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{{Short description|None}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2021}}
The '''history of [[computer animation]]''' began as early as the 1940s and 1950s, when people began to experiment with [[computer graphics]] – most notably by [[John Whitney (animator)|John Whitney]]. It was only by the early 1960s when [[digital computer]]s had become widely established, that new avenues for innovative computer graphics blossomed. Initially, uses were mainly for scientific, engineering and other research purposes, but artistic experimentation began to make its appearance by the mid-1960s – most notably by Dr Thomas Calvert. By the mid-1970s, many such efforts were beginning to enter into public media. Much computer graphics at this time involved [[2D computer graphics|2-
==The earliest pioneers: 1940s to mid-1960s==
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[[Bell Labs]] in Murray Hill, New Jersey, was a leading research contributor in computer graphics, computer animation and electronic music from its beginnings in the early 1960s. Initially, researchers were interested in what the computer could be made to do, but the results of the visual work produced by the computer during this period established people like Edward Zajac, [[A. Michael Noll|Michael Noll]] and [[Ken Knowlton]] as pioneering computer artists.
Edward Zajac produced one of the first computer
[[Ken Knowlton]] developed the [[Beflix]] (Bell Flicks) animation system in 1963, which was used to produce dozens of artistic films by artists [[Stan VanDerBeek]], Knowlton and [[Lillian Schwartz]].<ref>Knowlton, K. C., "Computer
In 1965, Michael Noll created computer-generated imagery stereographic 3D movies, including a ballet of stick figures moving on a stage.<ref>Noll, A. Michael, "Computer-Generated
===Boeing-Wichita===
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===Ohio State===
[[Charles Csuri]], an artist at The [[Ohio State University]] (OSU), started experimenting with the application of computer graphics to art in 1963. His efforts resulted in a prominent
===''Cybernetic Serendipity''===
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===First digital animation in a feature film===
The first feature film to use [[digital image processing]] was the 1973 film ''[[Westworld (film)|Westworld]]'', a science-fiction film written and directed by novelist [[Michael Crichton]], in which humanoid robots live amongst the humans.<ref>[http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/cgi.html A Brief, Early History of Computer Graphics in Film] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717074134/http://www.beanblossom.in.us/larryy/cgi.html |date=July 17, 2012 }} Larry Yaeger, August 16, 2002 (last update, retrieved March 24, 2010)</ref> John Whitney
===SIGGRAPH===
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==Towards 3D: mid-1970s into the 1980s==
===Early 3D animation in the
The first use of 3D wireframe imagery in mainstream
The [[Walt Disney Productions|Walt Disney]] film ''[[The Black Hole]]'' (1979, directed by Gary Nelson) used wireframe rendering to depict the titular black hole, using equipment from Disney's engineers. In the same year, the science-fiction horror film ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'', directed by [[Ridley Scott]], also used wireframe model graphics, in this case to render the navigation monitors in the spaceship. The footage was produced by Colin Emmett at the Atlas Computer Laboratory.<ref>[http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/acl/applications/animation/p014.htm "My Work on the Alien", Bryan Wyvill] (retrieved June 30, 2012)</ref>
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In 1974, Alex Schure, a wealthy New York entrepreneur, established the Computer Graphics Laboratory (CGL) at the [[New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab|New York Institute of Technology]] (NYIT). He put together the most sophisticated studio of the time, with state of the art computers, film and graphic equipment, and hired top technology experts and artists to run it – [[Ed Catmull]], Malcolm Blanchard, [[Fred Parke]] and others all from Utah, plus others from around the country including [[Ralph Guggenheim]], [[Alvy Ray Smith]] and [[Ed Emshwiller]]. During the late 1970s, the staff made numerous innovative contributions to image rendering techniques, and produced many influential software, including the animation program ''Tween'', the paint program ''Paint'', and the animation program ''SoftCel''. Several videos from NYIT become quite famous: ''Sunstone'', by [[Ed Emshwiller]], ''Inside a Quark'', by Ned Greene, and [[The Works (film)|''The Works'']]. The latter, written by [[Lance Williams (graphics researcher)|Lance Williams]], was begun in 1978, and was intended to be the first full-length [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] film, but it was never completed, though a trailer for it was shown at SIGGRAPH 1982. In these years, many people regarded NYIT CG Lab as the top computer animation research and development group in the world.<ref name="NYIT-progs">[https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~ph/nyit/masson/nyit.html Brief History of the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab] (retrieved June 30, 2012)</ref><ref>[https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~ph/nyit/ A compilation of NYIT images and information can be found on Paul Heckbert's site](retrieved June 30, 2012)</ref>
The quality of NYIT's work attracted the attention of George Lucas, who was interested in developing a [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] special effects facility at his company [[Lucasfilm]]. In 1979, he recruited the top talent from NYIT, including Catmull, Smith and Guggenheim to start his division, which later
===Framebuffer===
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:The '80s saw a great expansion of radical new developments in commercial hardware, especially the incorporation of framebuffer technologies into graphic workstations, allied with continuing advances in computer power and affordability.
===Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI)===
[[Silicon Graphics]], Inc. (SGI) was a manufacturer of high-performance computer hardware and software, founded in 1981 by [[James H. Clark|Jim Clark]]. His idea, called the [[Geometry Engine]], was to create a series of components in a [[VLSI]] processor that would accomplish the main operations required in image synthesis—the matrix transforms, clipping, and the scaling operations that provided the transformation to view space. Clark attempted to shop his design around to computer companies, and finding no takers, he and colleagues at [[Stanford University]], California, started their own company, Silicon Graphics.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20080609020120/http://www.sgi.com/company_info/features/2007/25_anniv.html "The First Quarter-Century"], ''Silicon Graphics'', 2007 (retrieved August 24, 2012).</ref>
SGI's first product (1984) was the [[SGI IRIS|IRIS]] (Integrated Raster Imaging System). It used the 8 MHz M68000 processor with up to 2 MB memory, a custom 1024×1024 frame buffer, and the Geometry Engine to give the workstation its impressive image generation power. Its initial market was 3D graphics display terminals, but SGI's products, strategies and market positions evolved significantly over time, and for many years were a favoured choice for CGI companies in film, TV, and other fields.<ref>[http://www.creativeplanetnetwork.com/news/news-articles/sgi-sweeps-academy-award-visual-effects-nominations-eighth-year/386331 "SGI Sweeps Academy Award Visual Effects Nominations for Eighth Year"], ''Creative Planet'' (retrieved August 24, 2012).</ref>
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In 1983, Philippe Bergeron, [[Nadia Magnenat Thalmann]], and [[Daniel Thalmann]] directed [[Dream Flight]], considered as the first 3D generated film telling a story. The film was completely programmed using the MIRA graphical language,<ref>N. Magnenat Thalmann, D. Thalmann, '''The Use of 3D High-Level Graphical Types in the MIRA Animation System''', IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, Vol. 3, No 9, 1983, pp.9–16</ref> an extension of the [[Pascal programming language]] based on [[Abstract Graphical Data Types]].<ref>N. Magnenat Thalmann, D. Thalmann, '''MIRA-3D: A Three-dimensional Graphical Extension of PASCAL''', Software-Practice and Experience, Vol.13, 1983, pp. 797–808</ref> The film got several awards and was shown at the [[SIGGRAPH]] '83 Film Show.
In 1985, Pierre Lachapelle, Philippe Bergeron, Pierre Robidoux and [[Daniel Langlois]] directed [[Tony de Peltrie]], which shows the first animated human character to express emotion through [[facial expressions]] and body movements, which touched the feelings of the audience.<ref>"Friday Flashback #60". eX-SI.</ref><ref>Philippe Bergeron, Pierre Robidoux, Pierre Lachapelle und Daniel Langlois: Tony de Peltrie (1985), Website The Daniel Langlois Foundation: Image du Futur collection.</ref> ''Tony de Peltrie''
In 1987, the [[Engineering Institute of Canada]] celebrated its 100th anniversary. A major event, sponsored by [[Bell Canada]] and Northern Telecom (now [[Nortel]]), was planned for the Place des Arts in Montreal. For this event, [[Nadia Magnenat Thalmann]] and [[Daniel Thalmann]] simulated [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[Humphrey Bogart]] meeting in a café in the old town section of Montreal. The short movie, called [[Rendez-vous in Montreal]]<ref>N. Magnenat Thalmann, D. Thalmann, '''The Direction of Synthetic Actors in the Film Rendez-vous à Montréal''', IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, Vol.7, No 12, 1987, pp. 9–19.</ref> was shown in numerous festivals and TV channels all over the world.
