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I added more sources to fix the inline citations flag. I added advantages and disadvantages to the impact on society section. I also added a section describing how web maps interact with human variation. The last section I added was about the barriers created by web mapping. Tags: use of predatory open access journal Visual edit |
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{{more footnotes|date = February 2011}}
[[File:Smartphone with navigation map app.jpg|thumb|right|A web map app in a [[smart phone]]]]
'''Web mapping''' or an '''online mapping''' is the process of using, creating, and distributing [[map]]s on the [[World Wide Web]] (the Web), usually through the use of [[Web GIS|Web geographic information systems]] (Web GIS).<ref name=Fu1>{{cite book |last1=Fu |first1=Pinde |last2=Sun |first2=Jiulin |title=Web GIS: Principles and Applications |year=2011 |___location=Redlands, Calif. |publisher=ESRI Press |isbn=978-1-58948-245-6 |oclc=587219650 |url=https://archive.org/details/webgisprinciples0000fupi |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=Fu2>{{cite book |last1=Fu |first1=Pinde |title=Getting to Know Web GIS |year=2016 |___location=Redlands, Calif. |publisher=ESRI Press |edition=2 |isbn=9781589484634 |oclc=928643136 |url=https://archive.org/details/gettingtoknowweb0000fupi |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=Zhang1>{{cite book |last1=Zhang |first1=Chuanrong |last2=Zhao |first2=Tian |last3=Li |first3=Weidong |title=Geospatial Semantic Web |year=2015 |___location=Cham |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-17800-4 |oclc=911032733 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-17801-1|s2cid=63154455 }}</ref> A web map or an online map is both served and consumed, thus, web mapping is more than just web [[cartography]], it is a service where consumers may choose what the map will show. <ref>
== Introduction ==
The advent of web mapping can be regarded as a major new trend in cartography. Until recently, cartography was restricted to a few [[:Category:Map companies|companies]], institutes and [[:Category:National cartographic agencies|mapping agencies]], requiring relatively expensive and complex hardware and software as well as skilled cartographers and [[geomatics]] engineers.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Neumann |first=Andreas |title=Web Mapping and Web Cartography |date=2008 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-35973-1_1485 |work=Encyclopedia of GIS |pages=1261–1269 |editor-last=Shekhar |editor-first=Shashi |access-date=2023-12-04 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-35973-1_1485 |isbn=978-0-387-35973-1 |editor2-last=Xiong |editor2-first=Hui}}</ref>
Web mapping has brought many geographical datasets, including free ones generated by [[OpenStreetMap]] and proprietary datasets owned by [[Here (company)|HERE]], [[Petal Maps|Huawei]], [[Google]], [[Tencent]], [[TomTom]], and others. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Web Mapping with Free Software Tools · Richard A. Lent, Ph.D. |url=https://richardlent.github.io/post/web-mapping/ |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=richardlent.github.io}}</ref> A range of [[:category:Free GIS software|free software to generate maps]] has also been conceived and implemented alongside proprietary tools like [[ArcGIS]]. As a result, the [[barrier to entry]] for serving maps on the web has been lowered. <ref name=":0" />
The terms ''[[web GIS]]'' and ''web mapping'' are often used interchangeably, but the terms are distinct.<ref name=Fu1/><ref name=Fu2/><ref name=Zhang1/><ref name=Peterson1>{{cite book |last1=Peterson |first1=Michael P. |title=Mapping in the Cloud |year=2014 |publisher=The Guiford Press |___location=New York |isbn=978-1-4625-1041-2 |oclc=855580732 |url=https://archive.org/details/mappingincloud0000pete |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Web GIS, Simply |url=https://www.esri.com/about/newsroom/insider/web-gis-simply/ |website=ESRI Newsroom Insider |date=10 June 2016 |publisher=ESRI |access-date=21 December 2022}}</ref><ref name=Ezekiel1>{{cite journal |last1=Ezekiel |first1=Kuria |last2=Kimani |first2=Stephen |last3=Mindila |first3=Agnes |title=A Framework for Web GIS Development: A Review |journal=International Journal of Computer Applications |date=June 2019 |volume=178 |issue=16 |pages=6–10 |doi=10.5120/ijca2019918863|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name= Rowland1>{{cite journal |last1=Rowland |first1=Alexandra |last2=Folmer |first2=Erwin |last3=Beek |first3=Wouter |title=Towards Self-Service GIS—Combining the Best of the Semantic Web and Web GIS |journal=ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information |date=2020 |volume=9 |issue=12 |page=753 |doi=10.3390/ijgi9120753|bibcode=2020IJGI....9..753R |doi-access=free }}</ref> Web GIS uses and enables web maps, and end users who are ''web mapping'' are gaining analytical capabilities from Web GIS, however Web GIS has more applications than web mapping, and web mapping can be accomplished without Web GIS. Web GIS emphasizes [[geodata]] processing aspects more involved with design aspects such as data acquisition and server software architecture such as data storage and algorithms, than it does the end-user reports themselves.