choosing their influences and practices eclectically.
Those traditions which trace a line of initiatory descent back to Gerald Gardner include [[Gardnerian Wicca]], [[Alexandrian Wicca]] and the [[Algard]] tradition; because of their joint history, they are often referred to as [[British Traditional Wicca]], particularly in [[North America]]. Other traditions trace their origins to different figures, even if their beliefs and practices have been influenced to a greater or lesser extent by Gardner. These include [[Cochrane's Craft]] and the [[1734 Tradition]], both of which trace their origins to [[Robert Cochrane (witch)|Robert Cochrane]]; [[Feri Tradition|Feri]], which traces itself back to [[Victor Anderson (poet)|Victor Anderson]] and [[Gwydion Pendderwen]]; and [[Dianic Wicca]], whose followers often trace their influences back to [[Zsuzsanna Budapest]]. Some of these groups prefer to refer to themselves as ''Witches'', thereby distinguishing themselves from the BTW traditions, who more typically use the term ''Wiccan'' (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]]).{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} During the 1980s, Viviane Crowley, an initiate of both the Gardnerian and Alexandrian traditions, merged the two.{{sfn|Pearson|2007|p=2}}
Pearson noted that "Wicca has evolved and, at times, mutated quite dramatically into completely different forms".{{sfn|Pearson|2007|p=3}} Wicca has also been "customized" to the various national contexts into which it has been introduced; for instance, in Ireland, the veneration of ancient Irish deities has been incorporated into Wicca.{{sfn|Rountree|2015|p=16}}
===Covens===
Lineaged Wicca is organised into [[coven]]s of initiated priests and priestesses. Covens are autonomous and are generally headed by a High Priest and a High Priestess working in partnership, being a couple who have each been through their first, second, and third degrees of initiation. Occasionally the leaders of a coven are only second-degree initiates, in which case they come under the rule of the parent coven. Initiation and training of new priesthood is most often performed within a coven environment, but this is not a necessity, and a few initiated Wiccans are unaffiliated with any coven.{{sfn|Buckland|1986|pp=17, 18, 53}} Most covens would not admit members under the age of 18.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=142}} They often do not advertise their existence, and when they do, do so through pagan magazines.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=138}} Some organise courses and workshops through which prospective members can come along and be assessed.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=139}}
[[File:Pagan Witchcraft Altar.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A modern pagan witchcraft altar]]
A commonly quoted Wiccan tradition holds that the ideal number of members for a coven is [[13 (number)|thirteen]], though this is not held as a hard-and-fast rule.{{sfn|Buckland|1986|pp=17, 18, 53}} Indeed, many U.S. covens are far smaller, though the membership may be augmented by unaffiliated Wiccans at "open" rituals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Covencraft: Witchcraft for Three or More |publisher=Llewellyn |first=Amber |last=K. |page=228 |date=1998 |isbn=1-56718-018-3}}</ref> Pearson noted that covens typically contained between five and ten initiates.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=136}} They generally avoid mass recruitment due to the feasibility of finding spaces large enough to bring together greater numbers for rituals and because larger numbers inhibit the sense of intimacy and trust that covens utilise.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=136}}
Some covens are short-lived, but others have survived for many years.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=136}} Covens in the Reclaiming tradition are often single-sex and non-hierarchical in structure.{{sfn|Salomonsen|1998|p=143}} Coven members who leave their original group to form another, separate coven are described as having "hived off" in Wicca.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=136}}
Initiation into a coven is traditionally preceded by an apprenticeship period of a year and a day.{{sfn|Guiley|1999|p=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwi00guil/page/169 169]}} A course of study may be set during this period. In some covens a "dedication" ceremony may be performed during this period, some time before the initiation proper, allowing the person to attend certain rituals on a probationary basis. Some solitary Wiccans also choose to study for a year and a day before their self-dedication to the religion.<ref>{{cite book |title=Wicca: A Year and a Day |publisher=Llewellyn Publications |___location=Saint Paul, Minnesota |first=Timothy |last=Roderick |date=2005 |edition=1st |isbn=0-7387-0621-3 |oclc=57010157}}</ref>
Various high priestesses and high priests have reported being "put on a pedestal" by new initiates, only to have those students later "kick away" the pedestal as they develop their own knowledge and experience of Wicca.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=51}} Within a coven, different members may be respected for having particular knowledge of specific areas, such as the Qabalah, astrology, or the [[Tarot]].{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=52}}
Based on her experience among British Traditional Wiccans in the UK, Pearson stated that the length of time between becoming a first-degree initiate and a second was "typically two to five years".{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=54}} Some practitioners nevertheless chose to remain as first-degree initiates rather than proceed to the higher degrees.{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=54}}
===Eclectic Wicca===
[[File:The Imbolc Ritual Altar.jpg|thumb|Imbolc altar]]
A large number of Wiccans do not exclusively follow any single tradition or even are initiated. These ''[[Eclecticism|eclectic]] Wiccans'' each create their own [[syncretism|syncretic]] spiritual paths by adopting and reinventing the [[Religious belief|belief]]s and [[ritual]]s of a variety of religious traditions connected to Wicca and broader [[Paganism (contemporary)|paganism]].
While the origins of modern Wiccan practice lie in [[coven]]antal activity of a select few initiates in established lineages, eclectic Wiccans are more often than not [[solitary practitioner]]s uninitiated in any tradition. A widening public appetite, especially in the [[Paganism in the United States|United States]], made traditional initiation unable to satisfy [[demand]] for involvement in Wicca. Since the 1970s, larger, more informal, often publicly advertised camps and workshops began to take place.<ref>{{cite book |title=Modern Wicca |publisher=Llewellyn Publications |___location=Woodbury, Minnesota |first=Michael |last=Howard |pages=299–301 |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-7387-1588-9 |oclc=706883219}}</ref> This less formal but more accessible form of Wicca proved successful. Eclectic Wicca is the most [[Wikt:popular|popular]] variety of Wicca in America<ref>{{cite book |title=Wicca and Witchcraft for Dummies |publisher=Wiley |___location=Indianapolis, Indiana |first=Diane |last=Smith |page=125 |date=2005 |isbn=0-7645-7834-0 |oclc=61395185}}</ref> and eclectics now significantly outnumber lineaged Wiccans.
