Tayap language: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Endangered Papuan language}}

{{Infobox language

| name = Tayap

| nativename = ''{{lang|gpn|Tayap mer}}''

| states = [[Papua New Guinea]]

| region = [[Gapun]] village, [[Marienberg Rural LLG]], [[East Sepik|East Sepik Province]]

Line 10 ⟶ 11:

| ref = e18

| familycolor = Papuan

|fam1 = [[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20221005221941/https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/families/torricelli-range-sepik-coast/sepik-coast/taiap Taiap] New Guinea World.</ref> or language isolate

| fam1=[[Unclassified language|Unclassified]], [[language isolate]] [[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]]<ref name=ngw/>

| fam2 = Sepik Coast

|fam3 = Tayap–Marienberg

| iso3 = gpn

| glotto = taia1239

Line 17 ⟶ 19:

| pushpin_map = Papua New Guinea

}}

{{GeoGroup}}

{{GeoGroupTemplate}}

'''Tayap''' (also spelled '''Taiap'''; called '''Gapun''' in earlier literature, after the name of the village in which it is spoken) is an [[endangered language|endangered]] Papuan language spoken by lessfewer thatthan 50 people in [[Gapun]] village of [[Marienberg Rural LLG]] in [[East Sepik Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]] ({{coord|-4.028746|144.50304|name=Gapun|type:city_region:PG}}, located just to the south of the [[Sepik River]] mouth near the coast).<ref name="Ethnologue22-PNG">{{citeCite web |urldate=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG/languages |title=Papua New Guinea languages |work=[[Ethnologue]]: Languages of the World |edition=22nd2019 |editor1editor-last=Eberhard |editor1editor-first=David M. |editor2-last=Simons |editor2-first=Gary F. |editor3-last=Fennig |editor3-first=Charles D. |datetitle=2019Papua |___location=DallasNew Guinea Languages |publisherurl=[[SIL International]]https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG/languages |accessurl-datestatus=2019-06-03live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603020858/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG/languages |archive-date=2019-06-03 |urlaccess-statusdate=live2019-06-03 |website=[[Ethnologue]]: Languages of the World |publisher=[[SIL International]] |___location=Dallas |edition=22nd}}</ref><ref name="UN-PNG">{{citeCite web |urllast=https://data.humdata.org/dataset/village-coordinates-lookupUnited Nations in |title=Papua New Guinea Village Coordinates Lookup|date=2018 |authortitle=United Nations in Papua New Guinea |work=HumanitarianVillage DataCoordinates ExchangeLookup |versionurl=1https://data.31humdata.9org/dataset/village-coordinates-lookup |date=2018 |accessurl-datestatus=2019-06-07live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190605192333/https://data.humdata.org/dataset/village-coordinates-lookup |archive-date=2019-06-05 |urlaccess-statusdate=live2019-06-07 |website=Humanitarian Data Exchange |version=1.31.9}}</ref> It is being replaced by the national language and [[lingua franca]] [[Tok Pisin]].

==History==

The first European to describe Tayap was [[{{ill|Georg Höltker]]|de}}, a German missionary-linguist, in 1937. Höltker spent three hours in the village and collected a word list of 125 words, which he published in 1938. He wrote that “it will be awhile before any other researcher ‘stumbles across’ Gapun, if only because of the small chances of worthwhile academic yields in this tiny village community, and also because of the inconvenient and arduous route leading to this linguistic island”.<ref>{{CitationCite journal |last =Höltker |first= Georg |authorlink author-link= Georg Höltker |title date=1938 |title=Eine fragmentarische Wörterliste der Gapún-Sprache NewguineasNeuguineas |publisher journal=Anthropos |language=en |volume=33 |dateissue= 19381/2 |pages =279–282 |jstor=41103168}}</ref>

