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'''Human-based computation''' ('''HBC'''), '''human-assisted computation''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://commonsensereasoning.org/2007/papers/shahaf-and-amir.pdf |title=Towards a Theory of AI Completeness |author=Shahaf, Dafna; and Eyal Amir |date=28 March 2007 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> '''ubiquitous human computing''' or '''distributed thinking''' (by analogy to [[distributed computing]]) is a [[computer science]] technique in which a machine performs its function by outsourcing certain steps to humans, usually as [[microwork]]. This approach uses differences in abilities and alternative costs between humans and computer agents to achieve symbiotic human–computer interaction. For computationally difficult tasks such as image recognition, human-based computation plays a central role in training [[Deep Learning]]-based [[Artificial intelligence|Artificial Intelligence]] systems. In this case, human-based computation has been referred to as '''human-aided artificial intelligence'''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mühlhoff|first=Rainer|date=2019-11-06|title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning |journal=New Media & Society |volume=22|issue=10|language=en|pages=1868–1884|doi=10.1177/1461444819885334|s2cid=209363848|issn=1461-4448|url=https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/12510}}</ref>
In traditional computation, a human employs a computer<ref>the term "computer" is used the modern usage of computer, not the one of [[human computer]]</ref> to solve a problem; a human provides a formalized problem description and an algorithm to a computer, and receives a solution to interpret.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.csee.umbc.edu/courses/471/papers/turing.pdf|author=Turing, Alan M.|title=Computer Machinery and Intelligence|date=1950|access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> Human-based computation frequently reverses the roles; the computer asks a person or a large group of people to solve a problem,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1225961?section=abstract|title=Automatic concept evolution|author=Fogarty, Terence C.|date=20 August 2003|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> then collects, interprets, and integrates their solutions. This turns hybrid networks of humans and computers into "large scale distributed computing networks".<ref>{{Citation|last=von Ahn|first=Luis|title=Human Computation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tx082gDwGcM |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/tx082gDwGcM |archive-date=2021-12-19 |url-status=live |volume=Google Tech Talk July 26, 2006 |access-date=2019-11-22}}{{cbignore}}. Cited after Mühlhoff, Rainer (2019). [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444819885334 "Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning".] New Media & Society: 146144481988533. doi:10.1177/1461444819885334. ISSN 1461-4448.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://fc05.ifca.ai/p26.pdf|title=Secure Distributed ''Human'' Computation |author=Gentry, Craig; Zulfikar Ramzan, and Stuart Stubblebine |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite
==Early work==
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A concept of the automatic [[Turing test]] pioneered by [[Moni Naor]] (1996)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~naor/PAPERS/human_abs.html |author=Naor, Moni |title=Verification of a human in the loop or Identification via the Turing Test |access-date=12 May 2021}}</ref> is another precursor of human-based computation. In Naor's test, the machine can control the access of humans and computers to a service by challenging them with a [[natural language processing]] (NLP) or [[computer vision]] (CV) problem to identify humans among them. The set of problems is chosen in a way that they have no algorithmic solution that is both effective and efficient at the moment. If it existed, such an algorithm could be easily performed by a computer, thus defeating the test. In fact, Moni Naor was modest by calling this an automated Turing test. The [[imitation game]] described by [[Alan Turing]] (1950) didn't propose using CV problems. It was only proposing a specific NLP task, while the Naor test identifies and explores a large [[AI-complete|class]] of problems, not necessarily from the ___domain of NLP, that could be used for the same purpose in both automated and non-automated versions of the test.
Finally, [[Human-based genetic algorithm]] (HBGA)<ref>{{cite
==Classes of human-based computation==
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* (CH) [[Interactive genetic algorithm|Interactive EC]] (Dawkins, 1986; Caldwell and Johnston, 1991; Sims, 1991) IEC enables the user to create an abstract drawing only by selecting his/her favorite images, so human only performs fitness computation and software performs innovative role. [Unemi 1998] Simulated breeding style introduces no explicit fitness, just selection, which is easier for humans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/CFKO199811920543230.page |author=Unemi, Tastsuo |title=A Design of Multi-Field User Interface for Simulated Breeding, pp. 489-494 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref>
* (HH<sub>2</sub>) [[Wiki]] (Cunningham, 1995) enabled editing the web content by multiple users, i.e. supported two types of human-based innovation (contributing new page and its incremental edits). However, the selection mechanism was absent until 2002, when wiki has been augmented with a revision history allowing for reversing of unhelpful changes. This provided means for selection among several versions of the same page and turned wiki into a [[The Wiki Way|tool]] supporting collaborative content evolution (would be classified as human-based evolution strategy in EC terms).