Eclectic Wicca is not necessarily the complete abandonment of tradition. Eclectic practitioners may follow their own individual ideas and ritual practices, while still drawing on one or more religious or philosophical paths. Eclectic approaches to Wicca often draw on [[Earth religion]] and [[ancient Egyptian religion|ancient Egyptian]], [[Religion in ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Saxons#Paganism|Saxon]], [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|Anglo-Saxon]], [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic]], [[Religion in Asia|Asian]], [[Judaism|Jewish]], and [[Polynesian mythology|Polynesian]] traditions.{{sfn|Hutton|1991}}
In contrast to the British Traditional Wiccans, Reclaiming Wiccans, and various eclectic Wiccans, the sociologist Douglas Ezzy argued that there existed a "Popularized Witchcraft" that was "driven primarily by consumerist marketing and is represented by movies, television shows, commercial magazines, and consumer goods".{{sfn|Ezzy|2002|p=117}} Books and magazines in this vein were targeted largely at young girls and included spells for attracting or repelling boyfriends, money spells, and home protection spells.{{sfn|Ezzy|2003|pp=48–49}} He termed this "New Age Witchcraft",{{sfn|Ezzy|2003|p=50}} and compared individuals involved in this to the participants in the New Age.{{sfn|Ezzy|2002|p=117}}
==History==
{{Main|History of Wicca}}
===Origins, 1921–1935===
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=Wicca originated in the early decades of the twentieth century among those esoterically inclined Britons who wanted to resurrect the faith of their ancient forebears, and arose to public attention in the 1950s and 1960s, largely due to a small band of dedicated followers who were insistent on presenting their faith to what at times was a very hostile world. From these humble beginnings, this radical religion spread to the United States, where it found a comfortable bedfellow in the form of the [[Counterculture of the 1960s|1960s counter-culture]] and came to be championed by those sectors of the [[Women's liberation movement|women's]] and [[gay liberation]] movements which were seeking a spiritual escape from Christian hegemony.|source=— Religious studies scholar Ethan Doyle White{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=2}} }}
Wicca was founded in England between 1921 and 1950,{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=14}} representing what the historian [[Ronald Hutton]] called "the only full-formed religion which England can be said to have given the world".{{sfnm|1a1=Hutton|1y=2003|1pp=279–230|2a1=Doyle White|2y=2016|2p=14}} Characterised as an "[[invented tradition]]" by scholars,{{sfnm|1a1=Baker|1y=1996|1p=187|2a1=Magliocco|2y=1996|2p=94|3a1=Doyle White|3y=2016|3p=14}} Wicca was created from the patchwork adoption of various older elements, many taken from pre-existing religious and esoteric movements.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=13}} Pearson characterised it as having arisen "from the cultural impulses of the ''[[fin de siècle]]''".{{sfn|Pearson|2002|p=32}}
Wicca took as its basis the [[witch-cult hypothesis]]. This was the idea that [[Witch trials in the early modern period|those persecuted as witches]] in [[early modern Europe]] were actually followers of a surviving [[paganism|pagan]] religion; not [[Satanism|Satanists]] as the persecutors claimed, nor innocent people who confessed under threat of torture, as had long been the historical consensus.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=14}}{{sfn|Guiley|1999|p=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwi00guil/page/234 234]}} The 'Father of Wicca', Gerald Gardner, claimed his religion was a survival of this European 'witch-cult'.{{sfn|Buckland|2002|p=96}} The 'witch-cult' theory had been first expressed by the German Professor [[Karl Ernest Jarcke]] in 1828, before being endorsed by German [[Franz Mone|Franz Josef Mone]] and then the French historian [[Jules Michelet]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=15}} In the late 19th century, it was then adopted by two Americans, [[Matilda Joslyn Gage]] and [[Charles Leland]], the latter of whom promoted a variant of it in his 1899 book, ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]]''.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=15–16}} The theory's most notable advocate was the English Egyptologist [[Margaret Murray]], who promoted it in a series of books – most notably 1921's ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' and 1933's ''The God of the Witches''.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=16}}{{sfn|Guiley|1999|p=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwi00guil/page/234 234]}}
Almost all of Murray's peers regarded the witch-cult theory as incorrect and based on poor scholarship. However, Murray was invited to write the entry on "witchcraft" for the 1929 edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', which was reprinted for decades and became so influential that, according to folklorist [[Jacqueline Simpson]], Murray's ideas became "so entrenched in popular culture that they will probably never be uprooted".{{sfn|Simpson|1994}} Simpson noted that the only contemporary member of the Folklore Society who took Murray's theory seriously was Gerald Gardner, who used it as the basis for Wicca.{{sfn|Simpson|1994}} Murray's books were the sources of many well-known motifs which have often been incorporated into Wicca. The idea that covens should have 13 members was developed by Murray, based on a single witness statement from one of the witch trials, as was her assertion that covens met on the four cross-quarter days.{{sfn|Simpson|1994}} Murray was very interested in ascribing naturalistic or religious ceremonial explanations to some of the more fantastic descriptions found in witch trial testimony. For example, many of the confessions included the idea that Satan was personally present at coven meetings. Murray interpreted this as a witch priest wearing horns and animal skins, and a pair of forked boots to represent his authority or rank. Most mainstream folklorists, on the other hand, have argued that the entire scenario was always fictitious and does not require a naturalistic explanation, but Gardner enthusiastically adopted many of Murray's explanations into his own tradition.{{sfn|Simpson|1994}} The witch-cult theory was "the historical narrative around which Wicca built itself", with the early Wiccans claiming to be the survivors of this ancient pagan religion.{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=16–17}}