Höltker's list was all that was known about Tayap in literature until the early 1970s, when the Australian linguist [[Donald Laycock]] travelled around the lower Sepik to collect basic vocabulary lists that allowed him to identify and propose classifications of the many languages spoken there. Tayap and its speakers have been extensively studied by linguistic anthropologist [[Don Kulick]] since the mid-1980s. The language is described in detail in ''Tayap Grammar and Dictionary: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language'' and in ''A Death in the Rainforest: How a Language and a Way of Life Came to an End in Papua New Guinea''.<ref>{{Citation sfnp|last=Kulick |first=Don |last2=Terrill |first2=Angela |title=A Grammar and Dictionary of Tayap: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language |series=Pacific Linguistics 661 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter Inc. |year=2019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VXWcDwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781501512209 |___location=Boston/Berlin}}</ref><ref>{{Citation harvp|last=Kulick |first=Don |title=A Death in the Rainforest: How a Language and a Way of Life Came to an End in Papua New Guinea |publisher= Algonquin Books. |year=2019 |___location=New York |isbn = 9781616209049}}</ref>

Until WWIIWorld War II, when Japanese soldiers occupied the area and caused the villagers to flee into the rainforest, [[Gapun]] was located on a hill that several thousand years earlier had been an island in the sea that receded and formed the lower Sepik River. This indicates that Tayap may be the descendant of an ancient, autochthonous language that was already in place before the various waves of migration from the inland to the coast began occurring thousands of years ago.<ref>{{Citation harvp|first=Malcolm |last=Ross |year=2005 |chapter=Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Pawley |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last2=Attenborough |editor-first3=Jack |editor-last3=Golson |editor-first4=Robin |editor-last4=Hide |title=Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples |series=Pacific Linguistics 572 |pages=17–65 |___location=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics}}</ref> Foley (2018) also speculates that Tayap could have been part of a larger language family that was spoken on the island before the arrival of Lower Sepik speakers. As the coastline moved further northeast, Lower Sepik speakers migrated from the foothills into the new land areas created by the receding waters.<ref>{{CitationCite book |last=Foley |first=William A. |authorlink=William A. Foley |editor1-last=Palmer |editor1-first=Bill |date=2018 |title=The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide |chapterdate=The2018 Languages|publisher=De ofGruyter theMouton Sepik|isbn=978-Ramu3-11-028642-7 Basin|editor-last=Palmer and Environs|editor-first=Bill |series= The World of Linguistics, Vol. |volume=4 |___location=Berlin |publisherpages=De Gruyter Mouton197–432 |pageslanguage=197–432en |isbnchapter=978The Languages of the Sepik-3Ramu Basin and Environs |author-11-028642-7link=William A. Foley}}</ref>

==Sociolinguistics==

Up to 2018, [[Gapun]] was the only village where Tayap is spoken, although some speakers of the language also lived in neighboring villages such as Wongan and Watam, having moved there because of marriage or as a result of conflicts over land or sorcery in Gapun. However, in 2018, Gapun village was burned down and abandoned due to violence among households. The former residents fled to the nearby villages of Wongan ({{coord|-3.999326|144.532123|type:city_region:PG|name=Wongan}}), Watam ({{coord|-3.906592|144.545246|type:city_region:PG|name=Watam}}), and Boroi.<ref name="Kulick-Terrill"/>{{rpsfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019|p=16}}

As a result of colonial activity,{{sfnp|Kulick|2019|pp=182–188}} Gapun villagers subconsciously associate Tok Pisin with Christianity, modernity and masculinity, and they associate Tayap with paganism, "backwardness", disruptive femininity and childish stubbornness. As a result, Tayap is being increasingly, but neither consciously nor deliberately, replaced by [[Tok Pisin]].,<ref name="harvp|Kulick|1992">{{harvp|Kulick|1992}}</ref> even though the villagers all express positive sentiments towards it and insist that they want their children to speak the language.{{sfnmp|Kulick|2019|1pp=182–188|2a1=Kulick|2a2=Terrill|2y=2019|2pp=1–3}} Villagers express bewilderment towards the fact that their children no longer actively speak Tayap, and believe that they have, out of stubbornness, decided to reject Tayap entirely, and that they have chosen to speak Tok Pisin instead.{{sfnp|Kulick|2019|pp=182–188}}

Unlike the neighboring patrilineal [[Lower Sepik-Ramu languages|Lower Sepik-Ramu]] speakers, Tayap speakers are matrilineal.<ref name="harvp|Kulick|1992" /> Tayap is typologically very different from the neighboring [[Lower Sepik-Ramu languages]].

