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{{Short description|Forced entry by a polity into another polity's territory}}
{{About|the military offensive}}
{{pp-move}}
{{original research|date=April 2013}}
{{history of war}}
[[File:OperationBarbarossa.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the first phase of [[Operation Barbarossa]] on 25 August, 1941]]
In [[geopolitics]], an '''invasion''' typically refers to a [[military offensive]] in which a [[polity]] sends combatants, usually in large numbers, to forcefully enter the territory of another polity,<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|invading}}</ref> with either side possibly being supported by one or more [[Alliance|allies]]. While strategic goals for an invasion can be numerous and complex in nature, the foremost tactical objective normally involves [[Military occupation|militarily occupying]] part or all of the invaded polity's territory. Today, if a polity conducts an invasion without having been attacked by their opponent beforehand, it is widely considered to [[Crime of aggression|constitute an international crime]] and condemned as an [[War of aggression|act of aggression]].
Historically, invasions have variously been associated with [[conquest]] and [[annexation]], [[Self-defence in international law|self-defence]] (if the invader was attacked first), [[War of liberation|liberation]] of the invaded polity's people (or of territory that had been occupied by it), or the establishment or re-establishment of control or authority over a territory. Other common motives include forcing the partition of a polity, toppling or altering the established [[government]] of a polity or gaining concessions from said government, or intervening to support a belligerent in a polity's [[civil war]].{{Cn|date=February 2024}}
An invasion can be the cause of a [[war]], be a part of a larger strategy to end a war, or it can constitute an entire war in itself. Due to the large scale of the military operations associated with invasions, they are usually strategic in planning and execution.{{not verified in body|date=April 2014}}
==History==
{{further|Invasionism}}
[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence indicates that invasions have been frequent occurrences since [[prehistory]]. In antiquity, before [[radio]] [[communication]]s and fast [[transportation]], the only way for a military to ensure adequate reinforcements was to move armies as one massive force. This, by its very nature, led to the strategy of invasion. With invasion came [[cultural diffusion|cultural exchanges]] in government, [[religion]], [[philosophy]], and [[technology]] that shaped the development of much of the [[ancient world]].<ref>
{{cite book
|title = The Punic Wars: Rome, Carthage, and the Struggle for the Mediterranean
|author = Bagnall, Nigel |year = 1990 |publisher = Thomas Dunne Books
|isbn = 0-312-34214-4 |url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/punicwars00bagn
}}
</ref>
Before the days of package tours and cut-price airlines, military invasions functioned as a standard major form of proto-[[tourism]]<ref>
Compare:
{{cite book
| last1 = Sharma
| first1 = K. K.
| title = Tourism and Culture
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MTkH01uMiEkC
| publisher = Sarup & Sons
| date = 1999
| page = 30
| isbn = 978-8176250566
| access-date = 21 May 2020
| quote = From its beginnings tourism is a kind of secondary invasion, secondary to outright military invasion or economic penetration.
}}
</ref> – bringing large numbers of foreign visitors into new environments, with the consequential social, cultural and economic impacts on indigenous populations and on the invaders.
==Defenses==
[[
States with potentially hostile neighbors typically adopt [[defense (military)|defensive measures]] to delay or forestall an invasion. In addition to utilizing geographical barriers such as [[river]]s, [[marsh]]es, or rugged [[terrain]], these measures have historically included [[fortification]]s. Such a defense can be intended to actively prevent invading forces from entering the country by means of an extended and well-defended barrier;
[[File:Castle Church and Harbour.JPG|thumb|left|View from [[Dover Castle]].]]