The 'witch-cult' theory has since been disproven by further historical research,{{sfn|Hutton|2017|p=121}} but it is still common for Wiccans to claim solidarity with witch trial victims.{{sfn|Buckland|2002|loc=10: Roots of Modern Wica}} The notion that Wiccan traditions and rituals have survived from ancient times is contested by most recent researchers, who say that Wicca is a 20th-century creation which combines elements of freemasonry and 19th-century occultism.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/print/2001/01/the-scholars-and-the-goddess/5910/ |title=The Scholars and the Goddess |magazine=The Atlantic Monthly |first=Charlotte |last=Allen |date=January 2001 |issue=287 |oclc=202832236}}</ref> In his 1999 book ''[[The Triumph of the Moon]]'', English historian [[Ronald Hutton]] researched the Wiccan claim that ancient pagan customs have survived into modern times after being Christianised in medieval times as folk practices. Hutton found that most of the folk customs which are claimed to have pagan roots (such as the [[Maypole]] dance) actually date from the [[Middle Ages]]. He concluded that the idea that medieval revels were pagan in origin is a legacy of the [[Protestant Reformation]].{{sfn|Hutton|1999}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Goddess Unmasked |publisher=Spence |___location=Dallas |first=Philip G |last=Davis |year=1998 |isbn=0-9653208-9-8}}</ref> Hutton noted that Wicca predates the modern [[New Age]] movement and also differs markedly in its general philosophy.{{sfn|Hutton|1999}}
Other influences upon early Wicca included various [[Western esotericism|Western esoteric]] traditions and practices, among them [[ceremonial magic]], [[Aleister Crowley]] and his religion of [[Thelema]], [[Freemasonry]], [[Spiritualism (movement)|Spiritualism]], and [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophy]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=17–18}} To a lesser extent, Wicca also drew upon folk magic and the practices of [[cunning folk]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=19–20}} It was further influenced both by scholarly works on folkloristics, particularly [[James Frazer]]'s ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', as well as [[romanticism|romanticist]] writings like [[Robert Graves]]' ''[[The White Goddess]]'', and pre-existing modern pagan groups such as the [[Order of Woodcraft Chivalry]] and [[Druidism]].{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|pp=20–22}}
===Early development, 1936–1959===
It was during the 1930s that the first evidence appears for the practice of a neopagan 'Witchcraft' religion{{sfn|Heselton|2000}}<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Why Does Aleister Crowley Still Matter? |title=Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick and the Occult |publisher=Disinformation Books |___location=New York |editor-first=Richard |editor-last=Metzger |first=Nevill |last=Drury |author-link=Nevill Drury |date=2003 |isbn=0-9713942-7-X |oclc=815051948}}</ref> (what would be recognisable now as Wicca) in England. It seems that several groups around the country, in such places as [[Norfolk]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Dancing With Witches |publisher=Robert Hale |___location=London |first=Lois |last=Bourne |page=51 |date=1998 |isbn=0-7090-6223-0 |oclc=39117828}}</ref> [[Cheshire]]{{sfn|Heselton|2003}} and the [[New Forest]] had set themselves up after being inspired by Murray's writings about the "Witch-Cult".
The history of Wicca starts with [[Gerald Gardner]] (the "Father of Wicca") in the mid-20th century. Gardner was a retired British [[civil servant]] and amateur [[anthropologist]], with a broad familiarity in [[paganism]] and [[occultism]]. He claimed to have been [[initiation|initiated]] into a [[New Forest coven|witches' coven]] in [[New Forest District|New Forest]], [[Hampshire]], in the late 1930s. Intent on perpetuating this craft, Gardner founded the [[Bricket Wood coven]] with his wife Donna in the 1940s, after buying the [[Naturist]] Fiveacres Country Club.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p=289}} Much of the coven's early membership was drawn from the club's members{{sfn|Valiente|1989|p=60}} and its meetings were held within the club grounds.{{sfn|Lamond|2004|pp=30-31}}{{sfn|Valiente|1989|p=56}} Many notable figures of early Wicca were direct initiates of this coven, including [[Edith Woodford-Grimes|Dafo]], [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Jack L. Bracelin|Jack Bracelin]], [[Frederic Lamond (Wiccan)|Frederic Lamond]], [[Dayonis]], [[Eleanor Bone]], and [[Lois Bourne]].
The Witchcraft religion began to grow in 1951, with the repeal of the [[Witchcraft Act 1735]], after which [[Gerald Gardner]] and then others such as [[Charles Cardell]] and [[Cecil Williamson]] began publicising their own versions of the Craft. Gardner and others never used the term "Wicca" as a religious identifier, simply referring to the "witch cult", "witchcraft", and the "Old Religion". However, Gardner did refer to witches as "the Wica".{{sfn|Gardner|1954}} During the 1960s, the name of the religion normalised to "Wicca".{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p=vii}} Gardner's tradition, later termed [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerianism]], soon became the dominant form in [[England]] and spread to other parts of the [[British Isles]].