<ref name="KraakSettingsAndNeeds"/> The term ''[[___location-based service]]s'' refers to ''web mapping'' consumer goods and services.<ref>Parker, C.J., May, A., Mitchell, V. and Burrows, A. (2013), “[https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/11589/15/Parker%20et%20al.%20(Capturing%20VGI%20For%20Inclusive%20Service_Design).pdf Capturing Volunteered Information for Inclusive Service Design: Potential Benefits and Challenges]”, The Design Journal, Vol. 16 No. 2, pp. 197–218.</ref> Web mapping usually involves a [[web browser]] or other user agent capable of client-server interactions.<ref name="web_hist"/> Questions of quality, usability, social benefits, and legal constraints are driving its evolution.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=M.|last2=Sharples|first2=Sarah|last3=Harding|first3=Jenny|last4=Parker|first4=Christopher J.|last5=Bearman|first5=N.|last6=Maguire|first6=M.|last7=Forrest|first7=D.|last8=Haklay|first8=M.|last9=Jackson|first9=M.|title=Usability of Geographic Information: Current challenges and future directions|journal=Applied Ergonomics|date=2013|volume=44|issue=6|pages=855–865|doi=10.1016/j.apergo.2012.10.013|pmid=23177775|s2cid=26412254|url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/2809/1/Brown_et_al_2013_Usabilty_of_Geographic_Information.pdf|access-date=2019-07-12|archive-date=2018-07-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719082903/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/2809/1/Brown_et_al_2013_Usabilty_of_Geographic_Information.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Parker|first1=Christopher J.|title=User-centred design of neogeography: the impact of volunteered geographic information on users' perceptions of online map 'mashups'|journal=Ergonomics|date=2014|volume=57|issue=7|pages=987–997|doi=10.1080/00140139.2014.909950|pmid=24827070|s2cid=13458260|url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/23845}}</ref>
== Types ==
A first classification of web maps has been made by [[Menno-Jan Kraak|Kraak]] in 2001.<ref name="KraakSettingsAndNeeds">[[Kraak, Menno Jan]] (2001): ''Settings and needs for web cartography'', in: Kraak and Allan Brown (eds), Web Cartography, Francis and Taylor, New York, p. 3–4. see also webpage [http://kartoweb.itc.nl/webcartography/webmaps/classification.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929022300/http://kartoweb.itc.nl/webcartography/webmaps/classification.htm|date=2018-09-29}}. Accessed 2007-01-04.</ref> He distinguished ''static'' and ''dynamic'' web maps and further distinguished ''interactive'' and ''view only'' web maps. Today there is an increased number of dynamic web maps types, and static web map sources. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Temporal Animated Maps |url=https://geography.name/temporal-animated-maps/#:~:text=Static%20maps%20present%20all%20of,be%20used%20to%20display%20information. |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=geography.name}}</ref>
===Analytical web maps===
Analytical web maps offer GIS analysis. The geodata can be a static provision, or need updates. The borderline between analytical web maps and web GIS is fuzzy. Parts of the analysis can be carried out by the GIS geodata server. As web clients gain capabilities processing is distributed. <ref>{{Cite web |title=What is Analytical Maps {{!}} IGI Global |url=https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/analytical-maps/47567 |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=www.igi-global.com |language=en-us}}</ref>
===Animated and realtime===
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Realtime maps show the situation of a phenomenon in close to [[Real-time computing|realtime]] (only a few seconds or minutes delay).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Painting the Web|last=Powers, Shelley.|date=2008|publisher=O'Reilly|isbn=9780596515096|oclc=191753336|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/paintingweb00shel}}</ref> They are usually animated. Data is collected by sensors and the maps are generated or updated at regular intervals or on demand.