* (HH<sub>3</sub>) [[Human-based genetic algorithm]] (Kosorukoff, 1998) uses both human-based selection and three types of human-based innovation (contributing new content, mutation, and recombination). Thus, all operators of a typical [[genetic algorithm]] are outsourced to humans (hence the origin of '''human-based'''). This idea is extended to integrating crowds with genetic algorithm to study creativity in 2011.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/1978942.1979147 |title=Cooks or cobblers?: Crowd creativity through combination |author=Yu, Lixiu; and Jeffrey V. Nickerson |doi=10.1145/1978942.1979147 |s2cid=11287874 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref>
* (HH<sub>1</sub>) [[Social search]] applications accept contributions from users and attempt to use human evaluation to select the fittest contributions that get to the top of the list. These use one type of human-based innovation. Early work was done in the context of HBGA. [[Digg]] and [[Reddit]] are recently popular examples. See also [[Collaborative filtering]].
* (HC) Computerized tests. A computer generates a problem and presents it to evaluate a user. For example, [[CAPTCHA]] tells human users from computer programs by presenting a problem that is supposedly easy for a human and difficult for a computer. While CAPTCHAs are effective security measures for preventing automated abuse of online services, the human effort spent solving them is otherwise wasted. The [[reCAPTCHA]] system makes use of these human cycles to help digitize books by presenting words from scanned old books that optical character recognition cannot decipher.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~biglou/reCAPTCHA_Science.pdf |title=reCAPTCHA: Human-Based Character Recognition via Web Security Measures |author=von Ahn, Luis; Benjamin Maurer, Colin McMillen, David Abraham, and Manuel Blum |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref>
* (HC) Interactive online games: These are programs that extract knowledge from people in an entertaining way.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.20q.net/index.html |author=Burgener, Robin |title=20Q . net. Twenty Questions. The neural-net on the Internet. Play Twenty Questions |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000229091147/http://www.20q.net/index.html |archive-date=29 February 2000 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~biglou/ESP.pdf |title=Labeling Images with a Computer Game |author=von Ahn, Luis, and Laura Dabbish |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~biglou/Verbosity.pdf |title=Verbosity: A Game for Collecting Common-Sense Facts |author=von Ahn, Luis; Mihir Kedia, and Manuel Blum |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~biglou/Phetch.pdf |title=Improving Accessibility of the Web with a Computer Game |author=von Ahn, Luis; Shiri Ginosar, Mihir Kedia, Ruoran Liu, and Manuel Blum |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=7980953.PN.&OS=PN/7980953&RS=PN/7980953 |title=Method for labeling images through a computer game |author=von Ahn, Luis |date=19 July 2011 |access-date=12 May 2022}}{{US patent|7980953}}</ref>
* (HC) "Human Swarming" or "Social Swarming". The UNU platform for human swarming establishes real-time closed-loop systems around groups of networked users molded after biological swarms, enabling human participants to behave as a unified [[collective intelligence]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sites.lsa.umich.edu/collectiveintelligence/wp-content/uploads/sites/176/2015/05/Rosenberg-CI-2015-Abstract.pdf |title=Human Swarms: a real-time paradigm for Collective intelligence |author=Rosenberg, Louis B.|access-date=12 May 2021}}</ref><ref>http://sites.lsa.umich.edu/collectiveintelligence/wp-content/uploads/sites/176/2015/05/Rosenberg-CI-2015-Abstract.pdf {{Bare URL PDF |date=March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html |title=Swarms: a real-time paradigm for Collective intelligence |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027132802/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html |archive-date=27 October 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=924249 |title=Infotopia: How Many Minds Produce Knowledge |author=Sunstein, Cass R. |date=August 16, 2006 |ssrn=924249 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1381502 |title=Harnessing Crowds: Mapping the Genome of Collective Intelligence |author=Malone, Thomas W.; Robert Laubacher, and Chrysanthos Dellarocas |date=February 3, 2009 |ssrn=1381502 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html |title=Human Swarms, a real-time method for collective intelligence |access-date=October 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151027132802/https://mitpress.mit.edu/sites/default/files/titles/content/ecal2015/ch117.html |archive-date=October 27, 2015 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.discovery.com/human/life/swarms-of-humans-power-a-i-platform-150603.htm |title=Swarms of Humans Power A.I. Platform : Discovery News |access-date=June 21, 2015 |archive-date=June 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621165834/http://news.discovery.com/human/life/swarms-of-humans-power-a-i-platform-150603.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* (NHC) Natural Human Computation involves leveraging existing human behavior to extract computationally significant work without disturbing that behavior.<ref>[https://arxiv.org/abs/1306.6376 Estrada, Daniel, and Jonathan Lawhead, "Gaming the Attention Economy" in ''The Springer Handbook of Human Computation'', Pietro Michelucci (ed.), (Springer, 2014)]</ref> NHC is distinguished from other forms of human-based computation in that rather than involving outsourcing computational work to human activity by asking humans to perform novel computational tasks, it involves taking advantage of previously unnoticed computational significance in existing behavior.
