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'''Dual-coding theory''', a theory of cognition, was hypothesized by [[Allan Paivio]] of the University of Western Ontario in 1971. In developing this theory, Paivio used the idea that the formation of mental images [[Picture superiority effect|aids]] learning.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Reed, Stephen K.|title=Cognition : theories and applications|isbn=978-1-133-49228-3|oclc=1040947645}}</ref> According to Paivio, there are two ways a person could expand on learned material: verbal associations and visual imagery. Dual-coding theory postulates that both visual and verbal [[information]] is used to represent [[information]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Sternberg, Robert J, author.|title=Cognitive psychology|date=January 2016|isbn=978-1-305-64465-6|oclc=1037299606}}</ref> Visual and verbal [[information]] are processed differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each channel. The mental codes corresponding to these representations are used to organize incoming information that can be acted upon, stored, and retrieved for subsequent use. Both visual and verbal codes can be used when recalling information.<ref name=":1" /> For example, say a person has stored the stimulus concept "dog" as both the word 'dog' and as the image of a dog. When asked to recall the stimulus, the person can retrieve either the word or the image individually, or both simultaneously. If the word is recalled, the image of the dog is not lost and can still be retrieved at a later point in time. The ability to code a stimulus two different ways increases the chance of remembering that item compared to if the stimulus was only coded one way.
There has been controversy to the limitations of the dual-coding theory. Dual-coding theory does not take into account the possibility of cognition being mediated by something other than words and images. Not enough research has been done to determine if words and images are the only way we remember items, and the theory would not hold true if another form of codes were discovered.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last=Pylyshyn|first=Zenon W.|title=What the Mind's Eye Tells the Mind's Brain: A Critique of Mental Imagery|date=1973|work=Images, Perception, and Knowledge|pages=1–36|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-94-010-1193-8_1|isbn=978-94-010-1195-2}}</ref> Another limitation of the dual-coding theory is that it is only valid for tests on which people are asked to focus on identifying how concepts are related.<ref name=":0" /> If associations between a word and an image cannot be formed, it is much harder to remember and recall the word at a later point in time. While this limits the effectiveness of the dual-coding theory, it is still valid over a wide range of circumstances and can be used to improve memory.<ref name=":0" />
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