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===First solid 3D CGI in the movies===
The first
In 1984, ''[[Tron]]'' was followed by ''[[The Last Starfighter]]'', a [[Universal Pictures]] / [[Lorimar Film Entertainment|Lorimar]] production, directed by [[Nick Castle]], and was one of
===Inbetweening and morphing===
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===The Abyss===
In 1989 [[James Cameron]]'s underwater action movie ''[[The Abyss]]'' was released. This was one of the first
===Walt Disney and CAPS===
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The 1990s began with much of [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] technology now sufficiently developed to allow a major expansion into film and TV production. 1991 is widely considered the "breakout year", with two major box-office successes, both making heavy use of CGI.
The first of these was [[James Cameron]]'s movie ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'',<ref>[https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=terminator2.htm "Terminator 2: Judgment Day"] at ''Box Office Mojo'' (retrieved July 25, 2012).</ref> and was the one that first brought CGI to widespread public attention. The technique was used to animate the two "Terminator" robots. The "T-1000" robot was given a "mimetic poly-alloy" (liquid metal) structure, which enabled this shapeshifting character to morph into almost anything it touched. Most of the key Terminator effects were provided by [[Lucasfilm]]'s [[Industrial Light & Magic]], and this film was the most ambitious CGI project since the 1982 film ''[[Tron]]''.<ref name=Animatormag>{{cite web|author= Jefferson, David|url=http://www.animatormag.com/archive/issue-30/issue-30-page-14/#.TwpGoJfwb6R|title=Visual Effects on Terminator 2|publisher=Animatormag.com|date=Spring 1993|access-date=January 8, 2012}}</ref>
The other was [[Walt Disney|Disney]]'s ''[[Beauty and the Beast (1991 film)|Beauty and the Beast]]'',<ref>[https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=beautyandthebeast.htm ''Beauty and the Beast''] at ''Box Office Mojo'' (retrieved July 25, 2012).</ref> the second traditional 2D animated film to be entirely made using [[Computer Animation Production System|CAPS]]. The system also allowed easier combination of hand-drawn art with 3D [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] material, notably in the "waltz sequence", where Belle and Beast dance through a computer-generated ballroom as the camera "[[Camera dolly|dollies]]" around them in simulated 3D space.<ref>(2006) Audio commentary by John Musker, Ron Clements, and Alan Menken. Bonus material from ''The Little Mermaid: Platinum Edition'' [DVD]. Walt Disney Home Entertainment.</ref> Notably, ''Beauty and the Beast'' was the first animated film ever to be nominated for a Best Picture Academy Award.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musical |first=Shrek The |date=2022-11-27 |title=Beauty And The Beast: The First Animated Film To Be Nominated For Best Picture |url=https://www.shrekthemusical.co.uk/beauty-and-the-beast-the-first-animated-film-to-be-nominated-for-best-picture/ |access-date=2022-12-23 |website=STM - Shrek Blog |language=en-US}}</ref>
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Another significant step came in 1993, with [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'',<ref>[https://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=jurassicpark.htm ''Jurassic Park'' at Box Office Mojo] (retrieved August 3, 2012).</ref> where 3D [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] dinosaurs were integrated with life-sized [[animatronic]] counterparts. The CGI animals were created by ILM, and in a test scene to make a direct comparison of both techniques, Spielberg chose the CGI. Also watching was [[George Lucas]] who remarked "a major gap had been crossed, and things were never going to be the same."<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070930102341/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,978307,00.html ''Behind the Magic of Jurassic Park'' Richard Corliss, ''TIME'', 1993-04-26] (retrieved August 3, 2012).</ref><ref>Shone, Tom. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_HMOHsjIb5cC&dq=It+was+like+one+of+those+moments+in+history%2C+like+the+invention+of+the+light+bulb+or+the+first+telephone+call&pg=PA218 ''Blockbuster: How Hollywood learned to stop worrying and love the summer''] Pg 218. Simon and Schuster, 2004 {{ISBN|0-7432-3568-1}}, {{ISBN|978-0-7432-3568-6}}</ref><ref>''The Making of Jurassic Park'', Shay, Don and Duncan, Jody, ''Ballantine Books'', 1993, Softcover p. 53, first paragraph.</ref>
[[Warner Bros. Animation|Warner Bros]]' 1999 ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' was the first traditionally-animated feature to have a major character, the title character, to be fully computer-generated imagery.<ref>{{Citation|title=The Iron Giant (1999) – IMDb|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0129167/trivia|access-date=March 30, 2021}}</ref>