Alternatively, the fortifications can be built up at a series of sites, such as [[castle]]s or forts placed near a border. These structures are designed to delay an invasion long enough for the defending nation to mobilize an army of a size sufficient for defense or, in some cases, counter-invasion—such as, for example, the [[Maginot Line]]. Forts can be positioned so that the [[garrison]]s can interdict the [[supply line]]s of the invaders. The theory behind these spaced forts is that the invader cannot afford to bypass these defenses, and so must lay [[siege]] to the structures.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fortress France: The Maginot Line and French Defenses in World War II|author1=Kaufmann, J.E. |author2=Kaufmann, H.W.|year=2005 |publisher=Prager Security International |isbn=0-275-98345-5}}</ref>
[[
In modern times, the notion of constructing large-scale static defenses to combat land-based threats has largely become obsolete. The use of precision air campaigns and large-scale [[mechanized warfare|mechanization]] have made lighter, more mobile defenses desirable to military planners. The obsolescence of large fortifications was displayed by the failure of the [[Maginot Line]] in the beginning of World War Two. Nations defending against modern invasions normally use large population centers such as [[city|cities]] or [[town]]s as defensive points. The invader must capture these points to destroy the defender's ability to wage war. The defender uses mobile [[armoured warfare|armored]] and [[infantry]] divisions to protect these points, but the defenders are still very mobile and can normally retreat. A prominent example of the use of cities as fortifications can be seen in the [[Military of Iraq|Iraqi Army]]'s stands in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] at [[Baghdad]], [[Tikrit]], and [[Basra]] in the major combat in the [[
However, static emplacements remain useful in both defense against naval attacks and [[anti-aircraft warfare|defense against air attacks]]. [[Naval mine]]s are still an inexpensive but effective way to defend [[port]]s and choke off supply lines. Large static air defense systems that combine antiaircraft guns with [[
[[Island nation]]s, such as the [[United Kingdom]] or [[Japan]], and continental states with extensive [[coast]]s, such as the United States, have utilized a significant [[navy|naval]] presence to forestall an invasion of their country, rather than fortifying their border areas. A successful naval defense, however, usually requires a preponderance of naval power and the ability to sustain and service that defense force.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
In particularly large nations, the defending force may also [[withdrawal (military)|retreat]]
==Methods==
[[File:German troops parade through Warsaw, Poland, 09-1939 - NARA - 559369.jpg|thumb|German troops march through Warsaw, Poland, in 1939 during the [[Invasion of Poland#German invasion|German invasion of Poland]].]]
There are many different methods by which an invasion can take place, each method having arguments both in their favour and against. These include invasion by land, sea, or air, or any combination of these methods.
===
Invasion over land is the straightforward entry of [[armed forces]] into an area using existing land connections, usually crossing [[border]]s or otherwise defined zones, such as a [[demilitarized zone]], overwhelming defensive emplacements and structures. Although this tactic often results in a quick victory, troop movements are relatively slow and subject to disruption by terrain and weather. Furthermore, it is hard to conceal plans for this method of invasion, as most geopolitical entities take defensive positions in areas that are the most vulnerable to the methods mentioned above.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
In modern warfare, invasion by land often takes place after, or sometimes during, attacks on the target by other means. Air strikes and [[cruise missile]]s launched from ships at sea are a common method of "softening" the target. Other, more subtle, preparations may involve secretly garnering popular support, [[assassination|assassinating]] potentially threatening political or military figures, and closing off supply lines where they cross into neighboring countries. In some cases, those other means of attack eliminate the need for ground assault; the 1945 atomic-bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki ultimately made it unnecessary for the Allies to invade the Japanese home islands with infantry troops. In cases such as this, while some ground troops are still needed to occupy the conquered territory, they are allowed to enter under the terms of a [[treaty]] and as such are no longer invaders. As unmanned, long-range combat evolves, the instances of basic overland invasion become fewer; often the conventional fighting is effectively over before the infantry arrives in the role of peacekeepers (see "[[#Applications regarding non-state combatants|Applications regarding non-state combatants]]" in this article).{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
===By sea===
[[File:US Navy 030113-N-2972R-114 A Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC) Vehicle from Assault Craft Unit Four (ACU-4) transports Marine Assault Vehicles to Kearsarge.jpg|thumb|A [[Landing craft#Landing Craft Air Cushion (LCAC)|hovercraft]] carrying [[LAV 25|armored vehicles]] ashore during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]]]
Invasion by sea is the use of a body of water to facilitate the entry of armed forces into an area, often a landmass adjoining the body of water or an island. This is generally used either in conjunction with another method of invasion, and especially before the [[aviation history|invention of flight]], for cases in which there is no other method to enter the territory in question. Arguments in favor of this method usually consist of the ability to perform a surprise attack from sea, or that naval defenses of the area in question are inadequate to repel such an attack. However, the large amount of specialized equipment, such as [[amphibious vehicle]]s and the difficulty of establishing defenses—usually with a resulting high [[casualty (person)|casualty count]]—in exchange for a relatively small gain, are often used as arguments against such an invasion method. Underwater hazards and a lack of good cover are very common problems during invasions from the sea. At the [[Battle of Tarawa]], [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] landing craft became hung up on a [[coral reef]] and were [[shell (projectile)|shelled]] from the beach. Other landers were sunk before they could reach the shore, and the [[tank]]s they were carrying were stranded in the water. Most of the few survivors of the first wave ended up pinned down on the beach.<ref>{{cite web | author=Ashton, Douglas F.| title=Tarawa: Testing Ground For The Amphibious Assault| year=1989 | url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1989/ADF.htm| access-date=February 11, 2006}}</ref> The island was conquered but at a heavy cost, and the loss of life sparked mass protests from civilians in the United States.