Tayap also has many loanwords from the [[Kopar language|Kopar]] and [[Adjora language|Adjora]] languages.<ref name="Kulick-Terrill"/>{{rpsfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019|p=349}}

==Classification==

Tayap is [[unclassifiednot language|unclassified]]related andto maythe beneighboring aLower [[languageSepik isolate]]languages, though a relationship to the more distant [[Torricelli languages|Torricelli]] family has also been proposed by Usher (2020).<ref name="ngw">[https://sitesnewguineaworld.googlelinguistik.com/site/newguineaworlduzh.ch/families/torricelli-range-sepik-coast/sepik-coast/taiap New Guinea World --– Taiap]</ref> In the 1970s Australian linguist [[Donald Laycock]] classified Tayap (which he called "[[Gapun]]") as a sub-phylum of the Sepik-Ramu language phylum, on the basis of Georg Höltker's 1938 word list and a few verb paradigms that Laycock gathered from two speakers.<ref>{{Citation |last=Laycock |first=D.C.|title=Sepik Languages - Checklist and Preliminary Classification |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=1973 |series=Pacific Linguistics B-25 |___location=Canberra |doi=10.15144/pl-b25}}</ref>

In the 1970s Australian linguist [[Donald Laycock]] classified Tayap (which he called "[[Gapun]]") as a sub-phylum of the Sepik-Ramu language phylum, on the basis of Georg Höltker's 1938 word list and a few verb paradigms that Laycock gathered from two speakers.<ref>{{harvp|Laycock|1973}}</ref>

Kulick and Terrill (2019) found no evidence that Tayap is related to the Lower Sepik languages. The comparative vocabulary table below, adapted from Kulick and Terrill (2019: 11-12) and Foley (2005),<ref name="Foley-Sepik-Ramu">{{cite book | last = Foley | first = William A. | authorlink = William A. Foley | year = 2005 | chapter = Linguistic prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu basin | title = Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples | ___location = Canberra | publisher = Pacific Linguistics | isbn = 0858835622 | oclc = 67292782 | editor = [[Andrew Pawley]] | editor2 = Robert Attenborough | editor3 = Robin Hide | editor4 = Jack Golson | pages = 109&ndash;144 }}</ref> demonstrates the lexical aberrancy of Tayap as compared to the surrounding [[Lower Sepik languages]].<ref name="Kulick-Terrill"/> Cultural vocabulary such as 'village', 'canoe', 'oar', and 'lime', as well as the words for 'water' and 'eat', are shared with Lower Sepik languages. The word 'moon' is also shared with [[Kopar language|Kopar]]. However, most basic vocabulary items have no cognates in surrounding languages.

Kulick and Terrill (2019) found no evidence that Tayap is related to the Lower Sepik languages, another branch of the erstwhile Sepik-Ramu phylum. They conclude that Tayap is a [[language isolate]], though they do not compare it to other language families, as would be required to establish Tayap as an independent language family. Comparative vocabulary demonstrates the lexical aberrancy of Tayap as compared to the surrounding Lower Sepik languages: e.g. ''sene'' 'two' (cf. [[proto-Lower Sepik]] *ri-pa-), ''neke'' 'ear' (*kwand-), ''ŋgino'' 'eye' (*tambri), ''tar'' 'hear' (*and-), ''min'' 'breast' (*nɨŋgay), ''nɨŋg'' 'bone' (*sariŋamp), ''malɨt'' 'tongue' (*minɨŋ), ''mayar'' 'leaf' (*nɨmpramp) among the Holman ''et al.'' (2008) ranking of the [[Swadesh list]]. Cultural vocabulary such as 'village', 'canoe', 'oar', and 'lime', as well as the basic words ''awin'' 'water' (cf. *arɨm) and ''a'' 'eat' (cf. *am ~ *amb), may be shared with Lower Sepik languages. The word ''karep'' 'moon' is shared specifically with [[Kopar language|Kopar]] (''karep''). However, most basic vocabulary items have no apparent cognates in surrounding languages.<ref name="Foley-Sepik-Ramu">{{Cite book |last=Foley |first=William A. |title=Papuan Pasts: Cultural, Linguistic and Biological Histories of Papuan-Speaking Peoples |date=2005 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=0-85883-562-2 |editor-last=Pawley |editor-first=Andrew |editor-link=Andrew Pawley |series=Pacific Linguistics 572 |___location=Canberra |pages=109–144 |language=en |chapter=Linguistic Prehistory in the Sepik-Ramu Basin |hdl=1885/146735 |author-link=William A. Foley |editor-last2=Attenborough |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last3=Hide |editor-first3=Robin |editor-last4=Golson |editor-first4=Jack |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