===Flocking===
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Also the same year, the French company [[:fr:Fantôme (studio)|Studio Fantome]] produced the first full-length completely computer-animated TV series, ''[[Insektors]]'' (26×13'),<ref>[http://www.awn.com/fantome/english/fr_main.htm Studio Fantome at ''Animation World Network''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119035412/http://www.awn.com/fantome/english/fr_main.htm |date=November 19, 2012 }} (retrieved August 8, 2012).</ref><ref>[http://www.awn.com/fantome/english/fr_ser1.htm ''Insektors'' at ''Animation World Network'' International Emmy Award 1994, "Children and Young People"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619000318/http://www.awn.com/fantome/english/fr_ser1.htm |date=June 19, 2013 }} (retrieved August 8, 2012).</ref> though they also produced an even earlier all 3D short series, ''Geometric Fables'' (50 x 5') in 1991.<ref>[http://www.awn.com/fantome/english/fr_geom.htm ''Geometric Fables'' at ''Animation World Network''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121119053201/http://www.awn.com/fantome/english/fr_geom.htm |date=November 19, 2012 }} (retrieved August 8, 2012).</ref> A little later, in 1994, the Canadian TV CGI series ''[[ReBoot]]'' (48×23') was aired, produced by [[Mainframe Entertainment]] and [[Alliance Atlantis Communications]], two companies that also created [[Beast Wars: Transformers]] which was released 2 years after ReBoot.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.03/reboot.html "Before Toy Story there was ... ReBoot"], by Rogier van Bakel, ''[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]'' (retrieved August 8, 2012).</ref>
In 1995, there came the first fully computer-animation feature film, [[Disney]]-[[Pixar]]'s ''[[Toy Story]]'', which was a huge commercial success.<ref>[https://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=toystory.htm ''Toy Story'' at Box Office Mojo] (retrieved July 18, 2012).</ref> This film was directed by [[John Lasseter]], a co-founder of Pixar, and former Disney animator, who started at Pixar with short movies such as ''[[Luxo Jr.]]'' (1986), ''[[Red's Dream]]'' (1987), and ''[[Tin Toy]]'' (1988), which was also the first computer-generated imagery animated short film to win an Academy Award. Then, after some long negotiations between Disney and Pixar, a partnership deal was agreed in 1991 with the aim of producing a full feature movie, and ''Toy Story'' was the result.<ref name="PaikInfinity103">{{cite book|last=Paik|first=Karen|title=To Infinity and Beyond!: The Story of Pixar Animation Studios|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uDAGknVpUwgC&q=buzz+lightyear+to+infinity+and+beyond&pg=PA104|access-date=March 13, 2009|publisher=[[Chronicle Books]]|___location=San Francisco|year=2007|page=103|isbn=978-0-8118-5012-4}}</ref>
The following years saw a greatly increased uptake of digital animation techniques, with many new studios going into production, and existing companies making a transition from traditional techniques to CGI. Between 1995 and 2005 in the US, the average effects budget for a wide-release feature film leapt from $5 million to $40 million. According to Hutch Parker, President of Production at [[20th Century Fox]], {{As of|2005|lc=on}}, "50 percent of feature films have significant effects. They're a character in the movie." However, CGI has made up for the expenditures by grossing over 20% more than their real-life counterparts, and by the early 2000s, computer-generated imagery had become the dominant form of special effects.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/fxgods.html "F/X Gods" by Anne Thompson, Wired.com] (retrieved August 3, 2012).</ref>
===Motion
[[Motion
Computer-based motion capture started as a [[photogrammetric]] analysis tool in [[biomechanics]] research in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.cub.2005.08.016 | pmid=16111929 | volume=15 | issue=16 | title=Mechanics of animal movement | year=2005 | journal=Current Biology | pages=R616–R619 | last1 = Alexander | first1 = R. McNeill| s2cid=14032136 | doi-access=free }}</ref> A performer wears markers near each joint to identify the motion by the positions or angles between the markers. Many different types of markers can be used—lights, reflective markers, LEDs, infra-red, inertial, mechanical, or wireless RF—and may be worn as a form of suit, or attached direct to a performer's body. Some systems include details of face and fingers to capture subtle expressions, and such is often referred to as "[[performance
Video games also began to use motion
Another breakthrough where a
===Match moving===
[[Match moving]] (also known as '''motion tracking''' or '''camera tracking'''), although related to motion