===
[[File:Waves of paratroops land in Holland.jpg|thumb|right|Thousands of [[paratrooper]]s descend during [[Operation Market Garden]] in September 1944.]]
Invasion by air is an invention of the 20th century and [[modern warfare]]. The idea involves sending military units into a territory by [[aircraft]]. The aircraft either land, allowing the military units to debark and attempt their objective, or the troops exit the aircraft while still in the air, using [[parachute]]s or similar devices to land in the territory being invaded. Many times air assaults have been used to pave the way for a ground- or sea-based invasion, by taking key positions deep behind enemy lines such as bridges and crossroads, but an entirely air-based invasion has never succeeded. Two immediate problems are resupply and reinforcement. A large airborne force cannot be adequately supplied without meeting up with ground forces; an airborne force too small simply places themselves into an immediate envelopment situation. Arguments in favor of this method generally relate to the ability to target specific areas that may not necessarily be easily accessible by land or sea, a greater chance of surprising the enemy and overwhelming defensive structures, and, in many cases, the need for a reduced number of forces due to the element of surprise. Arguments against this method typically involve capacity to perform such an invasion—such as the sheer number of planes that would be needed to carry a sufficient number of troops—and the need for a high level of [[espionage|intelligence]] in order for the invasion to be successful.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
The closest examples to a true air invasion are the [[Battle of Crete]], [[Chindits#Operation Thursday|Operation Thursday]] (the [[Chindits]] second operation during the [[Burma Campaign]]) and [[Operation Market Garden]]. The latter was an assault on the German-occupied [[Netherlands]] conducted in September 1944. Nearly 35,000 men were dropped by parachute and [[military glider|glider]] into enemy territory in an attempt to capture bridges from the Germans and make way for the Allies' advance. However, even with such a massive force taking the Germans completely by surprise, the assault was a tactical failure and after 9 days of fighting the Allies managed only to escape back to their own lines, having sustained over 18,000 casualties.<ref>{{cite book | title = Hell's Highway: Chronicle of the 101st Airborne Division in the Holland Campaign, September–November 1944 | author = Koskimaki, George E. | year = 1989 | publisher = 101st Airborne Division Association | isbn = 1-877702-03-X}}</ref> In the 21st century, as vast improvements are made in anti-aircraft defenses, it seems that the air invasion is a strategy whose time may never come.
===Pacification===
[[
Once political boundaries and military lines have been breached, [[peace|pacification]] of the region is the final, and arguably the most important, goal of the invading force. After the defeat of the regular military, or when one is lacking, continued opposition to an invasion often comes from civilian or paramilitary [[resistance movement]]s. Complete pacification of an occupied country can be difficult, and usually impossible, but popular support is vital to the success of any invasion.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
Media [[propaganda]] such as leaflets, books, and radio broadcasts can be used to encourage resistance fighters to surrender and to dissuade others from joining their cause. Pacification, often referred to as "the winning of hearts and minds", reduces the desire for civilians to take up resistance. This may be accomplished through [[brainwashing|reeducation]], allowing conquered citizens to participate in their government, or, especially in impoverished or besieged areas, simply by providing food, water, and shelter. Sometimes displays of military might are used; invading forces may assemble and parade through the streets of conquered towns, attempting to demonstrate the futility of any further fighting. These displays may also include public [[capital punishment|executions]] of enemy soldiers, resistance fighters, and other conspirators. Particularly in antiquity, the death or imprisonment of a popular leader was sometimes enough to bring about a quick surrender. However, this has often had the unintended effect of creating [[martyr]]s around which popular resistance can rally.
==Support==
===Logistics===
[[File:Выдвижение танкового подразделения в Киевской области в ходе вторжения на Украину 006.png|thumb|Russian convoy in Kyiv region, during 2022 invasion.]]