===Adaptation and spread, 1960–present===
[[File:Wiccan event in the US (1).PNG|thumb|Wiccan event in [[Minnesota]], with practitioners carrying a pentacle, 2006]]
Following Gardner's death in 1964, the Craft continued to grow unabated despite sensationalism and negative portrayals in British tabloids, with new traditions being propagated by figures like [[Robert Cochrane (witch)|Robert Cochrane]], [[Sybil Leek]], and most importantly [[Alex Sanders (Wiccan)|Alex Sanders]], whose [[Alexandrian Wicca]], which was predominantly based upon Gardnerian Wicca, albeit with an emphasis placed on [[ceremonial magic]], spread quickly and gained much media attention. Around this time, the term "Wicca" began to be commonly adopted over "Witchcraft" and the faith was exported to countries like [[Australia]] and the [[United States]].{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}
During the 1970s, a new generation joined Wicca who had been influenced by the [[counterculture of the 1960s]].{{sfn|Crowley|1998|p=176}} Many brought [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] ideas with them into the movement, as reflected by the formation of groups like the UK-based [[Pagans Against Nukes]].{{sfn|Crowley|1998|p=176}}
In the U.S., [[Victor Henry Anderson|Victor Anderson]], Cora Anderson, and [[Gwydion Pendderwen]] established the [[Feri Tradition]].{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=38}}
It was in the United States and in Australia that new, home-grown traditions, sometimes based upon earlier, regional folk-magical traditions and often mixed with the basic structure of Gardnerian Wicca, began to develop, including [[Victor Henry Anderson|Victor Anderson]]'s [[Feri Tradition]], [[Joseph Bearwalker Wilson|Joseph Wilson's]] [[1734 Tradition]], [[Aidan A. Kelly|Aidan Kelly]]'s [[New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn]], and eventually [[Zsuzsanna Budapest]]'s [[Dianic Wicca]], each of which emphasised different aspects of the faith.<ref>{{cite book |title=The New Pagans |first=Hans |last=Holzer |author-link=Hans Holzer |publisher=Doubleday |___location=Garden City, NY |year=1972 |oclc=281240}}</ref> It was also around this time that books teaching people how to become Witches themselves without formal initiation or training began to emerge, among them [[Paul Huson]]'s ''[[Mastering Witchcraft]]'' (1970) and [[Lady Sheba]]'s ''Book of Shadows'' (1971). Similar books continued to be published throughout the 1980s and 1990s, fuelled by the writings of such authors as [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Janet Farrar]], [[Stewart Farrar]], and [[Scott Cunningham]], who popularised the idea of self-initiation into the Craft. Among witches in Canada, anthropologist [[Heather Botting]] (née Harden) of the University of Victoria was the first recognized Wiccan chaplain of a public university.<ref>{{cite web |last=Todd |first=Douglas |url=http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2010/12/16/pagans-celebrate-solstice-with-yule-rituals/ |title=University of Victoria chaplain marks solstice with pagan rituals | Vancouver Sun |publisher=Blogs.vancouversun.com |access-date=2 May 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003002/http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2010/12/16/pagans-celebrate-solstice-with-yule-rituals/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> She is the original high priestess of [[Coven Celeste]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aquariantabernaclechurch.org/atc-affiliates-canada |title=ATC Affiliates – Canada |publisher=Aquarian Tabernacle Church |access-date=2 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510122431/http://www.aquariantabernaclechurch.org/atc-affiliates-canada |archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref>
In the 1990s, amid ever-rising numbers of self-initiates, the popular media began to explore "witchcraft" in fictional films like ''[[The Craft (film)|The Craft]]'' (1996) and television series like ''[[Charmed]]'' (1998–2006), introducing numbers of young people to the idea of religious witchcraft. This growing demographic was soon catered to through the [[Internet]] and by authors like [[Silver RavenWolf]], much to the criticism of traditional Wiccan groups and individuals. In response to the way that Wicca was increasingly portrayed as trendy, eclectic, and influenced by the [[New Age]] movement, many Witches turned to the pre-Gardnerian origins of the Craft, and to the traditions of his rivals like Cardell and Cochrane, describing themselves as following "[[Neopagan witchcraft|traditional witchcraft]]". Groups within this Traditional Witchcraft revival included [[Andrew D. Chumbley|Andrew Chumbley]]'s Cultus Sabbati and the Cornish Ros an Bucca coven.{{citation needed|date=April 2019}}
==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of paganism}}
Originating in Britain, Wicca then spread to North America, [[Australasia]], continental Europe, and South Africa.{{sfn|Pearson|2007|p=3}}
The actual number of Wiccans worldwide is unknown, and it has been noted that it is more difficult to establish the numbers of members of Neopagan faiths than many other religions due to their disorganised structure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.neopagan.net/HowManyPagans.html |title=How Many "Pagans" Are There? |work=Neopagan.net |first=Isaac |last=Bonewits |year=2005 |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> However, Adherents.com, an independent website which specialises in collecting estimates of world religions, cites over thirty sources with estimates of numbers of Wiccans (principally from the US and the UK). From this, they developed a median estimate of 800,000 members.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Na/i_w.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031002023455/http://adherents.com/Na/i_w.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=October 2, 2003 |title=Statistical summary pages: W |work=Adherents.com |access-date=7 April 2012}}</ref> As of 2016, Doyle White suggested that there were "hundreds of thousands of practising Wiccans around the globe".{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=2}} However, the [[2021 United Kingdom census]] notes that at that time, there were 13,000 people who noted "Wicca" as their religion, along with 74,000 who noted "Paganism" as their religion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Religion, England and Wales - Office for National Statistics |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/religion/bulletins/religionenglandandwales/census2021?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-04-14 |website=www.ons.gov.uk}}</ref> Data for Scotland and Northern Ireland are collected separately and are not included in these figures.
In 1998, the Wiccan high priestess and academic psychologist Vivianne Crowley suggested that Wicca had been less successful in propagating in countries whose populations were primarily Roman Catholic. She suggested that this might be because Wicca's emphasis on a female divinity was more novel to people raised in Protestant-dominant backgrounds.{{sfn|Crowley|1998|p=171}} On the basis of her experience, Pearson concurred that this was broadly true.{{sfnm|1a1=Pearson|1y=2002b|1p=144|2a1=Pearson|2y=2007|2pp=ix–x}}