The first step is identifying suitable features that the software tracking algorithm can lock onto and follow. Typically, features are chosen because they are bright or dark spots, edges or corners, or a facial feature—depending on the particular tracking algorithm being used. When a feature is tracked it becomes a series of 2D coordinates that represent the position of the feature across the series of frames. Such tracks can be used immediately for 2D motion tracking, or then be used to calculate 3D information. In 3D tracking, a process known as "calibration" derives the motion of the camera from the inverse-projection of the 2D paths, and from this a "reconstruction" process is used to recreate the photographed subject from the tracked data, and also any camera movement. This then allows an identical virtual camera to be moved in a 3D animation program, so that new animated elements can be composited back into the original live-action shot in perfectly matched perspective.<ref>[http://www.cgw.com/Publications/CGW/2001/Volume-24-Issue-9-September-2001-/Move-for-Move.aspx "Move for Move"], by Audrey Doyle, ''Computer Graphics World'', September 9, 2000 (retrieved August 14, 2012).</ref>
In the 1990s, the technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles. Camera tracking software was refined to allow increasingly complex visual effects developments that were previously impossible. Computer-generated imagery extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes with advanced flocking and crowd simulation software. Being mainly software-based, match moving has become increasingly affordable as computers become cheaper and more powerful. It has become an essential visual effects tool and is even used providing effects in live television broadcasts.<ref>[http://www.thepixelart.com/breakdown-best-matchmoving-and-tracking-applications/ "A Breakdown of Best Matchmoving and Tracking Applications"], by Topher Welsh, ''Pixel Art'', Friday, November 27, 2009 (retrieved August 14, 2012).</ref>
===Virtual studio===
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==3D animation software in the 1990s==
There were many developments, mergers and deals in the 3D software industry in the '90s and later.
* [[Wavefront Technologies|Wavefront]] followed the success of ''Personal Visualiser'' with the release of ''Dynamation'' in 1992, a powerful tool for interactively creating and modifying realistic, natural images of dynamic events. In 1993, Wavefront acquired Thomson Digital Images (TDI), with their innovative product ''Explore'', a tool suite that included ''3Design'' for modelling, ''Anim'' for animation, and ''Interactive Photorealistic Renderer'' (IPR) for rendering. In 1995, Wavefront was bought by [[Silicon Graphics]], and merged with [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias]].<ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#wavefront "Commercial animation software companies – Wavefront"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#wavefront |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
* [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias Research]] continued the success of ''[[PowerAnimator]]'' with movies like ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'', ''[[Batman Returns]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park (film)|Jurassic Park]]'', and in 1993 started the development of a new entertainment software, which was later to be named ''[[Autodesk Maya|Maya]]''. Alias found customers in animated film, TV series, visual effects, and video games, and included many prominent studios, such as [[Industrial Light & Magic]], [[Pixar]], [[Sony Pictures Imageworks]], [[Walt Disney]], and [[Warner
* [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias Wavefront]]'s new mission was to focus on developing the world's most advanced tools for the creation of digital content. ''[[PowerAnimator]]'' continued to be used for visual effects and movies (such as ''[[Toy Story]]'', ''[[Casper (film)|Casper]]'', and ''[[Batman Forever]]''), and also for video games. Further development of the ''Maya'' software went ahead, adding new features such as motion
* [[Softimage (company)|Softimage]] developed further features for ''Creative Environment'', including the ''Actor Module'' (1991) and ''Eddie'' (1992), including tools such as inverse kinematics, enveloping, metaclay, flock animation, and many others. Softimage customers include many prominent production companies, and Softimage has been used to create animation for hundreds of major feature films and games. In 1994, [[Microsoft]] acquired Softimage, and renamed the package ''[[Softimage 3D]]'', releasing a [[Windows NT]] port two years later.