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Viewed as a form of social organization, human-based computation often surprisingly turns out to be more robust and productive than traditional organizations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://research.3form.com/alex/pub/gecco-2002-18.pdf |title=Evolutionary Computation as a Form of Organization |author=Kosorukoff, Alexander, and David Goldberg |date=2002 |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707063732/http://research.3form.com/alex/pub/gecco-2002-18.pdf |archive-date=7 July 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The latter depend on obligations to maintain their more or less fixed structure, be functional and stable. Each of them is similar to a carefully designed mechanism with humans as its parts. However, this limits the freedom of their human employees and subjects them to various kinds of stresses. Most people, unlike mechanical parts, find it difficult to adapt to some fixed roles that best fit the organization. Evolutionary human-computation projects offer a natural solution to this problem. They adapt organizational structure to human spontaneity, accommodate human mistakes and creativity, and utilize both in a constructive way. This leaves their participants free from obligations without endangering the functionality of the whole, making people happier. There are still some challenging research problems that need to be solved before we can realize the full potential of this idea.
The algorithmic outsourcing techniques used in human-based computation are much more scalable than the manual or automated techniques used to manage outsourcing traditionally. It is this scalability that allows to easily distribute the effort among thousands of participants. It was suggested recently that this mass outsourcing is sufficiently different from traditional small-scale outsourcing to merit a new name [[crowdsourcing]].<ref>{{cite
Human Computation organizes workers through a task market with APIs, task prices, and software-as-a-service protocols that allow employers / requesters to receive data produced by workers directly in to IT systems. As a result, many employers attempt to manage worker automatically through algorithms rather than responding to workers on a case-by-case basis or addressing their concerns. Responding to workers is difficult to scale to the employment levels enabled by human computation microwork platforms.<ref name="mw-cw">{{cite journal | last1 = Irani | first1 = Lilly|author1-link=Lilly Irani | year = 2015 | title = The Cultural Work of Microwork | journal = New Media & Society | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 720–739 | doi = 10.1177/1461444813511926| s2cid = 377594 }}</ref> Workers in the system Mechanical Turk, for example, have reported that human computation employers can be unresponsive to their concerns and needs<ref name="to-acm">{{cite journal | last1= Irani|first1=Lilly|last2 = Silberman | first2 = Six | year=2013|title=Turkopticon:Interrupting Workers Invisibility on Amazon Mechanical Turk|journal=Proceedings of SIGCHI 2013|series=Chi '13|pages=611–620|url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2470742|doi=10.1145/2470654.2470742|isbn=9781450318990|s2cid=207203679}}</ref>
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==Criticism==
Human-based computation has been criticized as exploitative and deceptive with the potential to undermine collective action.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cyber.harvard.edu/events/2010/02/zittrain |title=Minds for Sale |author=Zittrain, Jonathan |date=July 20, 2019 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite
In [[social philosophy]] it has been argued that human-based computation is an implicit form of online labour.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1461444819885334|title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning |author=Mühlhoff, Rainer |journal=New Media & Society |year=2020 |volume=22 |issue=10 |pages=1868–1884 |doi=10.1177/1461444819885334 |s2cid=209363848 |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> The philosopher Rainer Mühlhoff distinguishes five different types of "machinic capture" of human microwork in "hybrid human-computer networks": (1) gamification, (2) "trapping and tracking" (e.g. CAPTCHAs or click-tracking in Google search), (3) social exploitation (e.g. tagging faces on Facebook), (4) information mining and (5) click-work (such as on [[Amazon Mechanical Turk]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mühlhoff|first=Rainer|date=2019-11-06|title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning|journal=New Media & Society|volume=22|issue=10|language=en|pages=1868–1884|doi=10.1177/1461444819885334|s2cid=209363848|issn=1461-4448|url=https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/12510}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://philpapers.org/archive/MHLHAI-2.pdf |title=Human-aided artificial intelligence: Or, how to run large computations in human brains? Toward a media sociology of machine learning |author=Mühlhoff, Rainer |access-date=12 May 2022}}</ref> Mühlhoff argues that human-based computation often feeds into [[Deep learning|Deep Learning]]-based [[Artificial intelligence|Artificial Intelligence]] systems, a phenomenon he analyzes as "human-aided artificial intelligence".
==See also==
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