:{| class="wikitable sortable"

! gloss !! Tayap !! [[proto-Lower Sepik|proto-<br/>Lower Sepik]] !! [[Kopar language|Kopar]] !! [[Yimas language|Yimas]] !! [[Karawari language|Karawi]] !! [[Chambri language|Chambri]] !! [[Angoram language|Angrm]] !! [[Nor language|Murik]]

==Phonology==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

|+ Consonants{{sfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019}}

! colspan="2" |

! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]

! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]

![[Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]

! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]

! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]

|-

! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]

| one || nambar || *mb(w)ia- || mbatep || mpa- || mba- || mbwia- || mbia- || abe

| {{IPA link|m}}

| {{IPA link|n}}

|

|

| {{IPA link|ŋ}}

|-

! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]

| two || sene || *ri-pa- || kombari || -rpal || ripay || -ri || -(lɨ)par || kobo

! {{small|plain}}

| {{IPA link|p}}

| {{IPA link|t}}

|

|

| {{IPA link|k}}

|-

! {{small|prenasal}}

| three || manaw || *-ram || keremɨŋ || -ramnaw || -rianmaw || -ram || -elɨm || keroŋgo

| {{IPA link|ᵐb}} ⟨mb⟩

| {{IPA link|ⁿd}} ⟨nd⟩

|{{IPA link|ⁿdʒ}} ⟨nj⟩

|

| {{IPA link|ᵑɡ}} ⟨ŋg⟩

|-

! colspan="2" | [[Fricative]]

| person || munje 'man' || *nor || nor || nar-maŋ || yarmasɨnar || noranan || || nor

|

| {{IPA link|s}}

|

|

|

|-

! colspan="2" | [[Liquid consonant|Liquid]]

| male || mɨŋan || *pon || || panmal || panmari || || pondo || puin

|

| {{IPA link|r}}

|

|

|

|-

! colspan="2" | [[Semivowel]]

| woman || noŋor || *ŋay || nana || ŋay || asay || kaye || nuŋor || ŋai

| {{IPA link|w}}

|-

|

| water || awin || *arɨm || arɨm || arɨm || arɨm || arɨm || alɨm || arɨm

|-

| {{IPA link|j}} ⟨y⟩

| fire || otar || *awr || awr || awt || awi || ayɨr || aluŋ || awr

|-

|}

| sun || arawer || || akɨn || tɨmal || sɨmari || sɨnmari || mbwino || akɨn

|-

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"

| moon || karep || *m(w)il ? || karep || mɨla || tuŋkwi || mwɨl || mɨle || karewan

|+ Vowels{{sfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019}}

|-

!

| star || ŋgudum, ŋgoijam, popro || || kinaŋ || awak || suŋkwiɲcirim || suŋgwi || areɲjo || moai