Wicca has been described as a non-proselytizing religion.{{sfnm|1a1=Hanegraaff|1y=2002|1p=305|2a1=Pearson|2y=2002b|2p=136}} In 1998, Pearson noted that there were very few individuals who had grown up as Wiccans although increasing numbers of Wiccan adults were themselves, parents.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=141}} Many Wiccan parents did not refer to their children as also being Wiccan, believing it important that the latter are allowed to make their own choices about their religious identity when they are old enough.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=141}} From her fieldwork among members of the Reclaiming tradition in California during 1980-90, the anthropologist Jone Salomonsen found that many described joining the movement following "an extraordinary experience of revelation".{{sfn|Salomonsen|1998|p=144}}
Based on their analysis of internet trends, the sociologists of religion Douglas Ezzy and Helen Berger argued that, by 2009, the "phenomenal growth" that Wicca has experienced in preceding years had slowed.{{sfn|Ezzy|Berger|2009|pp=165–166}}
===Europe===
{{Quote box|width=400px|align=right|quote=[The average Wiccan is] a man in his forties, or a woman in her thirties, [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]], reasonably well educated, not earning much but probably not too concerned about material things, someone that demographers would call [[lower middle class]].|source=[[Leo Ruickbie]] (2004){{sfn|Ruickbie|2004|p=177}}}}
From her 1996 survey of British Wiccans, Pearson found that most Wiccans were aged between 25 and 45, with the average age being around 35.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=142}} She noted that as the Wiccan community aged, so the proportion of older practitioners would increase.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=142}} She found roughly equal proportions of men and women,{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=144}} and found that 62% were from Protestant backgrounds, which was consistent with the dominance of Protestantism in Britain at large.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|pp=143–144}} Pearson's survey also found that half of British Wiccans featured had a university education and that they tended to work in "healing professions" like medicine or counselling, education, computing, and administration.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=145}} She noted that there thus was "a certain homogeneity about the background" of British Wiccans.{{sfn|Pearson|2002b|p=145}}
In the United Kingdom, census figures on religion were [[United Kingdom Census 2001|first collected in 2001]]; no detailed statistics were reported outside of the six main religions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/census-2001-key-statistics/local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/local-authorities-ks07--religion.xls |title=Census 2001 Key Statistics – Local Authorities KS07 Religion |publisher=United Kingdom Office for National Statistics |year=2001}}</ref> For the [[United Kingdom Census 2011|2011 census]] a more detailed breakdown of responses was reported with 56,620 people identifying themselves as pagans, 11,766 as Wiccans and a further 1,276 describing their religion as "Witchcraft".<ref>Office for National Statistics, 11 December 2012, ''[http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?newquery=%2A&newoffset=25&pageSize=25&edition=tcm%3A77-286262 2011 Census, Key Statistics for Local Authorities in England and Wales]''. Accessed 12 December 2012.</ref>
===North America===
In the United States, the [[American Religious Identification Survey]] has shown significant increases in the number of self-identified Wiccans, from 8,000 in 1990, to 134,000 in 2001, and 342,000 in 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/WN/real-witches-practice-samhain-wicca-rise-us/story?id=8957950 |title=Real Witches Practice Samhain: Wicca on the Rise in U.S. |work=ABC News |first=Russell |last=Goldman |date=30 October 2009 |access-date=10 November 2013}}</ref> Wiccans have also made up significant proportions of various groups within that country; for instance, Wicca is the largest non-Christian faith practised in the [[United States Air Force]], with 1,434 airmen identifying themselves as such.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2010/01/airforce_religion_011610w/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120718015454/http://www.airforcetimes.com/news/2010/01/airforce_religion_011610w/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 July 2012 |title=Respect healthy for different faiths |work=Air Force Times |first=Erik |last=Holmes |date=17 January 2010 |access-date=20 October 2010 }}</ref> In 2014, the Pew Research Center estimated 0.3% of the US population (~950,000 people) identified as Wiccan or pagan based on a sample size of 35,000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Religious Landscape Study |date=26 February 2025 |publisher=Pew Research Center |url=http://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/}}</ref>
In 2018, a Pew Research Center study estimated the number of Wiccans in the United States to be at least 1.5 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/witchcraft-wiccans-mysticism-astrology-witches-millennials-pagans-religion-1221019|title=Number Of Witches Rises Dramatically Across U.S.|first1=Benjamin Fearnow is a reporter based out of Newsweek's New York City offices He was previously at|last1=CBS|first2=Mediaite after working as a news curator at Facebook Fearnow has pieces published in The Atlantic as well as stories published about him in|last2=Wired|date=November 18, 2018|website=Newsweek}}</ref>
==Acceptance==
[[File:Baphosimb.svg|thumb|The use of the [[Stanislas de Guaita#Rosicrucian activities|inverted pentagram]] by the [[Church of Satan]] has contributed to the misidentification of Wiccans as [[Theistic Satanism|Satanists]].]]
{{Main|Religious discrimination against Neopagans}}
Wicca emerged in predominantly [[Christianity|Christian]] England, and from its inception the religion encountered opposition from certain Christian groups as well as from the popular tabloids like the ''[[News of the World]]''. Some Christians still believe that Wicca is a form of [[Satanism]], despite important differences between these two religions.<ref>{{cite book |title=New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=up5fnY7Wp1wC&pg=PA75 |publisher=[[Baylor University Press]] |___location=[[Waco, Texas|Waco]] |first1=Derek |last1=Davis |first2=Barry |last2=Hankins |edition=2nd |year=2003 |page=75 |isbn=0-918954-92-4 |oclc=52895492 |quote=Much to the chagrin of practitioners of Wicca, there has been confusion in the minds of many about their religion, which is often linked with Satanism, although there are important differences.}}</ref> Detractors typically depict Wicca as a form of malevolent Satanism,{{sfn|Doyle White|2016|p=1}} a characterisation that Wiccans reject.{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2002|p=309}} Due to negative connotations associated with witchcraft, many Wiccans continue the traditional practice of secrecy, concealing their faith for fear of persecution. Revealing oneself as a Wiccan to family, friends or colleagues is often termed "coming out of the broom-closet".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2090966/ |title=Witch Way |work=Slate.com |author=Bewitched |date=4 December 2003 |access-date=16 May 2008 |quote=Believe me, coming out of the "broom closet" is a one-way trip.}}</ref> Attitudes to Christianity vary within the Wiccan movement, stretching from outright rejection to a willingness to work alongside Christians in [[Interfaith dialogue|interfaith]] endeavours.{{sfn|Pearson|2007|p=x}}