[[Animated mapping|Animated maps]] show changes in the map over time by animating one of the graphical or temporal variables.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Web cartography : map design for interactive and mobile devices|last=Muehlenhaus, Ian, 1976-|isbn=9781439876220|oclc=706022809|date = 2013-12-10}}</ref> Technologies enabling client-side display of animated web maps include [[Scalable Vector Graphics|scalable vector graphics]] (SVG), Adobe Flash, Java, QuickTime, and others. Web maps with real-time animation include weather maps, [[traffic congestion map]]s and vehicle monitoring systems. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Temporal Animated Maps |url=https://geography.name/temporal-animated-maps/#:~:text=Static%20maps%20present%20all%20of,be%20used%20to%20display%20information. |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=geography.name}}</ref>
[[CartoDB]] launched an open source library, Torque,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://github.com/cartodb/torque|title=GitHub - CartoDB/torque: Temporal mapping for CartoDB|website=[[GitHub]]|date=2019-02-13}}</ref> which enables the creation of dynamic animated maps with millions of records. Twitter uses this technology to create maps to reflect how users reacted to news and events worldwide.
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===Collaborative web maps===
{{Main|Collaborative mapping}}
[[Collaborative mapping|Collaborative maps]] are a developing potential.<ref>Parker, C.J., May, A.J. and Mitchell, V. (2012), “Understanding Design with VGI using an Information Relevance Framework”, Transactions in GIS, Transactions in GIS: GISRUK Special Issue, Vol. 16 No. 4, pp. 545–560.</ref> In proprietary or open source collaborative software, users collaborate to create and improve the web mapping experience. This type of web mapping is the most popular or familiar amongst the population today. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Strickland |first=Katherine |title=LibGuides: Collaborative Mapping: Collaborative Mapping |url=https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/c.php?g=735996&p=5260545 |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=guides.lib.utexas.edu |language=en}}</ref> Some collaborative web mapping projects are:
*[[Google Map Maker]]
*[[Here Map Creator]]
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===Online atlases===
'''Online atlases are collections of maps in a specific period of time like general reference maps, thematic maps, and geographical information.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Web Maps Explained {{!}} Mapbox |url=https://www.mapbox.com/insights/web-maps#:~:text=Web%20maps%20are%20a%20visual,are%20the%20way%20to%20go. |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.mapbox.com |language=en}}</ref> The traditional [[atlas]] goes through a remarkably large transition when hosted on the web. Atlases can cease their printed editions or offer printing on demand. Some atlases also offer raw data downloads of the underlying geospatial data sources.
===Static web maps===
[[File:Topographic map example.png|thumb|A [[USGS]] [[Digital raster graphic|DRG]] - a static map]]
Static [[web page]]s are ''[[file system permissions|view only]]'' without [[animation]] or [[interactivity]]. '''These maps were often used before technological advancements allowed the user to interact. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Web Maps Explained {{!}} Mapbox |url=https://www.mapbox.com/insights/web-maps#:~:text=Web%20maps%20are%20a%20visual,are%20the%20way%20to%20go. |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.mapbox.com |language=en}}</ref>'''These files are created once, often manually, and infrequently updated. Typical [[Graphics file format|graphics formats]] for static web maps are [[Portable Network Graphics|PNG]], [[JPEG]], [[GIF]], or [[TIFF]] (e.g., [[Digital raster graphic|drg]]) for [[raster graphics|raster]] files, [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]], [[PDF]] or [[SWF]] for [[Vector graphics|vector]] files. These include [[Image scanner|scanned]] paper maps not designed as screen maps. Paper maps have a much higher [[Dots per inch|resolution]] and information density than typical [[computer displays]] of the same physical size, and might be unreadable when displayed on screens at the wrong [[Display resolution|resolution]].<ref name="KraakSettingsAndNeeds"/>
== Web GIS in the cloud ==
Various companies now offer web mapping as a cloud based [[software as a service]]. These service providers allow users to create and share maps by uploading data to their servers (cloud storage). The maps are created either by using an in browser editor or writing scripts that leverage the service providers API's.