! [[Front vowel|Front]]

|-

! [[Central vowel|Central]]

| canoe || kaikro, kaisar || *kay || kain || kay || kay || ke || ke || gain

! [[Back vowel|Back]]

|-

| house || njam || || indan || nam || yam || kurɨr || nam || iran

|-

| village || num || *num || numot || num || imuŋka || num || num || nomot

|-

| breast || min || *nɨŋgay || niŋgin || nɨŋay || ɲjay || nɨŋke || ŋge || niŋgen

|-

| tooth || rewi || *sisiŋk ? || asirap || tɨrɨŋ || sɨsɨŋ || sraŋk || sisiŋ || asarap

|-

| blood || and || *ya- || yuwaran || yat || yay || yari || ayakone || yaran

|-

| bone || nɨŋg || *sariŋamp || sarekimp || tanɨm || tanɨm || anamp || salɨŋ || sariŋib̩

|-

| tongue || malɨt || *minɨŋ || mimiŋ || mɨɲɨŋ || mumɨɲɨŋ || tɨbulaniŋk || mɨnɨŋ || menɨŋ

|-

| eye || ŋgino || *tambri || nambrin || tuŋkuruŋ || sampɨs || sɨsiŋk || tambli || nabrin

|-

| nose || raw || || imbot || tɨkay || ipun || wambusu || naŋɨm || daur

|-

| leg || akan, ndow, mburkow || *namuŋk || namɨŋ || pamuŋ || pamuŋ || namaŋk || namuŋ ||

|-

| hair || kokɨrŋgrɨt || || ruar || wapwi || wampi || yawi || mbwikmaley || dwar

|-

| ear || neke || *kwand- || kundot || kwantumuŋ || kwandukas || kukunam || kwandum || karekep

|-

| egg || naŋa || *awŋ || awŋ || awŋ || yawŋ || awŋk || awŋ || gaug

|-

| leaf || mayar || *nɨmpramp || nɨmbiraŋ || nɨmprɨm || yimprɨm || nɨmpramp || namblum || nabirɨk

|-

| yesterday / tomorrow || ewar / epi || *ŋarɨŋ || rari || ŋarɨŋ || arɨŋ || namasɨnɨŋ || nakɨmɨn || ŋarɨŋ

|-

| oar || inaŋg || *(mɨ)naŋ || naŋ || muraŋ || mɨnaŋ || naŋk || inap || inaŋ

|-

| betelnut || minjike || *poruŋ || puruŋ || patn || payn || muntɨkɨn || parɨŋ || porog

|-

| lime || air || *awi(r) || air || awi || as || ayɨr || awer || air

|-

| pig || mbor || *numpran || nɨmbren || numpran || impian || numpran || imbar || nɨmbren

|-

| crocodile || orem || || uri || manpa || manpo || ayi || walami || oramen

|-

| snake || aram || *wakɨn || ikun || wakɨn || wakɨn || wan || paruŋ || wakɨn

|-

| mosquito || at || *naŋgun || nangɨt || naŋkun || yaŋkun || naŋgun || wawarɨn || nauk

|-

| ground || numat, sumbwa || *andi || andin || anti || anti || nɨŋkrump || andi || agin

|-

| feces || yɨwɨr || *mɨndi || mɨndɨ || mɨlɨm || mɨnti || muɲjar || mɨndi || mɨndɨn

|-

| hear || tar || *and- || nda || andɨ || andu || andɨ || andɨ || dɨn

|-

| hit || adu, o || *di || nɨŋ || tupul || kurar || dɨɨ || ti || di

|-

| eat || a || *am(b) || ma || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || am(b) || mɨn

|-

| go || okɨ || *wa || wa || wa || kuria || kal || wa || on

|-

| come || aiki || *ya || ya || ya || kurapia || ya || ya || ya

|-

! [[Close vowel|Close]]

| sit || tutuku || *sa || nda || tay || sa || nda || || sa

| {{IPA link|i}}

|

| {{IPA link|u}}

|-

! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]

| big || mɨr, suman || *kupa || kapu || kɨpa || kupa || wupa || kupa || apo

| {{IPA link|ɛ}} ⟨e⟩

| {{IPA link|ɵ}}~{{IPA link|ø}} ⟨ɨ⟩

| {{IPA link|ɔ}} ⟨o⟩

|-

! [[Back vowel|Back]]

| cold || || *sarV- || sarapakin || tarɨk || sarɨk || saruk || popant ||

|

| {{IPA link|a}}

|

|}

==PhonologyPronouns==

Tayap free pronouns in absolutive case, and object suffixes in the realis, are:{{sfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019}}