The religious studies scholar [[Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar)|Graham Harvey]] wrote that "the popular and prevalent media image [of Wicca] is mostly inaccurate".{{sfn|Harvey|2007|p=35}} Pearson similarly noted that "popular and media perceptions of Wicca have often been misleading".{{sfn|Pearson|1998|p=54}}
In the United States, a number of legal decisions have improved and validated the status of Wiccans, especially ''[[Dettmer v. Landon]]'' in 1986. However, Wiccans have encountered opposition from some politicians and Christian organisations,<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/RINVol2No2/wicca.htm |title=Something Wiccan This Way Comes |journal=Religion in the News |first=Mark |last=Silk |date=Summer 1999 |volume=2 |issue=2 |issn=1525-7207 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070524174633/http://www.trincoll.edu/depts/csrpl/RINVol2No2/wicca.htm |archive-date=24 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lawstreet.com/journal/art991101wiccan.html |title=Barr's Witch Project: Lawmaker Wants to Ban Witches from the Military |work=LawStreet Journal |date=1 November 1999 |access-date=11 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000229034145/http://www.lawstreet.com/journal/art991101wiccan.html |archive-date=29 February 2000}}</ref> including former president of the United States [[George W. Bush]], who stated that he did not believe Wicca to be a religion.<ref>{{cite news |last=Banerjee |first=Neela |title=Use of Wiccan Symbol on Veterans' Headstones Is Approved |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/24/washington/24wiccan.html?_r=0 |access-date=1 August 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=24 April 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/bushwicca.htm |title=George W. Bush Justifies Off-The-Cuff Bigotry |work=Positive Atheism Magazine |date=1 June 1999 |access-date=30 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202065205/http://positiveatheism.org/writ/bushwicca.htm |archive-date=2 February 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
In 2007 the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs]] after years of dispute added the Pentacle to the list of emblems of belief that can be included on government-issued markers, headstones, and plaques honoring deceased veterans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.circlesanctuary.org/index.php/lady-liberty-league/veteran-pentacle-quest |title=Veteran Pentacle Quest |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Circle Sanctuary |access-date=28 December 2015 }}</ref>
In Canada, [[Heather Botting]] ("Lady Aurora") and [[Gary Botting]] ("Pan"), the original high priestess and high priest of [[Coven Celeste]] and founding elders of the [[Aquarian Tabernacle Church]], successfully campaigned the [[British Columbia]]n government and the federal government in 1995 to allow them to perform recognised Wiccan weddings, to become prison and hospital chaplains, and (in the case of Heather Botting) to become the first officially recognized Wiccan chaplain in a public university.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atccanada.org/services/wiccan-chaplaincy/ |title=Wiccan Chaplaincy |publisher=Aquarian Tabernacle Church Canada |access-date=2 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510103310/http://www.atccanada.org/services/wiccan-chaplaincy/ |archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2010/12/16/pagans-celebrate-solstice-with-yule-rituals/ |title=University of Victoria chaplain marks solstice with pagan rituals |work=Vancouver Sun |series=The Search |first=Douglas |last=Todd |date=16 December 2010 |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003002/http://blogs.vancouversun.com/2010/12/16/pagans-celebrate-solstice-with-yule-rituals/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The oath-based system of many Wiccan traditions makes it difficult for "outsider" scholars to study them.{{sfn|Pearson|2001|p=56}} For instance, after the anthropologist Tanya Luhrmann revealed information about what she learned as an initiate of a Wiccan coven in her academic study, various Wiccans were upset, believing that she had broken the oaths of secrecy taken at initiation.{{sfn|Pearson|2001|pp=55–56}}
==References==
===Notes===
{{Notelist}}
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Works cited===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Adler |first=Margot |author-link=Margot Adler |title=Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today |publisher=Viking Press |___location=New York City |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-670-28342-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Adler |first=Margot |title=Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-worshippers and Other Pagans in America Today |edition=3rd |publisher=Penguin |___location=London |year=2005 |oclc=6918454}}
* {{harvc |last=Baker |first=James W. |c=White Witches: Historic Fact and Romantic Fantasy |in=Lewis |pages=171–192 |year=1996}}
* {{cite book |last=Crowley |first=Vivianne |author-link=Vivianne Crowley |title=Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age |publisher=Aquarian Press |___location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-85030-737-6 |oclc=25787829 }}
* {{harvc |last=Crowley |first=Vivianne |c=Wicca as Nature Religion |year=1998 |in1=Pearson |in2=Roberts |in3=Samuel |pp=170–179}}
* {{cite journal |last=Doyle White |first=Ethan |title=The Meaning of "Wicca": A Study in Etymology, History and Pagan Politics |journal=The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=185–207 |year=2010 |doi=10.1558/pome.v12i2.185 |s2cid=154160260 | issn=1528-0268 }}
* {{cite book |last=Doyle White |first=Ethan |title=Wicca: History, Belief, and Community in Modern Pagan Witchcraft |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |___location=Brighton |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-84519-754-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ezzy |first=Douglas |year=2002 |chapter=Religious Ethnography: Practicing the Witch's Craft |title=Researching Paganisms |pages=113–128 |___location=Walnut Creek |publisher=Altamira Press |editor1=Jenny Blain |editor2=Douglas Ezzy |editor3=Graham Harvey |editor3-link=Graham Harvey (religious studies scholar) |isbn=9780759105232 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Ezzy |first=Douglas |year=2003 |title=New Age Witchcraft? Popular Spell Books and the Re-enchantment of Everyday Life |journal=Culture and Religion|volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=47–65 |doi=10.1080/01438300302813 |s2cid=144927811 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ezzy |first1=Douglas |last2=Berger |first2=Helen |year=2009 |title=Witchcraft: Changing Patterns of Participation in the Early Twenty-First Century |journal=The Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=165–180 |doi=10.1558/pome.v11i2.165 }}
* {{harvc |last=Greenwood |first=Susan |c=The Nature of the Goddess: Sexual Identities and Power in Contemporary Witchcraft |year=1998 |in1=Pearson |in2=Roberts |in3=Samuel |pp=101–110}}
* {{cite book |last1=Guiley |first1=Rosemary Ellen |author-link1=Rosemary Ellen Guiley |title=The Encyclopedia of Witches and Witchcraft |edition=2nd |year=1999 |publisher=Checkmark Books |___location=New York |isbn=0-8160-3849-X |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwi00guil |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Wouter J. |author-link=Wouter Hanegraaff |title=New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought |publisher=Brill |___location=Leiden |year=1996 |isbn=90-04-10696-0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Wouter J. |chapter=From the Devil's Gateway to the Goddess Within: The Image of the Witch in Neopaganism |title=Belief Beyond Boundaries: Wicca, Celtic Spirituality and the New Age |year=2002 |isbn=9780754608202 |editor=Joanne Pearson |pages=295–312 |___location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate }}