==
{{original synthesis|date=January 2020}}
[[File:Surface analysis.gif|thumb|right|300px|A surface weather analysis for the [[United States]] on October 21, 2006.]]
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* 1994: '''''The National Atlas of Canada''''', The first version of the National Atlas of Canada was released. Can be regarded as the first [[atlas|online atlas]].
* 1995: '''''The Gazetteer for Scotland''''', The prototype version of the Gazetteer for Scotland was released. The first geographical database with interactive mapping.
* 1995: ''Tiger Mapping Service'', from the U.S. Census Bureau, the first national street-level web map, and the first major web map from the U.S. government.<ref name=Plew2 />[[c:Category:Web_mapping|Wikimedia Commons]]
* 1995: ''[[MapGuide Open Source#History|MapGuide]]'', First introduced as Argus MapGuide.
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[File:Mapquest.JPG|thumb|Screenshot from [[MapQuest]]]] -->
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==Impact on society==
Web maps have become an essential tool for many,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://themanifest.com/app-development/trends-navigation-apps|title = The Popularity of Google Maps: Trends in Navigation Apps in 2018 | August 2021}}</ref> as illustrated by a 2021 [[labor strike]] demanding (among other things) a certain type of map.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hongkongfp.com/2021/11/16/hong-kong-police-warn-striking-foodpanda-workers-to-disperse-or-face-possible-force/|title = Hong Kong police warn striking Foodpanda workers to disperse or face possible force|date = 16 November 2021}}</ref>
'''Another benefit is that web mapping has allowed more of the general population to access this technology because it is free and accessible to anyone with an internet connection. It also gives us real-time updates about traffic and road conditions which can lead to safer travels. Although not a common use, web mapping can be used to learn more about culture and history. You can explore historical maps, cultural landmarks, natural features, parks, trails, report issues, natural hazards, pollution, and much more.'''<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=How does GIS web mapping affect you and your community? |url=https://www.linkedin.com/advice/1/how-does-gis-web-mapping-affect-you |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> '''By doing this, we are able to create a safer and more welcoming community to live in.'''
'''As much as web mapping has helped simplify our lives, there are also negative social consequences to the use of web mapping. There have been concerns raised about the privacy of personal information while using web mapping. It allows government agencies to create massive databases on individuals and their behaviors while the private sector keeps records of personal information'''.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12860 |title=Understanding the Changing Planet: Strategic Directions for the Geographical Sciences |date=2010-06-23 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-15075-0 |___location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> '''This issue continues to be challenged and negotiated as web mapping has become more relevant. As the use of web mapping has increased, so has the amount of distractions while driving.''' <ref>{{Cite web |title=How does GIS web mapping affect you and your community? |url=https://www.linkedin.com/advice/1/how-does-gis-web-mapping-affect-you |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> '''Drivers can alter their focus away from the road to their device very easily, which could result in a multitude of negative social consequences and safety concerns.'''
While there are many benefits to web mapping allowing anyone to access, create, and distribute maps, many have raised ethical concerns.<ref name="Peterson2">{{cite journal |last1=Peterson |first1=Michael P. |title=Maps on Stone: The Web and Ethics in Cartography |journal=Cartographic Perspectives |date=1999 |volume=34 |url=https://cartographicperspectives.org/index.php/journal/article/view/cp34-peterson/pdf |access-date=27 May 2023}}</ref><ref name="Mooney_Juhász_202007">{{cite journal |last1=Mooney |first1=Peter |last2=Juhász |first2=Levente |title=Mapping COVID-19: How web-based maps contribute to the infodemic |journal=Dialogues in Human Geography |date=July 2020 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=265–270 |doi=10.1177/2043820620934926 |s2cid=220415906 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The web facilitates the spread of misinformation, and people without strong understanding of cartography can publish seemingly authoritative products that may mislead the public.<ref name="Peterson2" /><ref name="Mooney_Juhász_202007" /><ref name="Adams2">{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Aaron M. |last2=Chen |first2=Xiang |last3=Li |first3=Weidong |last4=Chuanrong |first4=Zhang |title=Normalizing the pandemic: exploring thecartographic issues in state government COVID-19 dashboards |journal=Journal of Maps |date=27 July 2023 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2023.2235385|s2cid=260269080 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This saw significant attention during the COVID-19 pandemic, where the prevalence of improper maps on dashboards contributed to the [[infodemic]].<ref name="Mooney_Juhász_202007" /><ref name="Adams2" /><ref name=Everts1>{{cite journal |last1=Everts |first1=Jonathan |title=The dashboard pandemic |journal=Dialogues in Human Geography |year=2020 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=260–264 |doi=10.1177/2043820620935355 |s2cid=220418162 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/eprint/9YTSZSDCXKMR3IININZ7/full |access-date=12 September 2022|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Web maps require the internet to host, so they are subject to [[link rot]], making information inaccessible.<ref name="Adams2" /> Unlike physical maps, this can have major impacts on the historical record if the web map is the only source for the data it presents.