The Tayap consonants are:<ref name="Kulick-Terrill">{{cite book |last=Kulick |first=Don |last2=Terrill |first2=Angela |title=A Grammar and Dictionary of Tayap: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language |series=Pacific Linguistics 661 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter Inc. |year=2019 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VXWcDwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781501512209 |___location=Boston/Berlin}}</ref>

:{| {{table}}

|+Free pronouns

| p || t || || k

! !! sg !! pl

|-

! 1

| ᵐb || ⁿd || || ᵑɡ

| ŋa || yim

|-

! 2

| m || n || || ŋ

| yu || yum

|-

! 3m

| || s || ||

| ŋɨ || rowspan=2|ŋgɨ

|-

! 3f

| || r || ||

| ŋgu

|-

| w || || j ||

|}

Tayap has 6 vowels, which are:<ref name="Kulick-Terrill"/>

:{| {{table}}

|+Object suffixes

| i || || u

! !! sg !! du !! pl

|-

| e || ɨ || o

|-

| a || ||

|}

==Pronouns==

Tayap pronouns are:<ref name="Kulick-Terrill"/>

:{| {{table}}

! !! sg !! pl

|-

! 1

| -i || rowspan=2 colspan=2| -mɨ

| ŋa || yim

|-

! 2

| yu-u || yum

|-

! 3m

| -ŋgɨ || rowspan=2| -mɨ || rowspan=2| -mbɨ

| ŋɨ || ŋgɨ

|-

! 3f

| -ku

| ŋgu || ŋgɨ

|}

==Grammar==

Like many Sepik languages, Tayap is a [[synthetic language]]. Verbs are the most elaborated area of the grammar. They are complex, [[fusional]] and massively [[suppletive]], with opaque verbal morphology including unpredictable [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation classesclass]], both in terms of membership and formal marking.

ThereTayap is a fundamental distinction in verbal morphologydistinguishes between [[realis]] and [[irrealis]] stems and suffixes. Grammatical relations are marked by verbalVerbal suffixes, whichdistinguish distinguishbetween Subject/Agent (S/A) and Object (O)., In some conjugations S/Awhich is marked by discontinuous morphemes. Freein pronounssome andconjugations. noun phrases mark theThe [[ergative case]] (A) comparedis tomarked unmarkedby formsfree forpronouns and noun phrases, while the [[absolutive]] (S/O) does not have marked forms. As in many ergative Papuan languages which have an ergative case, the ergative marker is optionalnot andalways isincluded, frequentlyas omittedit is optional.{{sfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019|p=25}}

===Nouns===

Nouns generally do not mark number themselves, although there is a small class of largely human nouns which mark plural, and a smaller class which mark [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]]. These categories, where marked, are largely marked by partial or full suppletion. [[Oblique casescase]]s, largely local, are marked by clitics[[clitic]]s attached to the end of the oblique NP.<ref[[noun name="phrase]].{{sfnp|Kulick-|Terrill"/>|2019}}

===Gender===

Like many languages of the [[Sepik]]-[[Ramu]] basin (particularly the [[Sepik languages]]), TaiapTayap has masculine and feminine genders.

There are two genders, masculine and feminine, marked not on the noun itself but on deictics[[deictic]]s, the ergative marker, suppletive verbal stems and verbal affixesobject suffixes. The unmarked, generic form of all nouns, including animate nouns, even humans, is feminine: however, a male referent may be masculine. Another criterion is size and shape: long, thin and large referents tend to be masculine; short, stocky and small referents tend to be feminine. This type of gender-assignment system is typical of the Sepik region. Gender is only ever marked in the singular, never in the dual or plural.

==Lexicon==

Selected Tayap words from {{harvp|Kulick and |Terrill (|2019|pp=442–454}}: 442-454).

