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=== Diagnosis of disease ===
Patients with [[Alzheimer's disease]] (AD) are unable to effectively process the semantic relationship between two words at encoding to assist in the retrieval process.<ref name="Alzheimer's granholm">{{cite journal|last=Granholm|first=Eric|author2=Nelson Butters|title=Associative encoding and retrieval in Alzheimer's and Huntington's Disease|journal=Brain and Cognition|year=1988|volume=7|issue=3|pages=335–347|doi=10.1016/0278-2626(88)90007-3|pmid=2969744|s2cid=20415261}}</ref> The general population benefits equally from a weakly related cue word as from a strongly related cue word during a recall task, provided the weakly related word was present at encoding. Patients with AD, however, were unable to benefit from the weakly related cue even if it was present at both encoding and retrieval.<ref name="Alzheimer's granholm" /> Instead of relying upon semantic encoding, those with AD presented their most dominant associations to the cue words during recall test. This explains why all AD patients performed well when two strong words were matched together but very poorly when a strong and weak pairs were presented during recall. Deficits in episodic memory are now widely accepted as a characteristic symptom of Alzheimer's disease.<ref name="Alzheimers RI-48">{{cite journal|author=Adam, S.|author2=M. Van der Linden|author3=A. Ivanoiu|author4=A.-C. Juillerat|author5=S. Bechet|author6=E. Salmon|year=2007|title=Optimization of encoding specificity for the diagnosis of early AD: The RI-48 task|journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology|volume=29|issue=5|pages=477–487|doi=10.1080/13803390600775339|pmid=17564913|hdl=2268/28214|s2cid=31325865|url=http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/28214|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
=== Alcohol ===
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