== <small>How Web Maps Interact With Human Variation</small> ==
'''Web mapping allows you to choose a route of travel with provided directions and real time traffic and road condition updates.''' <ref>{{Cite web |title=How does GIS web mapping affect you and your community? |url=https://www.linkedin.com/advice/1/how-does-gis-web-mapping-affect-you |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> '''Of course, this is only possible with an internet connection. Populations that are associated with lower incomes may not have access to a mobile device with internet as they may not be able to afford it, limiting them of this resource.'''
'''This technology might also be limiting to certain generations, as well. Younger generations have been cultured in technology for the majority of their lives, so web mapping is an easy resource for them to use. However, older generations tend to be less efficient with technology, as it was not around for the majority of their lifetimes.''' <ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Forrest |first=Matt |date=March 24, 2023 |title=A Brief History of Web Maps |url=https://forrest.nyc/a-brief-history-of-web-maps/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 4, 2023 |access-date=December 4, 2023 |website=Modern GIS and Geospatial Ideas and Guides}}</ref> '''This can make it difficult for the older generation to understand how to use web mapping when planning their travels. They will often resort to paper maps or a GPS, as that is what is comfortable to them, even though those resources are less efficient and are more outdated than web mapping.'''
'''As web mapping has become more advanced, they have added a walking feature. This has created an opportunity for the population who might not have access to and/or afford to have a car.''' <ref name=":3" /> '''They are still able to take advantage of this technology to get to a destination by foot. Web mapping has also opened up new possibilities to those who might struggle with a vision disorder. More than a quarter of the world’s population (about 2.2 billion people) suffer from vision impairment.''' <ref>{{Cite web |title=Vision impairment and blindness |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/blindness-and-visual-impairment |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> '''Web mapping has accommodated this large population by adding a speaking feature. When you enter a destination, you can turn your volume on and the maps will speak your directions to you. This is not only convenient for visually impaired people, but also helps limit distractions while navigating.'''
== Web Mapping Barriers ==
'''There have been concerns raised about the privacy and confidentiality of personal information while using web mapping. Web maps contain personal information such as locations, identities, or attributes of people, places, or things. If not properly secured, your information can be accessed, copied, or manipulated by unauthorized parties.''' <ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=How does GIS web mapping affect you and your community? |url=https://www.linkedin.com/advice/1/how-does-gis-web-mapping-affect-you |access-date=2023-12-04 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> '''This allows government agencies to create massive databases on individuals and their behaviors while the private sector keeps records of personal information.''' <ref name=":1" /> '''It can also lead to privacy breaches, data loss, or legal liabilities.''' <ref name=":2" />
'''To prevent these issues from happening, mostly in a work setting, you need to encrypt your data, use secure protocols and servers, and apply access control and authentication mechanisms.''' <ref name=":4" /> '''Another possible barrier created by web mapping that may challenge web map security is data integrity and quality.'''
'''Web maps rely entirely on data sources that could potentially be inaccurate, outdated, or corrupted. If the data is not verified and updated regularly, it can affect the reliability of the web maps.''' <ref name=":2" /> '''Web mapping can also be vulnerable to data tempering, spoofing, or injection attacks, where false or harmful data can be inserted into web maps. There may also be less threatening situations like when web maps may not be updated on a crash or traffic conditions, or may not take you on the most efficient route. To prevent more of these issues from happening, it is important to report unsafe road conditions or any limitations or uncertainties of any web mapping features.'''
==See also==
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