* {{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Graham |title=Listening People, Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism |edition=2nd |publisher=Hurst & Company |___location=London |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-85065-272-4 }}
* {{cite book |title=Wiccan Roots: Gerald Gardner and the Modern Witchcraft Revival |first=Philip |last=Heselton |author-link=Philip Heselton |publisher=Capall Bann |___location=Freshfields, Chieveley, [[Berkshire]] |year=2000 |isbn=1-86163-110-3 |oclc=46955899}}
* {{cite book |title=Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration: An Investigation into the Sources of Gardnerian Witchcraft |first=Philip |last=Heselton |publisher=Capall Bann |___location=Somerset |year=2003 |isbn=1-86163-164-2 |oclc=182799618}}
* {{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Hutton |title=The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles: Their Nature and Legacy |publisher=Blackwell |year=1991 |isbn=0-631-17288-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780631172888 |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft |___location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-19-820744-1 |oclc=41452625 |url=https://archive.org/details/triumphofmoonhis00hutt |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |year=2002 |chapter=Living with Witchcraft |title=Researching Paganisms |pages=171–187 |___location=Walnut Creek |publisher=Altamira Press |editor1=Jenny Blain |editor2=Douglas Ezzy |editor3=Graham Harvey |isbn=9780759105232 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=Witches, Druids and King Arthur |publisher=Hambledon and Continuum |___location=London |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85285-397-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/witchesdruidskin00hutt |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hutton |first=Ronald |title=The Witch: A History of Fear, from Ancient Times to the Present |date=2017 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1bzfpmr |isbn=9780300231243 |url=https://archive.org/details/witchhistoryoffe0000hutt |url-access=registration|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Lamond |first=Frederic |author-link=Frederic Lamond (Wiccan) |title=Fifty Years of Wicca |publisher=Green Magic |___location=Sutton Mallet, England |year=2004 |isbn=0-9547230-1-5 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Lewis |editor1-first=James R. |editor-link=James R. Lewis (scholar) |title=Magical Religion and Modern Witchcraft |___location=New York |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7914-2890-0}}
* {{cite book |title=Witchcraft Today: An Encyclopedia of Wiccan and Neopagan Traditions |url=https://archive.org/details/witchcrafttodaye0000lewi |url-access=registration |publisher=ABC-CLIO |editor-first=James R. |editor-last=Lewis |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-57607-134-2}}
* {{harvc |last=Magliocco |first=Sabina |author-link=Sabina Magliocco |c=Ritual is My Chosen Art Form: The Creation of Ritual as Folk Art Among Contemporary Pagans |in=Lewis |pages=93–119 |year=1996 }}
* {{cite book |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=American Heritage Publishing |___location=New York |editor-last=Morris |editor-first=William |page=[https://archive.org/details/americanheritage1986morr/page/1548 1548] |year=1969 |isbn=0-395-09066-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Murray |first=Margaret Alice |author-link=Margaret Murray |year=1921 |title=The witch-cult in Western Europe : a study in anthropology |___location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=9781594623479 |url=https://archive.org/details/witchcultinweste00murr |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Orion |first=Loretta |title=Never Again the Burning Times: Paganism Revisited |publisher=Waveland Press |___location=Long Grove, Illinois |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-88133-835-5 }}
* {{harvc |last=Pearson |first=Joanne |c=Assumed Affinities: Wicca and the New Age |year=1998 |in1=Pearson |in2=Roberts |in3=Samuel |pp=45–56}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pearson |first=Jo |title="Going Native in Reverse": The Insider as Researcher in British Wicca |journal=Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions |volume=5 |number=1 |year=2001 |pages=52–63 |doi=10.1525/nr.2001.5.1.52 |jstor=10.1525/nr.2001.5.1.52 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Joanne |chapter=The History and Development of Wicca and Paganism |title=Belief Beyond Boundaries: Wicca, Celtic Spirituality and the New Age |year=2002 |isbn=9780754608202 |editor=Joanne Pearson |pages=15–54 |___location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate }}
* {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Joanne |chapter=Witches and Wicca |title=Belief Beyond Boundaries: Wicca, Celtic Spirituality and the New Age |year=2002b |isbn=9780754608202 |editor=Joanne Pearson |pages=133–172 |___location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Pearson |first=Joanne E. |editor-last=Jones |editor-first=Lindsay |title=Wicca |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=14 |pages=9730 |publisher=Macmaillan Reference USA |___location=Detroit |year=2005}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pearson |first=Jo |title=Inappropriate Sexuality? Sex Magic, S/M and Wicca (or 'Whipping Harry Potter's Arse!') |year=2005a |journal=Theology & Sexuality |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=31–42 |doi=10.1177/1355835805051876 |s2cid=145251262 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pearson |first=Joanne |title=Wicca and the Christian Heritage: Ritual, Sex and Magic |year=2007 |___location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415254144 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Pearson |editor-first1=Joanne |editor-last2=Roberts |editor-first2=Richard H. |editor-last3=Samuel |editor-first3=Geoffrey |title=Nature Religion Today: Paganism in the Modern World |year=1998 |isbn=9780748610570 |___location=Edinburgh |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Rountree |first=Kathryn |chapter=Context is Everything: Plurality and Paradox in Contemporary European Paganisms |title=Contemporary Pagan and Native Faith Movements in Europe: Colonialist and Nationalist Impulses |editor=Kathryn Rountree |___location=New York |publisher=Berghahn |pages=1–23 |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-78238-646-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Ruickbie |first=Leo |year=2004 |title=Witchcraft Out of the Shadows |___location=London |publisher=Hale }}
* {{harvc |last=Salomonsen |first=Jone |c=Feminist Witchcraft and Holy Hermeneutics |year=1998 |isbn=9780748610570 |in1=Pearson |in2=Roberts |in3=Samuel |pages=143–156}}
* {{harvc |last=Samuel |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Samuel |chapter=Paganism and Tibetan Buddhism: Contemporary Western Religions and the Question of Nature |year=1998 |in1=Pearson |in2=Roberts |in3=Samuel |pages=123–140}}
* {{cite journal |first=Jacqueline |last=Simpson |author-link=Jacqueline Simpson |date=1994 |title=Margaret Murray: Who Believed Her, and Why? |journal=Folklore |volume=105 |number=1–2 |pages=89–96 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1994.9715877}}