Without a steady flow of supplies, an invading force will soon find itself retreating. Before his invasion of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]] spent three years amassing supplies from all over Asia; [[Herodotus]] wrote that the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] army was so large it "drank the rivers dry".<ref>{{cite web| author=Rowland, Stephen| title=Persian society in the time of Darius and Xerxes| year=2005| url=http://hsc.csu.edu.au/ancient_history/societies/near_east/2498/persian_army.html| access-date=February 24, 2006| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060224010215/http://hsc.csu.edu.au/ancient_history/societies/near_east/2498/persian_army.html| archive-date=February 24, 2006| url-status=dead| df=mdy-all}}</ref>
In most invasions, even in modern times, many fresh supplies are gathered from the invaded territories themselves. Before the [[laws of war]], invaders often relied heavily on the supplies they would win by conquering towns along the way. During the [[Second Punic War]], for example, [[
===Communication===
[[
Another consideration is the importance of leadership being able to communicate with the invasion force. In ancient times, this often meant that a king needed to lead his armies in person to be certain his commands were timely and followed, as in the case of [[Alexander the Great]] (356–323 BCE). At that time, the skills needed to lead troops in battle were as important as the skills needed to run a country during peacetime. When it was necessary for the king to be elsewhere, messengers would relay updates back to the rear, often on horseback or, in cases such as the [[Battle of Marathon]] (490 BCE), with swift runners.{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
When possible, [[sloop]]s and [[
The development of [[Morse Code]], and later of voice communications by radio and satellite, have allowed even small units of skirmishers to remain in contact with
=== Public relations ===
[[File:President Zelenskyy says Russia is a grave threat to the European way of life (52678467391).jpg|thumb|President of Ukraine [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] addressing the European Parliament during an extraordinary plenary session in Brussels.]]
In diplomatic, public relations and propaganda terms, it may help an invader (or a potential invader) to have an invitation as an excuse to intervene with a view to "restoring order" or "righting wrongs". Dissident groups, [[fifth column]]s or official circles may conspire to "call in" foreign assistance. Cases include:
* From the point of view of the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[First Crusade]]'s invasion and conquest of the Levant (1096–1099) resulted from an invitation issued by Emperor [[Alexios I Komnenos]] in 1095, seeking assistance against the Turks in Anatolia.
* English barons opposed to King [[John of England|John]] invited the French Prince [[Louis VIII of France|Louis]] to undertake a French invasion of England in the [[First Barons' War]] of 1215–1217.
* In 1688 an [[invitation to William]] of Orange to invade Britain helped the [[Glorious Revolution]].
* [[Wolfe Tone]] asked for French intervention (the unsuccessful [[Expédition d'Irlande]], 1796) in the lead-up to the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]].
* Some members of the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] allegedly called for Soviet intervention during the [[Prague Spring]] of 1968, which ended with the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]] in August 1968.
National foundation-legends can echo the theme of inviting foreign warriors to come and rule a people: note the traditional account in the ''[[Tale of Bygone Years]]'' of how [[Varangian]] invaders came establish long-term rule in [[Veliky Novgorod|Novgorod]] (and subsequently throughout [[Russia]]).
In contrast, in modern times, a defender can improve public relations with a right message: Ukrainian President [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]]'s popularity was suffering after years of his presidency, but during the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in 2022 his popularity improved dramatically, while Putin's image of a calculating strategist was damaged and Russia was growingly being seen as a [[Pariah state|pariah in the international stage]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=LINTHICUM |first=KATE |last2=BULOS |first2=NABIH |date=2022-02-28 |title=Ukraine is winning — at least in the public relations battle |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2022-02-27/zelensky-is-beating-putin-at-least-in-the-public-relations-battle |access-date=2023-07-21 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |quote=The war for Ukraine may be far from decided, but in the public relations battle, Zelensky is clearly winning. [...] As a possible conflict with Moscow loomed in recent months, many Ukrainians wondered whether Zelensky had the steel nerves a wartime president needed to keep the country together against the formidable Russian force [...] But in the four days since Russia invaded, Zelensky has shone}}</ref>
==Applications regarding non-state combatants==
