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===Supporting studies===
A study by Haith, Hazan, & Goodman in 1988 showed that babies, as young as 3.5 months, are able to create short-term expectations of situations they confront. Expectations in this study refer to the cognitive and perceptual ways in which an infant can forecast a future event. This was tested by showing the infant either a predictable pattern of slides or an irregular pattern of slides and tracking the infant's [[eye movement]]s.<ref>Haith, M. M., Hazan, C., & Goodman, G. S. (1988). "Expectation and Anticipation of Dynamic Visual Events by 3.5 Month Old Babies". ''Child Development'', 59, 467–479.</ref>
A later study by Johnson, Posner, & Rothbart in 1991 showed that by 4 months old, infants can develop expectations,. butThis was tested through anticipatory looks and disengagement with stimuli. For example, anticipatory looks exhibitportray the infant isas being able to predict the next part of a pattern which can then be applied to the real world scenario of breast-feeding. Infants are able to predict a mother's movements and expect feeding so they can latch onto the nipple for feeding. Expectations, anticipatory looks, and disengagement all show that infants can learn visually, even if it is only short term.<ref>Johnson, M. H., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (1991). "Components of Visual Orienting in Early Infancy: Contingency Learning, Anticipatory Looking, and Disengaing". ''Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience'', 335–344</ref> David Roberts (2016) tested multimedia learning propositions, he found that using certain images dislocates pedagogically harmful excesses of text, reducing cognitive overloading and exploiting under-used visual processing capacities <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dracs.org/|title=David Roberts Academic Consulting|website=vl.catalystitsolutions.co.uk|access-date=2017-01-04}}</ref>
David Roberts (2016) tested multimedia learning propositions, he found that using certain images dislocates pedagogically harmful excesses of text, reducing cognitive overloading and exploiting under-used visual processing capacities <ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dracs.org/|title=David Roberts Academic Consulting|website=vl.catalystitsolutions.co.uk|access-date=2017-01-04}}</ref>
==In early childhood==
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