* {{cite book |last=Strmiska |first=Michael F. |chapter=Modern Paganism in World Cultures |title=Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives |publisher=ABC-Clio |___location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=1–53 |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85109-608-4 }}
{{Refend}}
====Wiccan literature====
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Buckland |first=Raymond |author-link=Raymond Buckland |title=Witchcraft From The Inside: Origins of the Fastest Growing Religious Movement in America |publisher=[[Llewellyn Publications]] |___location=St. Paul, MN |year=2002 |orig-year=1971 |edition=3rd |isbn=1-56718-101-5 |oclc=31781774 }}
* {{cite book |last=Buckland |first=Raymond |year=1986 |title=Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft |publisher=Llewellyn |___location=St. Paul, MN |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fr0pse0LBK0C |isbn=978-0-87542-050-9 |oclc=14167961}}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrar |first1=Janet |last2=Farrar |first2=Stewart |author-link1=Janet Farrar |author-link2=Stewart Farrar |title=A Witches' Bible: The Complete Witches Handbook |publisher=Phoenix Publishing |___location=London |year=1981 |isbn=0-919345-92-1 |oclc=62866821 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrar |first1=Janet |last2=Farrar |first2=Stewart |title=The Witches' Way: Principles, Rituals and Beliefs of Modern Witchcraft |publisher=Phoenix Publishing |year=1984 |isbn=0-919345-71-9 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrar |first1=Janet |last2=Farrar |first2=Stewart |title=The Witches' Goddess: The Feminine Principle of Divinity |publisher=Robert Hale Publishing |___location=London |year=1987 |isbn=0-7090-2800-8 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrar |first1=Janet |last2=Farrar |first2=Stewart |title=Eight Sabbats for Witches |publisher=Robert Hale Publishing |___location=London |year=1992 |orig-year=1981 |isbn=0-7090-4778-9 |oclc=26673966 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrar |first1=Janet |last2=Bone |first2=Gavin |author-link2=Gavin Bone |title=Progressive Witchcraft: Spirituality, Mysteries, and Training in Modern Wicca |publisher=New Age Books |___location=Franklin Lakes, NJ |year=2004 |isbn=1-56414-719-3 |oclc=53223741 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gallagher |first=Ann-Marie |author-link=Ann-Marie Gallagher |title=The Wicca Bible: the Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft |publisher=Sterling Publishing |___location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=1-4027-3008-X }}
* {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Gerald B. |author-link=Gerald Gardner |title=Witchcraft Today |year=1954 |place=London |publisher=Rider and Company |oclc=1059746 |title-link=Witchcraft Today }}
* {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Gerald B. |title=The Meaning of Witchcraft |publisher=Weiser Books |___location=Boston |year=2004 |orig-year=1959 |isbn=978-1-57863-309-8 |oclc=53903657 |title-link=The Meaning of Witchcraft }}
* {{cite book |last=Valiente |first=Doreen |author-link=Doreen Valiente |title=An ABC of Witchcraft Past and Present |year=1973 |publisher=Robert Hale Publishing |isbn=0-919345-77-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Valiente |first=Doreen |title=The Rebirth of Witchcraft |year=1989 |publisher=Robert Hale Publishing |___location=London |isbn=0-7090-3715-5 |oclc=59694320}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
===Significant historical works===
===Practices and beliefs===
* {{cite book |title=Coming to the Edge of the Circle: A Wiccan Initiation Ritual |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |first=Nikki |last=Bado-Fralick |year=2005 |isbn=0-19-516645-0 |ref=none}}
===History of Wicca===
* {{cite book |title=Gerald Gardner and the Witchcraft Revival: The Significance of His Life and Works to the Story of Modern Witchcraft |first=Philip |last=Heselton |author-link=Philip Heselton |publisher=[[I-H-O Books]] |year=2001 |isbn=1-872189-16-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Crafting the Art of Magic: A History of Modern Witchcraft, 1939–1964 |first=Aidan A. |last=Kelly |author-link=Aidan A. Kelly |publisher=Llewellyn |year=1991 |isbn=0-87542-370-1 |ref=none}}
===Wicca in different countries===
* {{cite book |title=A Community of Witches: Contemporary Neo-Paganism and Witchcraft in the United States |publisher=[[University of South Carolina Press]] |first=Helen A. |last=Berger |year=1999 |isbn=0-585-33796-9 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America |publisher=AltaMira Press |first=Chas S. |last=Clifton |year=2006 |isbn=0-7591-0201-5 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hallen |first1=B. |last2=Sodipo |first2=J. O. |year=1997 |title=Knowledge, Belief, and Witchcraft: Analytic Experiments in African Philosophy |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-2823-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia |publisher=Melbourne University Press |first=Lynne |last=Hume |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-522-84782-6 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Witching Culture: Folklore and Neo-Paganism in America |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |first=Sabina |last=Magliocco |author-link=Sabina Magliocco |year=2004 |isbn=0-8122-3803-6 |ref=none}}
===General===
* {{cite book |title=The Witch Book: The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, Wicca, and Neo-paganism |publisher=Visible Ink Press |first=Raymond |last=Buckland |author-link=Raymond Buckland |year=2002 |isbn=1-57859-114-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Farrar |first1=Janet |last2=Farrar |first2=Stewart |author-link1=Janet Farrar |author-link2=Stewart Farrar |title=The Witches' God: Lord of the Dance |publisher=Robert Hale |___location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-7090-3319-2 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Farrar |first=Stewart |title=What Witches Do: A Modern Coven Revealed |publisher=Robert Hale Publishing |year=1983 |isbn=0-919345-17-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/whatwitchesdomod00farr_0 |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Gaskill |first=M. |year=2010 |title=Witchcraft: A Very Short Introduction |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923695-4 |ref=none}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Gibbons |first=Jenny |title=Recent Developments in the Study of The Great European Witch Hunt |url=http://draeconin.com/database/witchhunt.htm |magazine=The Pomegranate |issue=5 |date=August 1998 |issn=1528-0268 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030505001203/http://draeconin.com/database/witchhunt.htm |archive-date=2003-05-05 |url-status=dead |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual Magic in Contemporary England |publisher=Picador |first=T. M. |last=Luhrmann |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-330-32946-0 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism |publisher=[[Kensington Books|Kensington]] |editor1-first=Shelly |editor1-last=Rabinovitch |editor2-first=James R. |editor2-last=Lewis |editor2-link=James R. Lewis (scholar) |year=2002 |isbn=0-8065-2406-5 |ref=none}}
{{WiccaandWitchcraft}}
{{Neopaganism}}
{{New Religious Movements}}
{{Paganism}}
{{Neo-druidism}}
{{Witchcraft}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Wicca| ]]
[[Category:1950s in England]]
[[Category:1950s in modern paganism]]
[[Category:New religious movements established in the 1950s]]
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