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Other early mechanical devices used to perform one or another type of calculations include the [[planisphere]] and other mechanical computing devices invented by [[Al-Biruni]] (c. AD 1000); the [[equatorium]] and universal latitude-independent astrolabe by [[Al-Zarqali]] (c. AD 1015); the astronomical analog computers of other medieval [[Islamic astronomy|Muslim astronomers]] and engineers; and the astronomical [[clock tower]] of [[Su Song]] (1094) during the [[Song dynasty]]. The [[castle clock]], a [[hydropower]]ed mechanical [[astronomical clock]] invented by [[Ismail al-Jazari]] in 1206, was the first [[Computer programming|programmable]] analog computer.{{Disputed inline|for=The cited source doesn't support the claim, and the claim is misleading.|date=June 2022}}<ref name="Ancient Discoveries">{{citation|title=Episode 11: Ancient Robots|work=[[Ancient Discoveries]]|publisher=[[History Channel]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8|url-status=dead |access-date=2008-09-06|archive-date=2014-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140301151115/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Turner |first=Howard R. |title=Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction |page=184 |date=1997 |publisher=University of Texas press |isbn=978-0-292-78149-8 |___location=Austin}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Donald Routledge Hill |last=Hill |first=Donald Routledge |title=Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East |magazine=Scientific American |date=May 1991 |pages=64–69}} ([[cf.]] {{cite web |last=Hill |first=Donald Routledge |title=IX. Mechanical Engineering |url= http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |work=History of Sciences in the Islamic World |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225091836/http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm |archive-date=2007-12-25 |url-status=dead}})</ref> [[Ramon Llull]] invented the Lullian Circle: a notional machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions (in this case, to do with Christianity) via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] centuries later, and is thus one of the founding elements in computing and [[information science]].
=== '''Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Computing Hardware''' ===
The Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century) played a pivotal role in advancing computing hardware, setting the stage for modern mechanised and automated computing systems. During this time, industries demanded precise and large-scale calculations for tasks in fields such as navigation, engineering, and finance, leading to innovations in both design and function.
One of the most significant advancements was the creation of '''Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine''' (1822), a mechanical device designed to automate the calculation of polynomial functions. Babbage’s vision of a fully mechanical computer included a system of gears and wheels, powered by steam, capable of solving complex calculations that previously required extensive manual work. Although never fully realised in his lifetime, Babbage's designs led to later developments in computational logic and paved the way for programmable computers.
In addition to Babbage, '''Ada Lovelace''' is credited with conceptualising algorithms that could be executed by a machine, making her one of the first to recognise the potential for computers to perform more than arithmetic tasks. Lovelace’s notes on Babbage’s Analytical Engine in the 1840s are often considered the first examples of computer programming.
The Industrial Revolution also spurred advancements in '''punched card technology''', initially developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804 for automated looms. This concept of using punched cards to control a machine was later adapted by Herman Hollerith in the 1890s for data processing, particularly during the U.S. Census. Hollerith’s machines could sort and tabulate data far faster than manual methods, establishing a direct link between industrial machinery and data processing technologies.
By the end of the Industrial Revolution, innovations in '''mechanical computing and automation''' had laid the foundation for 20th-century breakthroughs in electronics and computing hardware. These early mechanical systems demonstrated the potential for machines to carry out complex calculations, leading to more efficient designs in the early 1900s and the first fully electronic computers in the mid-20th century.
===Renaissance calculating tools===
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