<ref>[http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/1996/jan96/3danimpr.mspx "3D – press release"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229141042/http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/1996/jan96/3danimpr.mspx |date=December 29, 2011 }}, ''Microsoft'', 1996-1 (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref><ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/15/business/company-news-an-acquisition-by-microsoft.html "COMPANY NEWS; An Acquisition By Microsoft"], ''The New York Times'', February 15, 1994 (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref> In 1998, after helping to port the products to Windows and financing the development of ''[[Autodesk Softimage|Softimage]]'' and ''Softimage|DS'', Microsoft sold the Softimage unit to [[Avid Technology]], who was looking to expand its visual effect capabilities. Then, in 2008, Autodesk acquired the brand and the animation assets of Softimage from Avid, thereby ending Softimage Co. as a distinct entity. The video-related assets of Softimage, including ''Softimage|DS'' (now ''Avid|DS'') continue to be owned by Avid.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=35215 "Pr Newswire Uk: Avid Technology To Acquire Softimage Subsidiary Of Microsoft Corporation"], ''Prnewswire.co.uk'' (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref><ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#softimage "Commercial animation software companies – Softimage"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#softimage |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
* [[Autodesk]] Inc.'s PC DOS-based ''[[Autodesk 3ds Max|3D Studio]]'' was eventually superseded in 1996 when The Yost Group developed [[Autodesk 3ds Max|3D Studio Max]] for Windows NT. Priced much lower than most competitors, ''3D Studio Max'' was quickly seen as an affordable solution for many professionals. Of all animation software, ''3D Studio Max'' serves the widest range of users. It is used in film and broadcast, game development, corporate and industrial design, education, medical, and web design. In 2006, Autodesk acquired [[Alias Systems Corporation|Alias]], bringing the ''StudioTools'' and ''Maya'' software products under the Autodesk banner, with ''3D Studio Max'' rebranded as ''[[Autodesk 3ds Max]]'', and ''Maya'' as ''[[Autodesk Maya]]''. Now one of the largest software companies in the world, Autodesk serves more than 4 million customers in over 150 countries.<ref>[http://www.maxunderground.com/the_history_of_3d_studio_pt2/2 "The History of 3D Studio – Gary Yost interview"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111123213316/http://www.maxunderground.com/the_history_of_3d_studio_pt2/2 |date=November 23, 2011 }} (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref><ref>[http://www.the-area.com/maxturns20/history "History of Autodesk 3ds Max"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222174236/http://www.the-area.com/maxturns20/history |date=February 22, 2011 }} (retrieved August 28, 2012).</ref><ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#3ds "Commercial animation software companies – Autodesk"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#3ds |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
* [[Houdini (software)|Side Effects Software]]'s ''PRISMS'' was used extensively to create visual effects for broadcast and feature films into the '90s, with projects like ''[[Twister (1996 film)|Twister]]'', ''[[Independence Day (1996 film)|Independence Day]]'', and ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]''. In 1996, Side Effects Software introduced ''[[Houdini (software)|Houdini]]'', a next-generation 3D package that proved to be more sophisticated and artist-friendly than its predecessor. ''Houdini'' is used around the world to develop cutting edge 3D animation in the film, broadcast and gaming industries, and Side Effects Software has consistently proved itself to be an industry innovator.<ref>[http://www.sidefx.com/ "Side Effects Software website" (retrieved 7 July 2012).]</ref><ref>[http://www.nickvanzutphen.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:historyofcoding&catid=45:inspiration&Itemid=55 "PRISMS description and screenshots"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714150535/http://www.nickvanzutphen.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=73:historyofcoding&catid=45:inspiration&Itemid=55 |date=July 14, 2014 }}, Nick Van Zutphen (retrieved July 7, 2012).</ref><ref>[http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#se "Commercial animation software companies – Side Effects"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618212520/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson8.html#se |date=June 18, 2014 }}, Wayne Carlson, Ohio State University (retrieved September 3, 2012).</ref>
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</ref> which was the last missing piece of the puzzle to make [[digital look-alike]]s of known actors.
===Motion
The first mainstream
Motion
===Virtual cinematography===
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