===Vertebrates===

Line 285 ⟶ 265:

| bee || mbadɨŋ

|-

| bee, type of || kunemb; arúmbatak kunemb; metawr

|-

| butterfly, moth || mumuk

Line 315 ⟶ 295:

| walking stick || nekan

|-

| praying mantis || ŋgat (also ‘cassowary’)

|-

| worm || kekékato

Line 383 ⟶ 363:

|}

In Tayap, a felled [[Metroxylon sagu|sago palm]] tree can be divided into 7 parts. The Tayap names are listed below, from the base (''wot'') to the crown (''mar'').<ref name="Kulick-Terrill"/>{{rpsfnp|Kulick|Terrill|2019|p=454}}

*''wot''

Line 422 ⟶ 402:

==References==

{{refbegin}}

* {{Cite book |last=Kulick |first=Don |title=Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction: Socialization, Self, and Syncretism in a Papua New Guinean Village |lastdate=Kulick |first=Don1992 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=97805214148450-521-41484-9 |series=Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language 14 |___location=Cambridge |reflanguage=harven}}

* {{citeCite book | last = Kulick | first = Don | title = A Death in the Rainforest: How a Language and a Way of Life Came to an End in Papua New Guinea |date=2019 |publisher = Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill |isbn=978-1-61620-904-9 |___location = Chapel Hill, North Carolina | year language= 2019 |isbn = 9781616209049 en}}

* {{Cite book |last=Kulick |first=Don |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VXWcDwAAQBAJ |title=A Grammar and Dictionary of Tayap: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language |last=Kulick |first=Don |last2=Terrill |first2=Angela |seriesdate=Pacific Linguistics 6612019 |publisher=Walter deDe Gruyter Inc.Mouton |yearisbn=2019978-1-5015-1220-9 |isbnseries=9781501512209Pacific Linguistics, Vol. 661 |___location=Boston/Berlin |reflanguage=harven}}

* {{Cite book |last=Laycock |first=D. C. |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/146478/1/PL-B25.pdf |title=Sepik Languages -– Checklist and Preliminary Classification |lastdate=Laycock |first=D.C.1973 |publisher=PacificThe LinguisticsAustralian National University |yearisbn=19730-85883-084-1 |series=Pacific Linguistics Series B- – No. 25 |___location=Canberra |language=en |doi=10.15144/pl-b25 |refhdl=1885/146478 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=harvfree}}

* {{Cite book |chapter-urllast=https://openresearch-repositoryLaycock |first=D.anu C.edu.au/bitstream/1885/145150/1/PL-C38.pdf |title=PapuanNew languagesGuinea andArea theLanguages Newand GuineaLanguage linguisticStudy sceneVol. 1: NewPapuan GuineaLanguages areaand languagesthe andNew languageGuinea studyLinguistic |last=Laycock |first=D.C.Scene |last2=Z'graggen |first2=John |date=1975 |publisher=PacificThe LinguisticsAustralian National University |yearisbn=19750-85883-132-5 |editor-last=Wurm |editor-first=Stephen A. |series=Pacific Linguistics Series C-38 |volume=volume– 1No. 38 |___location=Canberra |pages=731–763 |language=en |chapter=The Sepik–Ramu Phylum |doi=10.15144/plPL-c38C38.731 |hdl=1885/145150 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free}}

* {{Cite book |last=Ross |first=Malcolm |title=Papuan Pasts: Cultural, Linguistic and Biological Histories of Papuan-Speaking Peoples |date=2005 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |isbn=0-85883-562-2 |editor-last=Pawley |editor-first=Andrew |series=Pacific Linguistics 572 |___location=Canberra |pages=17–65 |language=en |chapter=Pronouns as a Preliminary Diagnostic for Grouping Papuan Languages |hdl=1885/146735 |editor-last2=Attenborough |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last3=Golson |editor-first3=Jack |editor-last4=Hide |editor-first4=Robin |hdl-access=free}}

* {{Cite book |first=Malcolm |last=Ross |year=2005 |chapter=Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=Pawley |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last2=Attenborough |editor-first3=Jack |editor-last3=Golson |editor-first4=Robin |editor-last4=Hide |title=Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples |series=Pacific Linguistics 572 |pages=17–65 |___location=Canberra |publisher=Pacific Linguistics}}

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