In the 20th and 21st centuries, questions arose regarding the effectiveness of the invasion strategy in neutralizing non-state combatants, a type of warfare sometimes referred to as "[[fourth generation warfare]]". In this case, one or more combatant groups are controlled not by a centralized state government but by independent leadership, and these groups may be made up of civilians, foreign agents, [[mercenary|mercenaries]], politicians, religious leaders, and members of the regular military. These groups act in smaller numbers, are not confined by borders, and do not necessarily depend on the direct support of the state. Groups such as these are not easily defeated by straightforward invasion, or even constant occupation; the country's regular army may be defeated, the government may be replaced, but [[asymmetric warfare]] on the part of these groups can be continued indefinitely.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hackworth, David H.|title=Fallujah: Saved for Democracy?|year=2004 |url=http://www.military.com/Opinions/0,,Hackworth_111804,00.html |access-date=February 19, 2006}}</ref> Because regular armed forces units do not have the flexibility and independence of small [[covert cell]]s, many believe that the concept of a powerful occupying force actually creates a disadvantage.<ref>{{cite web |author=Lind, William S.|title=Understanding Fourth Generation War|year=2003 |url=http://www.military.com/NewContent/0,13190,Lind_121903,00.html |access-date=February 19, 2006}}</ref>
An opposing theory holds that, in response to extremist ideology and unjust governments, an invasion can change the government and reeducate the people, making prolonged resistance unlikely and averting future violence. This theory acknowledges that these changes may take time—generations, in some cases—but holds that immediate benefits may still be won by reducing membership in, and choking the supply lines of, these covert cells. Proponents of the invasion strategy in such conflicts maintain the belief that a strong occupying force can still succeed in its goals on a tactical level, building upon numerous small victories, similar to a war of attrition.<ref>{{cite web |author=North, Oliver L.|title=Winning in Iraq, One Step at a Time|year=2005 |url=http://www.military.com/Opinions/0,,FreedomAlliance_051905,00.html |access-date=February 19, 2006}}</ref>
Contemporary debate on this issue is still fresh; neither side can claim to know for certain which strategies will ultimately be effective in defeating non-state combatants. Opponents of the invasion strategy point to a lack of examples in which occupying or [[peacekeeping]] forces have met with conclusive success.<ref>Lind, William S., op. cit.</ref> They also cite continuing conflicts such as [[The Troubles|Northern Ireland]], [[Al-Aqsa Intifada|Israel]], [[Second Chechen War|Chechnya]], and [[Casualties of the conflict in Iraq since 2003|Iraq]], as well as examples which they claim ultimately proved to be failures, such as [[Multinational Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], and [[Soviet–Afghan War|Afghanistan]]. Supporters of the invasion strategy hold that it is too soon to call those situations failures, and that patience is needed to see the plan through. Some say that the invasions themselves have, in fact, been successful, but that political opponents<ref>{{cite web |author=North, Oliver L.|title=Operation Pessimism and Perplexity|year=2004 |url=http://www.military.com/Opinions/0,,FreedomAlliance_100704,00.html |access-date=February 19, 2006}}</ref> and the international media<ref>{{cite web |author=Moore, Steven|title=The Truth About Iraq: Media Bias|year=2004 |url=http://www.thetruthaboutiraq.org/media.htm|access-date=February 19, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060207043607/http://www.thetruthaboutiraq.org/media.htm |archive-date=February 7, 2006}}</ref> skew the facts for [[sensationalism]] or political gain.
==Outcomes==
The outcomes of an invasion may vary according to the objectives of both invaders and defenders, the success of the invasion and the defense, and the presence or absence of an agreed settlement between the warring parties. The most common outcome of a successful invasion is the loss of territory from the defender, generally accompanied by a change in government and often the loss of direct control of that government by the losing faction. This sometimes results in the transformation of that country into a [[client state]], often accompanied by requirements to pay [[war reparations|reparations]] or [[tribute]] to the victor. In other cases the results of a successful invasion may simply be a return to the [[status quo]]; this can be seen in [[attrition warfare|wars of attrition]], when the destruction of personnel and supplies is the main strategic objective,<ref>{{cite web | author=Brush, Peter| title=Civic Action: The Marine Corps Experience in Vietnam| year=1994 | url= http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/central/brush/CivicAction.htm| access-date=February 11, 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060208094022/http://www.library.vanderbilt.edu/central/brush/CivicAction.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = February 8, 2006}}</ref> or where a nation previously subdued and currently occupied by an aggressive third party is restored to control of its own affairs (i.e. Western Europe following the Normandy landings in 1944, or Kuwait following the defeat of Iraq in 1991). In some cases, the invasion may be strategically limited to a geographical area, which is carved into a separate state as with the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in 1971.
== See also ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Aggression]]
* [[Combat]]
* [[Conquest]]
* [[Invasion literature]]
* [[List of invasions]]
* [[Military occupation]]
* [[Military occupation|Military rule]]
* [[Power projection]]
* [[Sovereignty]]
* [[Trespass]]
* [[War of aggression]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Invasions| ]]
[[Category:Wars by type]]
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